Turner 4 TH Sem TT

TURNER
NSQF LEVEL - 5
4th Semester
TRADE THEORY
SECTOR: Production & Manufacturing
DIRECTORATE GENERAL OF TRAINING

MINISTRY OF SKILL DEVELOPMENT & ENTREPRENEURSHIP
GOVERNMENT OF INDIA
NATIONAL INSTRUCTIONAL
MEDIA INSTITUTE, CHENNAI
Post Box No. 3142, CTI Campus, Guindy, Chennai - 600 032
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Sector : Turner
Duration : 2 - Years
Trade : Turner 4th Semester - Trade Theory - NSQF level 5
Copyright© 2018 National Instructional Media Institute, Chennai

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P. B. No.3142, CTI Campus, Guindy Industrial Estate,
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email : chennai-nimi@nic.in, nimi_bsnl@dataone.in
Website: www.nimi.gov.in
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FOREWORD
The Government of India has set an ambitious target of imparting skills to 30 crores people, one out of
every four Indians, by 2020 to help them secure jobs as part of the National Skills Development Policy.
Industrial Training Institutes (ITIs) play a vital role in this process especially in terms of providing skilled
manpower. Keeping this in mind, and for providing the current industry relevant skill training to Trainees,
ITI syllabus has been recently updated with the help of Mentor Councils comprising various stakeholder's
viz. Industries, Entrepreneurs, Academicians and representatives from ITIs.
The National Instructional Media Institute (NIMI), Chennai has now come up with instructional material to
suit the revised curriculum for Turner 4th Semester Trade Theory NSQF Level - 5 in Production &
Manufacturing Sector under Semester Pattern. The NSQF Level - 5 Trade Theory will help the trainees
to get an international equivalency standard where their skill proficiency and competency will be duly
recognized across the globe and this will also increase the scope of recognition of prior learning. NSQF
Level - 5 trainees will also get the opportunities to promote life long learning and skill development. I have
no doubt that with NSQF Level - 5 the trainers and trainees of ITIs, and all stakeholders will derive
maximum benefits from these IMPs and that NIMI's effort will go a long way in improving the quality of
Vocational training in the country.
The Executive Director & Staff of NIMI and members of Media Development Committee deserve
appreciation for their contribution in bringing out this publication.
Jai Hind
RAJESH AGGARWAL
Director General/ Addl.Secretary
Ministry of Skill Development & Entrepreneurship,
Government of India.
New Delhi - 110 001
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PREFACE
The National Instructional Media Institute (NIMI) was established in 1986 at Chennai by then Directorate
General of Employment and Training (D.G.E & T), Ministry of Labour and Employment, (now under Directorate
General of Training, Ministry of Skill Development and Entrepreneurship) Government of India, with technical
assistance from the Govt. of the Federal Republic of Germany. The prime objective of this institute is to
develop and provide instructional materials for various trades as per the prescribed syllabi under the Craftsman
and Apprenticeship Training Schemes.
The instructional materials are created keeping in mind, the main objective of Vocational Training under
NCVT/NAC in India, which is to help an individual to master skills to do a job. The instructional materials
are generated in the form of Instructional Media Packages (IMPs). An IMP consists of Theory book,
Practical book, Test and Assignment book, Instructor Guide, Audio Visual Aid (Wall charts and
Transparencies) and other support materials.
The trade practical book consists of series of exercises to be completed by the trainees in the workshop.
These exercises are designed to ensure that all the skills in the prescribed syllabus are covered. The
trade theory book provides related theoretical knowledge required to enable the trainee to do a job. The
test and assignments will enable the instructor to give assignments for the evaluation of the performance
of a trainee. The wall charts and transparencies are unique, as they not only help the instructor to effectively
present a topic but also help him to assess the trainee's understanding. The instructor guide enables the
instructor to plan his schedule of instruction, plan the raw material requirements, day to day lessons and
demonstrations.
IMPs also deals with the complex skills required to be developed for effective team work. Necessary care
has also been taken to include important skill areas of allied trades as prescribed in the syllabus.
The availability of a complete Instructional Media Package in an institute helps both the trainer and
management to impart effective training.
The IMPs are the outcome of collective efforts of the staff members of NIMI and the members of the
Media Development Committees specially drawn from Public and Private sector industries, various training
institutes under the Directorate General of Training (DGT), Government and Private ITIs.
NIMI would like to take this opportunity to convey sincere thanks to the Directors of Employment & Training
of various State Governments, Training Departments of Industries both in the Public and Private sectors,
Officers of DGT and DGT field institutes, proof readers, individual media developers and coordinators, but
for whose active support NIMI would not have been able to bring out this materials.
R. P. DHINGRA
Chennai - 600 032 EXECUTIVE DIRECTOR
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
National Instructional Media Institute (NIMI) sincerely acknowledges with thanks for the co-operation and
contribution extended by the following Media Developers and their sponsoring organisations to bring out this
Instructional Material (Trade Theory) for the trade of Turner under the Production & Manufacturing sector for
ITI.
MEDIA DEVELOPMENT COMMITTEE MEMBERS
Shri. Natarajan _ Training Officer

Govt. I.T.I Salem
Tamil Nadu
Shri. Dayala moorthy _ Assistant Training officer

Govt. I.T.I Vellore
Tamil Nadu
Shri. M. Sampath _ Training Officer (Retd)

MDC Member
Chennai - 600032
Shri. R. Purushottaman _ Assistant Director (Retd)

MSME, Chennai
Tamil Nadu
Shri. T. Janakiram _ Assistant Director Rtd

Govt. RIC Chennai (N)
Tamil Nadu
Shri. R. Sekaran _ JTO Rtd

Govt. I.T.I Ambattur
Tamil Nadu
NIMI CO-ORDIANTORS
Shri. K. Srinivasa Rao _ Joint Director,

NIMI, Chennai - 32
Shri. N. Ashfaq Ahmed _ Assitant Manager,

Co-ordinator, NIMI, Chennai - 32
NIMI records its appreciation for the Data Entry, CAD, DTP operators for their excellent and devoted services in
the process of development of this Instructional Material.
NIMI also acknowledges with thanks the invaluable efforts rendered by all other NIMI staff who have contributed towards
the development of this Instructional Material.
NIMI is also grateful to everyone who has directly or indirectly helped in developing this Instructional Material.
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INTRODUCTION
TRADE THEORY
The manual of trade theory consists of theoritical information for the Fourth Semester couse of the Turner
Trade. The contents are sequenced according to the practical exercise contained in the manual on Trade
practical. Attempt has been made to relate the theoritical aspects with the skill covered in each exercise to
the extent possible. This co-relation is maintained to help the trainees to develop the perceptional capabilities
for performing the skills.
The manual is divided into six modules. The distribution of time for the practicals in the six modules are given
below.
Module 1 Introduction to CNC 25 Hrs

Module 2 CNC Turning 75 Hrs
Module 3 Tool setting and data input 75 Hrs
Module 4 Programme and Simulation 75 Hrs
Module 5 CNC Turning operations 75 Hrs
Module 6 Advance Turning 200Hrs
Total 525 Hrs
The Trade Theory has to be taught and learnt along with the corresponding exercise contained in the manual
on trade practical. The indication about the corresponding practical exercise are given in every sheet of this
manual.
It will be preferable to teach/learn the trade theory connected to each exercise atleast one class before
performing the related skills in the shop floor. The trade theory is to be treated as an integral part of each
exercise.
The material is not the purpose of self learning and should be considered as supplementary to class room
instruction.
TRADE PRACTICAL
The trade practical manual is intended to be used in workshop . It consists of a series of practical exercies to
be completed by the trainees during the Fouth Semester course of the Turner trade supplemented and
supported by instructions/ informations to assist in performing the exercises. These exercises are designed
to ensure that all the skills in the prescribed syllabus are covered.
The skill training in the computer lab is planned through a series of practical exercises centered around some
practical project. However, there are few instance where the individual exercise does not form a part of project.
While developing the practical manual a sincere effort was made to prepare each exercise which will be easy
to understand and carry out even by below average trainee. However the development team accept that there
is scope for further improvement. NIMI, looks forward to the suggestions from the experienced training faculty
for improving the manual.
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CONTENTS
Lesson No. Title of the Lesson Page No.
Module 1: Introduction to CNC

4.1.111 CNC Technology basics 1
4.1.112 Machine model, control system and specification 6
4.1.113 Axis convention of CNC machine 18
4.1.114 Importance of feedback system and Concept of co-ordinate geometry 23
4.1.115 Coordinate Geometry & Machine Axis 25
Module 2: CNC Turning
4.2.116 -117 Preparation of part programming 30

4.2.118 Operational modes 44
4.2.119 Types of offsets 48
4.2.120 Tool path study of machining operation (Straight turning) 52

4.2.121 -122 Cutting parameters, cutting speed and feed, depth of cut,CSM,
tool wear, tool life 60
Module 3: Tool setting and Data Input
4.3.123-124 Cutting tool materials for Turning 68

4.3.125 Tool Geometry, Insert Type, Nomenclature of Inserts 74
4.3.126 Describe tooling system for turning 77

4.3.127 Setting work and tool offset 79
4.3.128 Describe tooling system for CNC Turning centres 80
4.3.129 Cutting tool material for CNC turning 81
4.3.130 ISO Nomenclature for Turning tool holder, boring tool holder, indexable insert 82
4.3.131 Tool holders and inserts for radial grooving, face grooving,
threading and drilling 85
Module 4: Programme and Simulation
4.4.132 Preparation of Part programming as per drawing 87

4.4.133 Checking using CNC Simulator 93
4.4.134 Process and tool selection (CNC) 94
4.4.135 Part programme for Grooving 95
4.4.136 Part progarmme for drilling 96
4.4.137 Part progarmme for boring 97
4.4.138 Part progarmme for threading 99
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Lesson No. Title of the Lesson Page No.
Module 5: CNC Turning Operations
4.5.139 Programming on CNC Tapping 101

4.5.140 CNC Programme for Grooving (OD/ID) 103
4.5.141 CNC Programming for threading 105
4.5.142 Trouble shooting in CNC machines 107
4.5.143 Factors affecting quality & productivity 114
4.5.144 Parting off Operation in a CNC 119
4.5.145 Bar Feeding System through Bar Feeder 117
4.5.146 Input and Output of data 118
4.5.147 DNC system 123
4.5.148 Use of CAM Programme 124
Module 6 : Advance Turning
4.6.149 Setting of tool for taper threads, calculation of taper setting and thread depth 126
4.6.150 Interchangeability meaning, procedure for adoption, quality control
procedure for quality production 135
4.6.151-152 Importance of Technical term used in Industry 158
4.6.153 Terms used in part drawings and Geometrical tolerances, and symbols 175
4.6.154-156 Automatic lathe - types - parts, toolholders, theory of calculation 184
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LEARNING / ASSESSABLE OUTCOME
On completion of this book you shall be able to
• Set (Both job and tool) CNC turning centre and produce components
as per drawing by preparing part programme.
• Manufacture and assemble components to produce utility items
by performing different operations and observing principle of
interchangability and check functionality item (screw jack, vice
spindle, box nut, marking block, drill chuck, collet chuck etc, by
different operation).
• Threading (Square thread) BSW, ACME, Metric, thread on taper,
different boring operations.
• Make a process plan to produce components by performing
special operations on lathe and check for accuracy.
• Perform special operation in CNC lathe worm shaft cutting, boring,
threading etc.,.
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SYLLABUS
Fourth Semester Duration: Six Month
Week Ref. Learning Professional Skills Professional Knowledge

No. Outcome (Trade Practical) (Trade Theory)
with Indicative hours
79 111. Personal and CNC machine CNC technology basics:

• Set (both job and
Safety: Safe handling of tools, Difference between CNC and
tool) CNC turn
equipment and CNC conventional lathes.
centre and produce
machine. (2 hrs.) Advantages and disadvantages of
components as per
112. Identify CNC machine, CNC CNC machines over conventional
drawing by
console. (5 hrs.) machines.
preparing part
113. Demonstration of CNC lathe Machine model, control system
programme.
machine and its parts - bed, and specification.
spindle motor and drive, Axes convention of CNC machine
chuck, tailstock, turret, axes - Machine axes identification for
motor and ball screws, guide CNC turn
ways, LM guides, console, centre.
control switches,coolant Importance of feedback devices
system, hydraulic system, for CNC control.
chip conveyor, steady rest. Concept of Co-ordinate geometry,
(7 hrs.) concept of machine axis.
114. Working of parts explained
using Multimedia based
simulator for CNC parts
shown on machine. (6 hrs.)
115. Identify machine over travel
limits and emergency stop.
(1 hrs.)
Programming – sequence, formats,

80-82 -do- 116. Conduct a preliminary check different codes and words.
of the readiness of the CNC Co-ordinate system points and
turning centre viz., cleanliness simulations.
of machine, referencing – zero Work-piece zero points and ISO/
return, functioning of DIN G and M codes for CNC.
lubrication, coolant level, Different types of programming
correct working of sub-system. techniques of CNC machine.
(2 hrs.) Describe the stock removal cycle in
117. Identification of safety CNC turning for OD / ID operation.
switches and interlocking of L/H and R/H tool relation on speed.
DIH modes. (1 hrs.) Describe CNC interpolation, open
118. Machine starting & operating and close loop control systems. Co-
in Reference Point, JOG and ordinate systems and Points.
Incremental Modes. (12 hrs.) Program execution in different
119. Check CNC part programming modes like manual, single block
with simple exercises and and auto.
using various programming Absolute and incremental
codes and words. (12 hrs.) programming.
120. Check the programme Canned cycles.
simulation on machine OR Cutting parameters- cutting speed,
practice in simulation software feed rate , depth of cut, constant
in respective control system. surface speed, limiting spindle
(12 hrs.) speed, tool wear,
tool life, relative effect of each
cutting parameter on tool life.
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121. Absolute and incremental Selection of cutting parameters from
programming assignments a tool manufacturer’s catalog for
and simulations. (12 hrs.) various operations.
122. Linear interpolation, and Process planning & sequencing,
Circular interpolation tool layout & selection and cutting
assignments and parameters selection.
simulations on soft ware. (24hrs.) Tool path study of machining
operations.
Prepare various programs as per
drawing.
83-85 -do- 123. Perform Work and tool setting: Tool Nose Radius Compensation
- Job zero/work coordinate (G41/42) and its importance
system and tool setup and live (TNRC).
tool setup. (12 hrs.) Cutting tool materials, cutting tool
124. Carryout jaw adjustment geometry – insert types, holder
according to Diameter and types, insert cutting edge
tooling setup on Turret. geometry.
(12hrs.) - Describe Tooling system for
125. CNC turning centre operation in turning
various modes: JOG, EDIT, - Setting work and tool offsets.
MDI, SINGLE BLOCK, AUTO. - Describe the tooling systems
(12 hrs.) for CNC TURNING Centers.
126. Program entry. (2 hrs.) - Cutting tool materials for CNC
127. Set the tool offsets, entry of Turning and its applications
tool nose radius and - ISO nomenclature for turning tool
orientation. (12 hrs.) holders, boring tool
128. Conduct work off set holders, indexable inserts.
measurement, Tool off set - Tool holders and inserts for
measurement and entry in radial grooving, face grooving,
CNC Control. (8 hrs.) threading, drilling.
129. Make Tool nose radius and
tool
orientation entry in CNC control.
(6 hrs.)
130. Jaw removal and mounting on
CNC Lathe. (4 hrs.)
131. Manual Data Input (MDI) and
MPG mode operations and
checking of zero offsets and
tool offsets. (9 hrs.)
86-88 -do- 132. Program checking in dry run, Prepare various part programs as per
single block modes. (6 hrs.) drawing & check using CNC simulator.
133. Checking finish size by over Processes and Tool selection related to
sizing through tool offsets. grooving, drilling, boring & threading
(9 hrs.)
134. Part program preparation,
Simulation & Automatic Mode
Execution for the exercise on
Simple turning & Facing (step
turning) (10 hrs.)
Execution for the exercise on
Turning with Radius / chamfer
with TNRC. (10 hrs.)
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Execution of CNC Machine for
the exercise on Blue print
programming contours with
TNRC. (10 hrs.)
137. Machining parts on CNC lathe
with parallel, taper, step, radius
turning, grooving & threading.
(15 hrs.)
138. Carryout Drilling /Boring cycles
in CNC Turning. (15 hrs.)
(First 60 % of the practice is on
CNC machine simulator,
followed by 40 % on machine.)
89-91 -do- 139. Geometry Wear Correction. - Describe Tapping on CNC

Geometry and wear offset turning.
correction. (10 hrs.) - Programming for
140. Produce components on CNC Grooving/Threading on OD/
Machine involving different ID in CNC Turning.
turning operations viz., - Trouble shooting in CNC
• h Stock removal cycle OD lathe machine
• h Drilling / boring cycles - Identify Factors affecting
• h Stock removal cycle ID turned part quality/
• h Carryout threading in different productivity.
pitches. (18 hrs.) - Parting off operation
141. Produce components by involving explanation.
turning operation and part - Bar feeding system
programme exercises of C N C through bar feeder.
turning viz., - Input and Output of Data.
• h Grooving and thread cutting - DNC system. Interlacing
OD with PC.
• h Grooving and thread cutting - Use of CAM Programme.
ID (Optional)
• h Threading cycle OD
• h Sub programs with repetition
• h Using Sub Programs &
Cycles in the Main Program.
(18 hrs.)
142. Part off: Part Prog. (4 hrs.)
143. Produce job involving profile
turning, threading on taper,
boring, etc. operations. (22
hrs.)
144. Demo on M/C on bar feeding
system. (simulation/ video)
(1 hrs.)
145. DNC system setup.
(Optional)
146. Run the machine on DNC
mode.(Optional)
147.CAM programme
execution.(Optional)
148. Data Input-Output on
CNCmachine. (2 hrs.)
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92 - 93 Manufacture and 149. Theard on taper Setting of tool for taper
assemble components surface(Vee form) threadscalculation of taper
to produce utility items (50 hrs.) setting and thread depth.
by performing different Heat treatment – meaning &
operations & observing procedure hardening,
principle of tempering, carbonizing etc.
interchangeability and Different types of metal used
check functionality. inengineering application.
[Utility item: - screw
jack/ vice spindle/
Box nut, Marking
block, drill chuck,
collet chuck etc.;
different operations:
- threading (Square,
BSW, ACME,
Metric), Thread on
taper, different
boring (Plain,
stepped)]
94-95 -do- 150.Manufacturing& Interchangeability meaning,

Assembly of Screw procedure for adoption, quality
jack/vice/Box nut by control procedure for quality
performing different lathe production.
operation.(To use earlier
produce screw jack).
(50 hrs.)
151. Prepare different types Importance of Technical English

96 -do-
of documentation as terms
per industrial need by used in industry –(in simple
different methods of definition
recording information. only)Technical forms, process
(4 hrs.) charts,
152. Turn Bevel gear blank. activity logs in required formats of
(21 hrs.) industry, estimation, cycle time,
productivity reports, job cards.
Make a process 153. Read a part drawing, Terms used in part drawings and
97 makeaprocess plan interpretation of drawings –
plan to produce
components by tolerances,
performing special geometrical symbols - cylindricity,
operations on lathe parallelism. etc.
and check for
accuracy. [Accuracy
- ±0.02mm or proof
machining &
±0.05mm bore;
Special operation -
Worm shaft cutting
(shaft) boring,
threading etc.]
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98 -do- 154. Practice of special operations
Automatic lathe-its main parts,
on lathes - worm gear cutting.
types diff. Tools used-circular
(Shaft) (25 hrs.)
tool etc
99 -do- 155. Boring on lathe using soft jaws Related theory and
to make bush with collar calculation.
(standard) on non ferrous metal
and check with dial bore gauge
to accuracy of +/- 0.05 mm.
(15 hrs.)
156. Make Arbor support bush.
(Proof Machining) (10 hrs.)
100 -101 In-plant training/ Project work (Any Project to be done onCNC machine)
1. Taper Sunk
2. Socket With Split Collet
3. Screw Jack
4. Spindle With Hub
5. Morse Taper Eccentric
6. Crank Shaft With Taper Sleeve
102-103 Revision
104 Examination
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Production & Manufacturing Related Theory for Exercise 4.1.111
Turner - Introduction to CNC
CNC Technology basics

Objectives: At the end of this lesson you shall be able to
• describe the fundamentals of NC controls
• state the present status of CNC technology
• state the different between conventional lathe and CNC lathe
• state the specification of CNC lathe
• state the advantages and disadvantages of CNC.
When the computer was invented, the inventor himself - The next logical extension is a fully automated factory
must not have dreamt of the use of computers in various which employs a flexible manufacturing system (FMS)
fields of life which is drastically changing the entire and Computer Aided Design/Computer Aided
scenario of the Universe. It is now an integral part of our Manufacturing (CAD/CAM) techniques.
day to day life. There is lot of research going on with the
- The latest of the above is Computer Integrated
help of computers in the field of factory automation. The
Manufacturing (CIM) which includes battery of CNC
declining cost of computers coupled with the invention of
machines, with flexible modules for manufacturing tool
Multi task high speed micro processors, really made an
head changers, automatic material handling system
industrial revolution and there seems to be no end for
like AGV's (Automated Guided Vehicle) etc with
this. A distinct trend can be observed in industries which
minimum number of operating personnels.
include an increase in the use of Computer controlled
Machine tools, the application of new manufacturing Fundamentals of NC controls
systems, such as laser beam machines and appearance NC equipment has been defined by Electronics Industries
of new generation of industrial robots in the production Association (EIA) as "A system in which actions are
line, the manufacturing management through MRP I, MRP controlled by the direct insertion of numerical data at some
II & MRP III etc.(Material Resource Planning) point. The system must automatically interpret at some
Evolution of automation portion of the data".
Automatically controlled factory is nothing more than the In a typical NC system the part program is prepared on a
latest development in the industrial revolution that began punched tape. The part programme is arranged in blocks
in Europe two centuries ago and progressed through the of information needed for processing a segment of work
following stages: piece, the segment of length, speed, etc.
- Mechanisation started in 1870 at the beginning of Advantage of NC machine are
industrial revolution with simple production machines. - Complex shapes can be machined easily
- In 18th Century fixed automatic mechanism and
- Accuracy and repeatability is achieved.
transfer lines came into existence for faster output
and shorter production time. - High production rate
- Simple automatic control machines and copying - Reduced component rejection
machines were invented in the later part of the 18th - Less operator skill and involvement
century. After 1950 the industrial automation was
started. In this second phase of the industrial There are many disadvantages of NC system:
automation/revolution, workers, instead of physically - If tape is spoiled the entire programme of
performing all the task are placed in the control of the manufacturing will be affected
machines.
- Editing of the program in tape is not very easy.
Progressive change after 1950 is as follows
- Manual loading of tape is a laborious job.
- The introduction of numerical control (NC) in 1952
opened a new era in automation. - Instruction are read, block by block and carried out
which is slow when compared to CNC machine tools:
- The extension of NC was Computerised Numerical
Control (CNC) machine tools in which computer (Micro - If the punch reader is not reading the program properly
Processor) is included as an integral part of the control then the entire production is lost.
system. Computer numerical control
- Commercial Industrial robot was manufactured in A dedicated micro processor or mini computer on the
1961 along with CNC systems. The use of these machine control makes the computer numerical control.
robots, are well utilised only after 1970's. CNC machines are very popular coupled with lots of other
advantages:
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Advantages 4 Changing of cutting : Step less Speed, feed etc are
conditions changed easily through
- Accuracy and repeatability is very high programming instruction.
- Reduced scrap and rework 5 In process control : Self diagnosing and gauging
- Reduced inspection time through measuring probes
the parts and tools are
- Ease of inter changeability of machined parts available as an in-process
- Reduced space control.
- Reduced
- material handling B Keeping machining time to minimum
- Less paper work Higher metal removal rate through

- Less lead time - Proper cutting tools
- Less inventory - Rigid machine spindle
- Easy editing of programme - Higher spindle power
- Complicated shapes and contours are easily - Higher feed power
manufactured with quality assurance and better
production management. - Rigid structure
- Better utilisation of machines. - Multi spindle
- Reduced tooling - Multi turrets etc.
- Reduced operator skill Higher quality is achieved
- Jig not used but with minimum fixtures - Servo mechanism - For correction of feed
- Reduced floor space through motors
- Higher level of integration such as DNC, FMS, CAD/ - Curvic coupling - For quick indexing
CAM, CIM etc., - Linear motion guides - For heavy load movement
Disadvantages of CNC machines of slides.
- Linear ball screw - For accurate friction free
- High cost of machine backlash free movement
- High cost of training needs - Encoders and tacho - For accurate positioning
- High Maintenance cost generator and velocity error correction
etc.
Major advantages of CNC machines are
Applications of CNC
- Higher production
In automobile, aircraft and general engineering industry,
- High quality production CNC machines are common sight now a days. CNC is
These are achieved through: used to control almost all types of machines and some of
the commonly used machines are listed below:
Higher production - CNC lathes
A. Keeping idle time as minimum as possible - CNC Milling/drilling machine
B. Keeping machining time to a minimum - CNC turning centres.
A Keeping idle time as minimum - CNC Turn mill centre

- CNC Machine centre, Multi machining centre
1 Loading/unloading : Through quick work holding
and work handling system - CNC Tool and cutter grinding.
like pallets, robots etc. - CNC Grinding machine, surface, cylindrical etc.
2 Tool Change time : Kept as minimum by ATC, - CNC boring and jig boring machines etc.
quick change tool turret etc.
(max.time is less than 8 - CNC EDM, Wire cut EDM etc.
sec.) - CNC Gear hobbing, gear shaping, gear grinding etc.
3 Movement of slide : Rapid movement is easily - CNC Electron beam welding
achieved through best servo
feedback motors - CNC Laser/plasma/arc welding machine etc
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Production & Manufacturing : Turner (NSQF Level-5) - RT for Ex - 4.1.111
- CNC Co-ordinate measuring machines display of tool, paths, along with other software's have
considerably reduce the manual part programming of
- CNC Nibbling press, press brakes, turret
three dimensional jobs.
Present status CNC technology User defined parametric programming, Standard Cycles
like stock removal, drilling milling pattern etc are now a
Now a days, CNC controllers with system like Sinumeric, day's standard component of the Systems.
Fanuc, Friera, Allen Brandly, Mazak etc come with graphic
Some latest controls are having "DOS" front end with rpm; Cutting feed rate of 5000 mm/min, and rapid traverse
CAD/CAM facility in which one can design a component of 20000 mm/min. Use of multi various sensing elements
and get the computer assisted part programmes (CAPP) with adaptive controls, remote diagnostics system makes
and proving the component on the machine control itself the machine more versatile and free from accidents.
without wasting much time and money. Modern machine
tools have multi spindle with a spindle speed of 75000
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Production & Manufacturing : Turner (NSQF Level-5) - RT for Ex - 4.1.111 3
The silent and salient use of computers in factory - Production rate is more.
automation and in factory management will boost the
- Profitability is high.
quality and quantity in production, which in turn will
definitely change the lifestyle of the people in future. - Repeatability is very high compared to conventional
lathe.
Advantages of CNC machines over conventional
- One operator can operate more than one machine.
lathes
- Lesser production cost.
- Less manual work.
- Reduced part inventory.
- Semi skilled operator can operate the machine. - Reduced floor space requirements.
- Greater accuracy. - Improved manufacturing control.
- More flexibility. - Complicated parts shape can be easily machined.
- Alteration in dimension is easier through programme. - More number of tools are made available
- Simulation is possible with that we can verify the Disadvantages of CNC machines
dimensions of the component.
- Higher investment cost.
Difference between conventional and CNC lathes - Higher maintenance cost.
Conventional lathe CNC - Training of CNC operator involves more cost.
- Semi skilled or unskilled operator cannot do
1 Involves more manual Less manual work
programming in CNC.
work
- Cost of spare parts and tool cost are high.
2 Skilled labour needed Basic Skill is enough
- Suitable for mass production only.
3 Less accuracy More accuracy
4 Less flexible More flexible
5 No part programming Part programming
required
6 Any alteration is Re-programming for
difficult dimensional changes
made easier manually
7 For every component Once the programme is
machining is done done, the computer
with great care. takes care
8 Simulation or trial Simulation or trial run
run not possible possible and correction
may be done if required.
9 Less production rate More production rate
10 Repeatability is not Rate of repeatability
possible is high
11 Individual operator One operator can
required for each operate more than
machine one machine

SPECIFICATIONS OF C.N.C LATHE
1 No. of controlled axis 2
2 Interpolation Linear/circular/parabolic
3 Maximum swing over bed 320 mm
4 Maximum machining length 245 mm
5 Collet ID = 56 mm OD = 48 mm
6 Spindle taper hole ∅52 mm
7 Maximum bar dia ∅38 mm
8 Spindle head type A2 - 5
9 Spindle speed range 60 to 5000 R.P.M
10 Main motor 3.70 KW
11 Chuck size ∅200 mm
12 Chuck type Hydraulic, solid
13 Rapid transfer speed on x axis 18 metre/min
14 Rapid transfer speed on z axis 18 metre/min
15 X axis travel 200 mm
16 Z axis travel 320 mm
17 Guideway type Linear guideway
18 Turret type Gang type
19 Turret tool Boring bar size 20/20 mm ∅20 mm
20 Weight 1700 Kg
21 Dimensions 1600x1250x1650 mm
Machine model, control system and specification

Objectives : At the end of this lesson you shall be able to
• explain the control panel
• list the control keys and learn technical specification of CNC machine
• list the address keys.

Introduction as contouring system, point to point system, closed loop/
open loop system and based on number of axis of the
The CNC control system of a machine tool includes mainly
machine.The details of the control unit and the control
control unit and the motion control system. The motion
systems are shown in the following pages.
control system includes servo motor, drives, axis
postioning devices. The control systems are classified
1 Power consumption main motor (relative display)
2 Chuck open/closed
3 Sleeve forwards
4 Sleeve backwards
6 Central lubrication manual with display
7 Tool turret, manual operation
8 Coolant On/Off with display
9 Single item for bar feed with display
10
11 Drives On
12 Drives off
13 Control On
14 Feed rate override switch 0-120%
15 Emergency-off button
EMCO CONTROL PANEL

Keys and display field Display field
Alarm (red)
The display is bright whenever an alarm oc-
curs. The alarm number is displayed on the
screen. The alarms are explained in the
alarm list.
Position not yet reached (green)

The display is bright until the set position
has been reached.
Feed stop (red)

The display is bright if the feed is stopped
while the program is running.
Program running (green)

The display is bright until the program has
been completed. Even if the machine is not
moving.
Key assignment display (yellow)

If the "key assignment display is bright, the
lower-case function (the bottom function) of
a dual-function key is displayed in the input
line when the dual function key is depressed.
If the "key assignment." Display is not bright,
the upper function is entered. Switchover is
executed automatically by the controller af-
ter a word has been entered in the parts
cases, switchover can be executed by
means of key in the address keypad.

Address keys/numeric keys
x)
Start of program
x)
Skip block
x)
Address block number
x)
Address path condition
Alternate changeover to top and

bottom functions. The display is then
SINUMERIC 810 T either bright or dark.
Number 7
Address Position data
Number 8
Number 9
x)
x)
SINUMERIC 810 M Number 4

Address Interpolation parameter
Address keys, numeric keys and symbol keys
Number 6
Number 5

Number 6 Space character
Address Interpolation parameter Address Auxiliary function
x)
Additional
Address Radius B
End of block
unassigned x) x)
Address Radius U
In the input line characters appear which are not nor-
mally permitted for normal programming.
Mulitiplication
The characters a,b,c,d,e,f are required to enter or modify
Address Angle A
commands in CLB00 machine code.(@----).
Input and correction

Number 1
Address Feed
Number 2
Address tool correction Delete input
The input line is deleted character-by-
character. If the key remains depressed
Number 3
the characters entered are deleted in
Address Subroutine sequence until the input line is empty.
x) Delete word/block
Address No. of passes The word identified by the correction

pointer is deleted in the parts program
memory if the respective address is in
Subtractio n the input line. A complete block is
deleted if the respective block number
Address Additiona l function is in the input line.
Modifying a word
Sign input line
The word identified with the correction
Address Additiona l function pointer is replaced by the word in the
input line. The addresses of both words
must be identical.
Number 0
Entering a word
Address Spindle speed
The word in the input line is transferred
to the parts program memory, or into
Decimal point list displays or input forms.
Address Tool number

Control keys
Channel selection switch
The CRT display is switched to the channel
selected. Selection is by repeated depress-
ing of the channel selection switch.
Acknowledging alarms
Alarm form alarm No. 3000 onwards, e.g.
"General programming error" alarm can be
Correction pointer left/right acknowledged with this key. "Rest alarm is
not acknowledged!
The correction pointer is moved to the left
or right word-by-word. The correction pointer
jumps from the beginning of the block to the Actual value display selection with
end of the previous block or from the end of double-height characters
the block to the beginning of the following If the key is depressed again, the previous
block. If the key remains depressed, the display reappears.
correction pointer goes to the beginning or
end of the program. Diagnostics and start up
Selection of machine data and switching to
Correction pointer backwards/forwards start-up state after entering pass word.
The correction pointer is moved backwards
or forwards block-by-block. Search key
If the key remains depressed, the correct Searching for a particular address or word
pointer goes to the beginning or end of the in the parts program memory. The expres-
program. sion appearing in the input line when the
search key is depressed is looked for. After
the search key has been depressed, the cor-
Paging backwards/forwards rection pointer marks the next expression
found.
The CRT display is paged up or down one
page at a time. Integrated machine control panel
Integrated machine control panel
SINUMERIC 810 T
SINUMERIC 810 M

Reset Operating mode selection key
The running program is aborted Alarms The following modes can be selected via a
are deleted (up to alarm No. 2999). The soft key:
controller is brought to the basic state!
PRESET
MDI AUTOMATIC
Single block
JOG INC 1 TO INC 10,000
The parts program is processed block-
(manual encoder)
by-block. Start is by means of "Program
START". REPOS
AUTOMATIC
Program STOP
REFPOINT
The running program is interrupted The
program can be resumed with "Program
START". Spindle speed slower/faster
The programmed spindle speed can be
Program START modified in increments of 5 % in the range
A parts program is started. The functions of 50 % to 120 % . If the key is depressed
stored are transferred to the PLC in au- constantly, the final position is approached
tomatic mode. in increment of 5 %. The percentage value
set is shown in the basic display.
Spindle STOP/START
Feed slower/faster
The programmed feed is modified in the fol-
Feed STOP/START lowing increments from 0% to 120 % 0%
1% 2% 4% 6% 8% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50%
60% 70% 75% 80% 85% 90% 95% 100%
105% 110% 115% 120%.
Direction keys
When the direction keys are actuated, If the key is depressed constantly the end
the axes are traversed in jog mode. position is approached. The percentage
value set is displayed in the basic display.
In rapid traverse mode the 100% value is

not exceed.
Universal interface port

Rapid traverse override key
If this key is depressed simultaneously
with the direction keys the axes are tra-
versed in rapid traverse mode.

CALL PROGRAM FORM MEMORY FOR EXECUTION
Switch control to reset
Main program or subroutine
Enter program number
Store
Program control, if desired (see next page)

Single block, if desired
Cycle start

PROCEDURE FOR BLOCK SEARCHING: 9 Press > (etc key) to bring Over Store.
1 Select the AUTOMATIC pressing MODE button. 10 Enter necessary Tool number, Spindle speed, "T",
"D","S","M" code.
2 Close the feed rate completely.
11 Press CYCLE START key.
3 Press (Etc key) and bring the BLOCK SEARCH menu.
12 Bring Automatic mode by pressing MODE key.
4 Enter the necessary block number/sub program block
number. 13 Press ACTUAL BLOCK (Look at the Cursor and the
block search complete).
5 Press START.
14 Continue to Run the program by pressing Cycle Start
6 Confirm whether the required block reached on the
key and watch Distance to go Actual position and the
Monitor at N
Actual values. ('G' codes, M,F,S,T,D, etc.)
7 Press MODE button for bringing the REPOS mode,
and select REPOS.
8 Bring the offset values to Zero by Pressing the neces-
sary (+) or (-) direction keys X,Y,Z and feed rate con-
trol switch at > 0%
BLOCK SEARCHING AND RUNNING PROGRAMME
AUTOMATIC

Machine models The CNC machine models are also based feed drives
are
CNC machines are generally grouped under 2 axis and
- AC servometer
3 axis or multi axis system. Horizontal 2 axis (x and z)
are termed as CNC lathe and the vertical CNC machines - DC servometer
are called as machining centre.
- Brushless DC servometer
The machine models are also based on the spindle drives
- Stepper motor or liner motor
namely.
- Separately excited DC shut motor
- 3 Phase AC induction motor
Technical Specification of CNC machines
1 Traverse x’ - 600 mm (Saddle movement)

y’ - 450 mm (Head movement)
z’ - 420 mm (Column movement)
2 Pallet Pallet size - 500x500mm

Max load - 500 Kgf
indexing position - 360 degree
3 Spindle 11.Kw continuous 14.2 (intermitent)
Type of motor AC
and drive
Bearing dia 100 mm
Spindle taper ISO 40
4 Spindle speeds
Spindle range 40 - 4000 Rpm or
60 - 6000 Rpm (optional)
Constant range 40- 4000 Rpm or

60 - 1500 Rpm (Optional)
Constant power 1000-4000 Rpm or

range 1500-6000 Rpm (Optional)
5 Feeds
Rapid traverse 20 M/min
x,y,z Axis cutting 1 to 10000 mm/min

feed rate
6 Feed Motor
Torque X and 18.5 Nm

Y axes z - Axis 29 Nm

7 Thrust Capacity
X - Axis 600 Kgf
Y - Axis 600 Kgf
Z - Axis 1000Kgf
8 Ball Screw
Pitch 12 mm
Dia 50 mm
9 Auto Tool changer

No of tools 24 Nos
Max. Tool Dia 10 mm
Max. Tool Weight 15 Kgf
Max.Tool length 350 mm
Tool changing time 6 to 12 seconds based on tools
10 Twin pallet changer

No of pockets 2 Nos
Pallet changing Time 25 Sec
11 Hydraulic
Motor power 3.7 Kw
Tank Capacity 90 litres Indian Oil servo 32 or equivalent
12 Machining capacity
Milling capacity (steel
55 - 65 Kg/mm square) 100 cc/min
Drilling capacity (Steel
55-65 Kg/mm square) 30 mm diameter
Tapping Capacity (Steel

55 -65 Kg/mm square) M 24 x 1.5 mm
13 Machining capacity
Machining capacity 10000Kg
14 Floor space requirement 5900mm (w) x

5550mm (L)
Basic machine x 3100 (H)
15 Air requirement 16 Ipm at 5 kg/ Sq.cm
16 Electrical supply 50 KVA
Control System control also. These system are not good where extremely
accurate positioning is required.
In CNC machines there are mainly two types of control
system,namely
1 Open loop control system (Fig 1)
2 Closed loop control system (Fig 2)
Open lop control system (Fig 1)
In an open loop control system (Fig 1) in which there is no
arrangement for detecting or comparing the actual position
of the cutting tool on the job with the command studies. Closed loop control system (Fig 2)
Therefore, this system is not providing any check to see Closed loop control (Fig 2) is a term which is used very
that the commanded position has actually been often when we talk about CNC machines. This term
achieved.There is no feed back of information to the signifies, that the control system has provisions to ensure
tha the tool reaches the desired position, at the correct
feed rate, even if some errors creep in due to unforeseen
reasons.
For instance in the previous example 60,000 pulses sent
in 2minutes by the control should cause a tool travel of
60 mm at 30 mm/min, but even if the control sends these
pulses it cannot be ensured that the tool has really
travelled exactly 60 mm.
A closed loop control has a device called encoder and this Another control system is based on 5 axis & above
can continuously ascertain the distance actually travelled • Motion type CNC control system
by the tool and then monitor the same, in the form of
feedback signals to the control. The control studies this • Loop control system
feedbacck information and takes corrective action in case • Number of axis type CNC control
any error is detected in the tool position/feed rate.

Axis convention of CNC machine

• identify CNC machine by number of axes
• identify CNC machines by orientation of axes
• understand NC coordinate and learn X and Y axis movement.
Types of CNC milling machines CNC vertical machining centre - VMC

Milling machines can divided into three categories CNC horizontal machining centre - HMC
1 by the no of axes CNC horizontal boring mill
(two, three or more) Vertical Machining Centres (Fig 1)
2 by the orientation of axes
(vertical or horizontal)
3 by the presence or absence of a tool changer.
The spindle motion is up and down in vertical milling/
machining centre.
The spindle motion is in and out in horizontal milling/
machining centre.
These machines are capable to perform the following
operations:
Drilling, Reaming, boring, tapping, profiling, thread cutting
and many other operations.
ATC: Automatic Tool changer.
APC: Automatic pallet changer
CNC: Computer Numerical Control
With the above advanced features built in milling
machines become the new breed of machine tools called
machining centres. VMC is for flat type of work where the machining is done
Machine axes on only one face of the part in single set up.
The machining centres are provided with minimum three An optional fourth axis can be provided by mounting rotary
axes of ‘X’,’Y’&’Z’ axis and fourth axis machines become table to the main table either vertically or horizontally
more flexible i.e the fourth axis ‘A’ for vertical model and depending on the desired results and the model type.
‘B’ of horizontal model. The machine with five or more In the combination with a tailstock (usually supplied) the
axes is of higher level of capacity. fourth axis in the vertical configuration can be used for
In aircraft industry 5 axes profile milling machine is used machining long parts,which need support at both ends.
for complex shapes and to reach cavities and various For programming two types of systems are followed. In
angles. one type programming always takes place form the view
Meaning of half / full axis in NC language (what is half / point of the spindle, not the operators eye, view as if
full axis machine) looking straight down at 90o towards the machine, for
development of the tool motion.
A full axis vertical machine has X,Y,Z as primary axes
and indexing table designated as ‘A’ axis which can In the second type, various markers located some where
position but cannot rotate simultnesously is called 3 1/2 in the machine itself, show the positive and negative
axes machine. If the machine is equipped with full rotating motion of the machine axes. For programming,these
table, simultaneously then it is called four axis machine markers should be ignored. The programming directions
tool. are exactly opposite to the markers on the machine tool.
In the milling systems, three most common machine tools Horizontal machining centers (Fig 2)
are Horizontal CNC machining centres are also categorized
as multi - tool and versatile machines, and are used for
cubical parts, where the majority of machining has to be define the positive direction of the coordinate axes as
done on more than one face in a single setup. per the Fig 4.
Z - axis (Fig 5)
The axis of the main (i.e. principle) machine spindle,
whether it be the axis of the tool spindle or the axis about
which the work piece rotates, is denoted as the Z axis.
There are many applications in this area. Common On machine tools, which do not possess principle spindle
examples are large parts, such as pump housings, gear (e.g. planning machines) the Z - axis is perpendicular to
cases, manifolds, engine blocks and so on. Horizontal the work holding surface.
machining centres always include a special indexing table
and are typically equipped with a pallet changer and other
features.
Axis - nomenclature
The basic designation of the axis (i.e.), in Fig 3 which is
X, Y, Z, is decided by the right hand thumb rule and the
main spindle axis. The thumb indicates X - axis, fore finger
indicates Y - axis and the middle finger indicates Z - axis.
X - axis
The X - axis is always horizontal, parallel to the work
holding surface and perpendicular to the z - axis.
Y - axis
Auxillary axes on NC machine
The Y - axis is perpendicular to both Z and X axis.
Apart from each side movement axes on the machine,
Milling tool coordinate system (Fig 6)
some other auxillary axes can exist. E.g. Rotary table.
This rotary table axis is designed as A axis if it is parallel Classification of machines.
to X direction. Similarly B and C axes for Y and Z CNC machines can be classified by various ways,
respectively.
a) According to number of axis
Right hand rule
CNC machine can be classified as
The rotary movements about X, Y and Z are designated
as A, B and C respectively. The right hand rule is used to • 2 axis machine
• 3 axis machine Straight cut control
• 4 axis machine The system provides feed motion in two axes (but not
simultaneously) and hence their capability is limited to
It should be noted that each axis has it own drive motor. performing milling either along X axis or along Y axis.
b) According to CNC system (Fig 8)
There are three types of CNC systems based on their

capability in providing feed in different axes.
• 1 Point -to- point control
Contouring control
This can provide feed control in 3 axes. They are also
capable of providing simultaneous feed in 2 or 3 axis.
Milling machine with contouring control can mill contours
made up of straight lines and arc/circular elements..
Depending on the number of axes that can be
simultaneously fed, contouring controls are further
classified as 2D control, 2 1/2D control and 3D control.
i) 2D control
Machines with 2D control can be simultaneous feed only
in two of the 3 axes. They can mill only contours with
constant depth that too in just one plane ( X-Y) (Fig 9
& 10)
• 2 Straight cut control ii) 2 1/2D control
• 3 Contouring control Machines with 2 1/2D control can have simultaneous
feed of any of the two axis X-Y, X-Z,Y,Z and, hence they
Point-to-point control
can mill contours (of constant depth) in any one of the 3
Machines with point-to-point control provide only one feed planes. (Figs 11 & 12)
axis while the other two axes can perform only rapid
motion. Machines with point-to-points control are suited
only for drilling operations. (Fig 7 )

Part programming for turning centers
Diameter programming
The dimensioning of a turned component is generally
specified by its diameters. However, in turning operation,
the tool should approach the work piece in radial direction
for matching. Hence, for the sake of simplicity, most of
the turning centers are provided with diameter
programming facility.
This means that all the movements of the tool along
X-axis should be doubled to represent the diametral rather
than radial movement. The selection of radius or diameter
programming depends upon the system variable set
during the integration of controller with the machine tool.
Axis system(Fig 2)
In turning centers, the spindle axis is designated as Z.
The radial axis perpendicular to the z-axis and away
toward the principle tool post is termed as x-axis .The
machine datum or home position may be the intersection
of spindle axis and clamping plane. At the start, the
controller display will show the axis position with respect
to home The work piece datum is fixed by the programmer
on the work piece for the convenience of part
programming. The difference between the tool tip position
and the turret datum is termed as offset.
Machine axis identification

NC coordinates system (Fig 1)
Z-axis
All the NC machine toolmaker’s use of Cartesian
coordinate system for the sake of simplicity. The guiding The z-axis motion is along the spindle axis or parallel to
coordinate system followed for designating the axes is the spindle axis. In the case of machine without a spindle
the well known as right hand coordinate system. such as shapers and planers, the z-axis is perpendicular
to the work holding surface.
Designation of axes
For machines such as milling, drilling and lathe, the cutting
First axes to be identified is the z axis .This is then followed tools move in the negative z direction to move a tool into
by x and y axes respectively. the work piece. The positive z motion increases the
clearance between the tool holder and work piece surface.
When there are several spindles and slide ways, the
spindle perpendicular to the work holding surface may
be chosen as the principle spindle. The primary Z motion
is then related to the primary spindle. The tool motions of
other spindles or slides, designated as U, V, W and P, Q,
R respectively.(Fig 3)
X-axis
The principle motion direction of cutting tool on the work
piece is designated as x-axis .It is perpendicular to the
z-axis and should be horizontal and parallel to the work
holding surface whenever possible.

Imporatance of feedback system and Concept of co-ordinate geometry

• understand feedback system
• understand the cartesian coordinate system
• understand the four quadrants
• explain the difference between polar and rectangular coordinates.
Importance of feed
Feed Back System:
• The feedback system is also referred to as the
measuring system.
• It uses position and speed transducers to continously
and monitor the position at which the cutting tool is
located at any particular instant.
• The MCU uses the difference between reference
signals and feedback signals to generate the control
signals for correcting position and speed errors.(Fig 1)
The centre of the coordinate system (where the lines

intersect) is called the origin. The axes intersect where
both x and y are zero and is taken as origin The
coordinates of the origin are (0,0).
An ordered pair contains the coordinates of one point in
the coordinate system. A point is named by its ordered
pair in the form of (x,y). The first number corresponds to
A Cartesian coordinate system is coordinate system the X-coordinate and the second to the Y-coordinate.
that specifies each point uniquely in a plane by a pair of To graph a point, you draw a dot at the coordinates that
numerical coordinates, which are the signed distance corresponds to the ordered pair. It’s always a good idea
to the point from two fixed perpendicular directed lines, to start at the orgin. The x-coordinate tells you how many
measured in the same unit of length. Each reference line steps you have a take to the right (positive) or left
is called a coordinate axis of the system, and the point (negative) on the x-axis. And the y-coordinate tells you
where they meet is its orgin, at ordered pair (0,0). The how many steps to move up (positive) or down (negative)
coordinates can also be defined as the positions of the on the y-axis.
perpendicular projections of the point on to the two axes,
expressed as signed distances from the origin. The ordered pair (3,4) if found in the coordinate system
when you move 3 steps to the right on the x-axis and 4
One can use the same principle to specify the position of upwards on the y-axis.(Fig 3)
any point in three-dimensional space by three cartesian
coordinates, its signed distances to three mutally The ordered pair (-7, 1) is found in the coordinate system
perpendicular planes (or, equivalently, by its perpendicular when you mave 7 steps to the left on the x-axis and 1
projection onto three mutually perpendicular lines). In step upwards on the y-axis.(Fig 3)
general, n-cartesian coordinates (an element of real n-
space) specify the point in an n-dimensioanl Euclidean
space for any dimension n. These coordinates are equal,
up to sign, to distances from the point to n mutually
perpendicular hyper planes.
Coordinate system and ordered pairs
A coordinate system is a two-dimensional number line,
for example, two perpendicular number lines or axes.
This is a typical coordinate system:
The horizontal axis is called the x-axis and the vertical
axis is called the y-axis.
To find out the coordinates of a point in the coordinate To point: #0,3
sysem you do the opposite. Begin at the point and follow
To point: #-5,-3
a vertical line either up or down to the x-axis. There is
your x-coordinate. And then do the same but following a Polar coordinate system
horizontal line to find the y-coordinate. Points in the polar coordinate system with pole O and
Absolute coordinates polar axis L. The point with radial coordinate 3 and angular
coordinate 60 degrees or (3, 60°). and the point (4, 210°)
Absolute coordinates are based on the orgin (0,0), which
represents polar coordinates.
is the intersection of the X and Y axes. Use absolute
coordinates when you know the precise X and Y values
of the point.
With dynamic input, you specify absolute coordinates with
the # prefix is not used. For example, entering #3,4
specifies a point 3 units along the X axis and 4 units along
the Y axis from the orgin.
The following example draws a line beginning at an X
value of -2, Y value of 1, and an endpoint at 3,4. Enter
the following in the tooltip.
Command: line
From point: #-2,1
To point: #3,4
The line is located as follows:(Fig 4)
In mathematics, the polar coordinate system is a two-

dimensional coordinate system in which each point on a
plane is determined by a distance from a reference point
Relative coordinates or incremental coordinate and an angle from a reference direction.
Relative coordinates are based on the last point entered. The reference point (analogous to the orgin of a Cartesian
Use relative coordinates when you know the location of a coordinate system) is called the pole, and the ray from
point in relation to the previous point. the pole in the reference direction is the polar axis. The
distance from the pole is called the radial coordinate or
To specify relative coordinates, precede the coordinate radius, and the angle is called the angular coordinate,
values with an @ sign. For example, entering @3,4 polar angle.
specifies a point 3 units along the X axis and 4 units along
the Y axis from the last point specified. Uniqueness of polar coordinate & conversion to
cartesian coordinate.
The following example draws the sides of a triangle. The
first side is a line starting at the absolute coordinates -2,1 Adding any number full turns (360°) to the angular
and ending at a point 5 units in the X direction and 0 units coordinate does not change the corresponding direction.
in the Y direction. The second side is a line starting at the Similarly any polar coordinate is identical to the coordinate
endpoint of the first line and ending at a point 0 units in with the negative radial component and in the opposite
the X direction and 3 units in the Y direction. The final line direction. The polar co-ordinates ‘r’ and ø can be
segment uses relative coordinates to return to the starting converted into the cartesian coordinate (x,y) by using the
point. trignometric functions sine & cosine.
Command: line x = r cos ø
From point: #-2,1 y = r sin ø
To point: #5,0 r= x2+y2 r = length of line, ø= its angle with axis

Coordinate Geometry & Machine Axis

• understand the machine coordinate system
• state real number line
• understand cartesion coordinates system
• understand the cartesian coordinates of three-dimensional space.
Machine coordinate system

Most of the CNC machinery have a default coordinate
assumed during power up of machine coordinate system.
The origin of the system is called machine origin are home
zero location. Home zero is usually located at the tool
change position.
In the manufacturing industry, with regard to numerically
controlled machine tools, the phrase machine coordinate
system refers to the physical limits of the motion of the
machine in each of its axes, and to the numerical coordinate
which is assigned (by the machine tool builder) to each of
these limits. CNC Machinery refers to machines and
devices that are controlled by the using programmed It is basically, Two Real Number lines Put Together, one
commands which are encoded on to a storage medium, going left - right, and the other going up- down. The
and NC refers to the automation of machine tools that are horizontal line is called x-axis and the vertical line is called
operated by abstract commands programmed and y-axis.
encoded onto a storage medium.
The origin
The cartesian coordinate system The point (0,0) is given the special name “The Origin” ,
Cartesian coordinates allow one to specify the location of and is given the letter “O”.
a point in the plane, or in three dimensional space. the Rral number line
cartesian coordinates or rectangular coordinates system
of a point are a pair of numbers (in two dimensions) or a The basis of this system is the real number line marked at
triplet of numbers (in three - dimensions) that specified equal intervals. The axis is labeled (X,Y or Z). One point
signed distances from the coordinate axis. First we must on the line is designated as the Origin. Numbers on one
understand a coordinate system to define our directions side of the line are marked as positive and those to the
and relative positions (axis) and a reference position other side marked negative. See Fig 2.
(origin). A coordinate system can be rectangular or polar,
Just as points on the line can be placed in one to one
correspondence with the real number line, so points in
plane can be placed in one to one correspondence with
pairs of real number line by using two coordinate lines. To
do this, we construct two perpendicular coordinate line
that intersect at their origins, for convenience. Assign a Cartesian coordiantes of the plane
set of equally space graduations to the x and y axes
A plane in which a rectangular coordinate system has
starting at the origin and going in both directions, left and
been introduced is a coordinate plane or an x-y-plane. We
right (x axis) and up and down (y axis) point along each
will now show how to establish a one to one
axis may be established.We make one of the number
correspondence between points in a coordinate plane
lines vertical with its positive direction upward and
and pairs of real number. If A is a point coordinate plane,
negative direction downward. The other number lines
then we draw two lines through A, one perpendicular to
horizontal with its positive direction upward to the right and
the x-axis and one perpendicular to the y-axis. If the first
negative direction to the left. The two number lines are
line intersects the x-axis at the point with coordinate x and
called coordinate axes; the horizontal line is the x axis, the
the second line intersects the y-axis at the point with
vertical line is the y axis, and the coordinate axes together
coordinate y, then we associate the pair (x,y) with the A
form the cartesian coordinate system or a rectangular
(See Fig 2). The number a is the x-coordinate or abcissa
coordinate system. The point of intersection of the
of P and the number b is the y-coordinate or ordinate of p;
coordinate axes is denoted by O and is the origin of the
we say that A is the point with coordinate (x,y) and denote
coordinate system. See Fig 1.
the point by A (x,y). The point (0,0) is given the special
name “The Origin” , and is sometimes given the letter “O”.
Abscissa and Ordinate
The words “Abscissa” and “Ordinate” ... they are just the
x and y values:
• Abscissa: the horizontal (“x”) value in a pair of
coordinates: how far along the point is.
• Ordinate: the vertical (“y”) value in a pair of coordinates:
how far up or down the point is.
X and Y Axis
The horizontal line is called x-axis and vertical line is
called y-axis; both line runs through zero origin,(0,0) put
them together on a graph ... See Fig 6.
It is basically, a set of two real Number lines.
Negative Values of X and Y

The Real Number Line, you can also have negative
values.
Neagative: start at zero and head in the opposite direction;
See Fig 4
Axis: The reference line from which distances are

measured.
Example:
Point (6,4) is
Go along the x direction 6 units then go up 4 units up in the
y direction then “plot the dot”.
And you can remember which axis is which by:
• the horizontal distance first,
So, for a negative number: • then the vertical distance.
• go left for x Ordered pair
• go down for y The number are separated by a comma, and parentheses

are put around the whole thing like this: (7,4)
For example (-3,-5) means :
Example: (7,4) means 7 units to the right (x-axis), and 4
go left along the x axis 3 then go up 5 in the y-axis. units up(y-axis)
(Quadrant II x is negative , y is positive)
And (-3,-5) means :
go left along the axis 3 then go down 5 in the y-
axis.(Quadrant III x is negative ,y is negative)
Using Cartesian Coordinates, mark a point on a graph by
how far along and how far up it is; See Fig 5. The point
(12,5) is 12 units along the x-axis, and 5 units up on the y-
axis.
Cartesian coordinates of three dimensional space to the coordinate axis and opposite corners at the origin
In three-dimensional space (xyz space), oriented at right and the given point.
angles to the xy-plane. The z axis, passes through the
The points may now be defined in a three dimensional
origin of the xy-plane. Coordinates are determined
volume or space. This permits to define points in three
according to the east-west for x-axis north-south for y-
dimensions from the origin. The Cartesian coordinates
axis, and up -down for the z-axis displacements from the
(x,y,z) of a point in three-dimensions specify the signed
origin. The Cartesian coordinarte system is based on
distance from the origin along the x,y, and z-axes,
three mutually perpendicular coordinate axes: the x-axis,
respectively. Z-axis points become the third entry when
the y-axis, and the z-axis, See Fig 6 below. The three axes
defining coordinate locations.
intersect at the point called the origin. You can imagine
the origin being the point where the walls in the corner of
Given the above corner-of-room analogy, we could form
a room meet the floor. The x-axis is the horizontal line
the Cartesian coordinates of the point at the top of your
along which the wall to your left and the floor intersect.
head,as follows. Imagine that you are five meters tall the
The y-axis is the vertical line along which the wall to your
z-axis, and that you walk two meters from the origin along
right and the floor intersect. the z-axis is the vertical line
the x-axis, then turn left and walk parallel to the y-axis four
alongwhich the walls intersect. the parts of the lines that
meters into the room. the Cartesian coordinates of the
you see while standing in the room are the positive portion
point at the top of your head would be (2,4,5).
of each of the axes. The negative part of these axes would
be the continuations of the lines outside of the room.
For example, a notation of (2,4,5) corresponds to the
value of X2, Y4, and Z5. See Fig 9.
Three-dimensional cartesian coordinate axes. A
representation of the three- dimensional cartesian
coordinate system. The positive x-axis , y-axis, and
positive z-axis are the sides labeled by x,y,z. The origin is
the intersection of all the axes. The branch of each axis
on the opposite side of the origin (the unlabeled side) os
the negative part.
When dealing with 3-dimensional motion, is to set up a

suitable coordinate system. The most stright-forward
type of coordinate system is called a Cartesian system. A
Cartesian coordinate system consists of three mutually
perpendicular axes, the X, Y, and Z-axes. By convention,
the orientation of these axes is such that when the index
finger, the middle finger, and the thumb of the right -hand
are configured so as to be mutually perpendicular, the 3 DIMENSIONS
index finger, the middle finger, and the thumb can be
aligned along the X,Y,Z-axes respectively. Such a Cartesian coordinates can be used for locating points in 3
coordinate system is termed right-handed. See Fig 7. The dimensions as in this example:
point of intersection of the three coordinate axes is
termed the origin of the coordinate system. Figure 10. The point (2,4,5) is shown in three-dimensional
Cartesian coordinates.
The Cartesian coordinates of a point in three dimensions
are a triplet of numbers (x,y,z). The three numbers, or
coordinates, specify the signed distance from the origin
along the x,y, and z- coordinate axis respectively. They
can be visualized by forming the box with edges parallel
(They are numbered in a counter clockwise direction)
QUADRANTS
The coordinate axes divide the plane into four parts,

called quadrants (See Fig 11). The quadrants are number In Quadrant I : both x and y are positive
counter clockwise,starting from the upper right,labeled In Quadrant II : x is negative (y is still positive)
I,II,III,IV with axes designations as shown in illustrations In Quadrant III : both x and y are negative
below. In Quadrant IV : x is positive again, while y is negative.
When we include negative values, the x and y divide the
space up into 4 pieces:
Quadrant X(Horizontal) Y(Vertical) Example
l Positive Positive (3,2)
ll Negative Positive (-5,2)
lll Negative Negative (-2,-1)
lV Positive Negative (2,-5)

Example: the point “A” (3,2) is 3 units along the x-axis, 2 Cartesian coordinates can go:
and 2 units up the y-axis.
• Left-right, and
Both x and y are positive, so that point is i “Quadrant I” • Up-down
• So any position needs two numbers
Example: The point “C” (-2,-1) is 2 units along the axis in
the negative direction, and 1 unit down the y-axis in the 3 3 Dimensions
negative direction.
• Left-right,
Both x and y are negative, so that point is in “Quadrant III • Up-down, and
• Forward-backward
DIMENSIONS: 1,2,3 AND MORE...
• So any point can be located with (x,y,z) coordinates.
1 The Real Number Line can only go:
• Left-right
• So any position needs just one number.

Production & Manufacturing Related Theory for Exercise 4.2.116 & 4.2.117
Turner - CNC Turning
Preparation of part programming

Objectives : At the end of this exercise you shall be able to
• explain part programming preparation
• identify the G code and M codes.
Introduction - Decimal point should be not be allowed e.g. x = 7.875
Part programming comprises of collection of data, will be represented as X07875 in a five system i.e.
arrangement of information in a standard format and the last three digits are used for the decimal part of
calculation of tool path, the data relates to dimensions of the number. Some machines allow omission of leading
feature, direction of cutting , tool required, sequencing, zeros, hence the same can be represented as X7875.
and familiarity with NC system codes. - It is recommended that dimensions should be
Preparation of part programming expressed in mm.
1 Block numbers / sequence number (N words) - All angular dimensions should be expressed as a
decimal fraction of a revolution.
Each block of the program has a sequence number which
is used to identify the sequence of a block of data in it - In absolute system, all dimensions should be positive.
which in ascending numerical order. When the part - In incremental system the '+','-'sign represent the
program is read from the tape, each sequence number direction of motion.
is displayed on the panel of NC machine tool, as long as
that block commands are performed. This enables the 4 Feed Rate Word(F - word)
operators to know which sequence of block is being It is used to program the proper feed rate, to be given in
performed practically by the tool. It consists of a character mm/min or mm/rev as determined by the prior 'G' code
'N' followed by a three digit number raising from '0' to selection G94 and G95 respectively. This word is
'999'. applicable to straight line or contouring machines
2 Preparatory Function (G-words) ,because in PTP systems a constant feed rate is used in
moving from point to point.
The preparatory function is used to initiate the control
commands, typically involve a cutter motion i.e. It It is represented by "F" followed by three digit number
prepares the MCU to be ready to perform a specific e.g.F100 represents a feed rate of 100 mm/min.
operation and interpret, the data which follows the way of 5 Spindle speed / cutting speed word (S - word)
this function. It is represented by the character 'G' followed
It specifies the cutting speed of the process or the rpm of
by a two digit number i.e.'00 to 99'.These codes are
spindle. It is also represented by 'S' followed by the three
explained and listed separately.
digit number .If the speed is given in meter per min. then
3 Dimension words (X, Y & Z words) the speed is converted in rpm rounded to two digit
These dimension word are also known as 'co-ordinates'. accuracy, e.g. S-800 represents the 800 rpm of spindle.
Which give the position of the tool motion .These words 6 Tool selection word (T - word)
can be of two types:
It consists of "T" followed by max five digits in the coded
a) Linear dimension words number. Different numbers are used for each cutting tool.
- X, Y, Z for primary or main motion. When the "t" numbers read from the tape ,the appropriate
tool is automatically selected by ATC(Automatic tool
- U, V, W for secondary motion parallel to changer).Hence this word is used only for machines with
X, Y, Z axes respectively. ATC or programmable tool turret .e.g. T01,T02,T03
- p, q, r for another third type motion parallel to X,Y,Z ………….. represents the tool selection word. Also,
axes respectively. sometimes T-word used for representing a tool offset
number corresponding to X Y and Z directions. With the
b) Angular Dimension Words help of two additional digits, given after a decimal point
- a, b, c, for angular motion around X, Y, Z axes .(In HMT T-70,9 pairs of tools offset can be stored).
respectively. 7 Miscellaneous words (M-words)
- I, J, K in case of thread cutting is for position of arc It consists of character M followed by two digit number
centre; thread lead parallel to X, Y, Z axes. representing an auxiliary function such as turning ON/
These words are represented by an alphabet representing OFF spindle ,coolant ON/OFF or rewinding the tape
the axes followed by five or six digits depending upon the .These functions do not relate two dimensional movement
input resolution given. The following points may be noted of the machine. This is more explained in next topic.
while calculating the number:
8 End of Block (EOB) G70 00 Finishing cycle
It identifies the end of instruction block. G71 00 Multiple turning cycle
(Stock removal in turning)
G and M codes (G-codes)
G72 00 Multiple facing cycle
This is the preparatory function word, consists of the
(Stock removal in facing)
address character G followed by a two digit code number,
known as G-code. This comes after the sequence number G73 00 Pattern repeating cycle
word and a Tab Code. There are two types of G codes
G74 00 Peck drilling cycle
modal and non-modal. Modal codes remain active until
cancelled by a contradictory and code of same class .e.g. G75 00 Grooving cycle
G70 is a modal code which defines that the dimensional G76 00 Multiple threading cycle
units are metric. It will remain active until cancelled by
G-71,which tells that the dimensional units are in inches G90 01 Single turning cycle
now. Non-modal G codes are active only in the block in G92 01 Single threading cycle
which they are programmed.G04 is non-modal code.
G94 01 Single facing cycle
List of G codes
G96 02 Constant surface speed
G codes are instructions describing machine tool
movement. A G code quite often requires other *G97 02 Constant RPM
information such as feed rate or axes coordinates The G98 05 Feed per minute
FANUC standard has a large selection of G codes, all of
which may not be available on all the machines. There *G99 05 Feed per revolution
are three G code system: A, B and C. System A is the When the power is turned ‘ON’ or ‘Reset button’ is
most commonly used. Following is the list of some pressed, the ‘G’ codes with * mark become active.
common G codes of system A:
List of M codes
Code Group Description
The list given below is a typical representative list .All of
*G00 01 Rapid traverse these may not be available on all the machines. On the
G01 01 Linear interpolation other hand, some machine may use some extra code
also. Note that most of the m codes, except a few such
G02 01 CW circular interpolation as M00, M01, M02, M03, M04, M05, M06, M08, M09,
G03 01 CCW circular interpolation M19, M30, M98 and M99,are machine specific. Refer to
the specific machine manual for the list of available M
G04 00 Dwell time codes and their functions. M codes are defined and
G10 00 Offset setting by program implemented by the machine tool builder. The control
manufactured defines only G codes which are same on
G20 06 Inch data input all the machines with the same control.
G21 06 mm data input M00 Program stop
G27 00 Reference point (Home) M01 Optional stop
return check
M02 End of program execution
G28 00 Reference point (Home) return
M03 Spindle forward(CW , as viewed towards
G30 00 Return to second the tail-stock)
reference point(Home)
M04 Spindle reverse (C CW , as viewed
G32 01 Thread cutting
towards the tail-stock)
G34 01 Variable lead thread cutting
M05 Spindle stop
G40 07 Tool nose radius
compensation cancel M06 Auto tool change V (not needed on recent
controls)
G41 07 Tool nose radius
compensation left M08 Coolant ON
G42 07 Tool nose radius M09 Coolant OFF
compensation right
M10 Chuck open (for machines with automatic
G50 00 Work coordinate change / chuck)
maximum spindle speed
setting M11 Chuck close
G54-G59 14 Work piece coordinate M13 Spindle forward and coolant ON /sub-spindle
system (G54 is default) on

Production & Manufacturing : Turner (NSQF Level-5) - RT for Ex - 4.2.116 & 4.2.117 31
M14 Spindle reverse and coolant ON/sub OFF Example
M19 Spindle orientation O1203;
M25 Quill extend N1;
M26 Quill retract G28 U 0.0 W 0.0;
M29 DNC mode G50 S 1200 T 0300;
M30 Program reset and rewind ________________ ;
________________; Partprogram
M38 Door open (for machines with automatic
door)
________________ ;
M39 Door close
M01;
M40 Parts catcher extend
M41 Parts catcher retract
N2;
M43 Swarf conveyor forward
G28 U 0.0 W 0.0;
M44 Swarf conveyor reverse
G50 S 1200 T 0200;
M45 Swarf conveyor stop
________________ ;
M48 Lock feed and speed at 100%
________________ ; Part program
M49 Cancel M48 (default)
M52 Threading pull out angle=90° (default) ________________ ;
M53 Cancel M52

M56 Internal chucking M01;
M57 External chucking M30;
M62 Auxiliary output-1 on Decimal point input
M63 Auxiliary output-2 on Decimal point is used to input the units like Distance,
Time, and Angle .
M64 Auxiliary output-1 off
X 25.0 is use for input the distance value . X25.0 equal to
M65 Auxiliary output-2 off 25mm or 25 inch.
M66 Wait for input -1 G04 X1.0 is used to input the dwell time value.X1.0 is
M67 Wait for input-2 equal to one second.
M68 Turret indexing (tool changes) onLy at A45 is used for input the angle value.A90 is equal to 45°
home position The following are the same meaning, in the case of
M69 Turret indexing anywhere decimal point.
M70 Mirror in X on X20.
M76 Wait for input -1 to go low X20.0 All are same meaning of
X20.00 movement of X 20 mm
M77 Wait for input -2 to go low
X20.000
M80 Mirror in X off
If the Decimal point is eliminated. The system read in
M98 Subprogram call microns.
M99 Return to the calling program X 50 = 0.05mm
Part program X 500 = 0.5mm
A set of commands given to the NC for machine motion X 5000 = 5.0mm
is called a program. A program is composed of number
of Blocks. Part program is use to specify the machining Decimal point can be input for the following addresses.
process for the cutting tools. X, Z, U, W, A, B, C, I, J, K, P, R, Q, F.
Note:
1 micron=0.001mm
1 mm=1000 microns

Production & Manufacturing : Turner (NSQF Level-5) - RT for Ex - 4.2.116 & 4.2.117
1 inch=25.4mm Example
1 sec=1000 millisec N010 G00 Z50 M05(Spindle stops and rapidly moves up)
Structure or format of a part program Table common word addresses used in word address
format
The complete part program for a given component
consists of a beginning code of %.A part program consists Address Function
of large number of blocks each representing an operation
to be carried out in the machining of the part. The words
N Sequence number to identify
in each block are usually given in the following order.
a block.
- Sequence number(N-word)
G Preparatory word that
- Preparatory word(G-word)
prepares the controller for
- Coordinates (X-,Y-,Z- words for linear axes; A-, B-, C- instruction given in the block.
words for rotational axes)
X, Y, Z Coordinate data for three
- Feed rate (F-word)
linear axes.
- Spindle speed(S-word)
U, V, W Coordinate data for
% (Program start)
incremental moves in turning
O3642 (Program number)
in the X,Y and Z directions
respectively.
Blocks N010 ---------
-----------------
A, B, C Coordinate data for three
-----------------
rotational axes X, Y and Z.
N100 M02; (Program end)
R Radius of arc, used in
- Tool selection(T-word) circular interpolation.
- Miscellaneous command (M-word)
I, J, K. Coordinate values of arc
- End -of-block(EOB symbol) centre, corresponding to X, Y
The structure of part program used in Fanuc controller is and Z-axes respectively.
given below.
F Feed rate per minute or
Program number revolution in either inches or
Each of the program that is stored in the controller millimeters.
memory requires an identification. It is used while running
and editing of the programs directly from the control S Spindle rotation speed.
console. This identification is specified in terms of a
program number with ‘O’ word address. The number can T Tool selection, used for
be a maximum of four digits. machine tools with automatic
tool changer or turrets.
Sequence number (N-word)
Each block in a part program always starts with a block D Tool diameter word used for
number, which is used as identification of the block. It is offsetting the tool.
programmed with a ‘N’ word address.
P It is used to store cutter radius
Coordinate function data in offset register.
The coordinate values are specified using the word It defines first contour block
address such as X, Y, Z, U, V, W, I, J, K, etc. All these number in canned cycles.
word address are normally signed along with decimal
Q It defines last contour block
point depending upon the resolution available in the
number in canned cycles.
machine tool.
Comments M Miscellaneous function.
Parentheses are used to add comments in the program M01 - Optional stop
to clarify the individual function that are used to add
comments in the program .When the controller This function is same as ‘M00’, But it will stop only when
encounters the opening parenthesis. It ignores all the Optional stop button in the Machine panel is ‘ON’. Then
information till it reaches the closing parenthesis. cycle is started to continue by pressing Cycle Start Button.

M02 - Programme end 2. G00 Z-----------;
The code is inserted at the end of the program. The 3. G00 X------ Z----;
machine stops permanently. Spindle rotation, Feed of
axis and coolant discharge all stops. The system is reset G00 - code used for the following operations
by pressing Reset button in the machine panel and new
cycle is started by pressing Cycle start. 1 Machining start
M03 - Spindle ON clockwise Making the tool approach the work piece.
By programming ‘M03’ the spindle is enabled to run in 2 During machining

the clockwise direction.
Moving the tool to next command position when
M04 - Spindle ON counter clockwise it is not in conduct with the work piece.
By programming M04 the spindle is enabled to run in the 3 Machine end

counter clockwise direction.
Separating the tool from the work piece.
M05 - Spindle stop
G01 - Linear interpolation (straight cutting)
By programming ‘M05’ the spindle rotation is stopped.
The cutter moves at specified feed rate. The feed rate is
M08 - Coolant ON specified by address 'F' in the program.
By programming ‘M08’ coolant motor switches ‘ON’. Format
M09 - Coolant OFF 1 G01 X------- F-----;
By programming ‘M09’ coolant motor switches ‘OFF’. Application
M30 - Program end & rewind a Facing
When CNC reads the code ‘M30’ the main program End b Grooving etc.
and Rewind . That is the CNC control returns the cursor
to the starting line of the program. 2 G01 Z-----F-------;
G - Codes (preparatory functions) Application
G codes take active part in part program execution and a. Straight turning
are programmed by letter G followed by two digits.
b. Drilling etc
G codes once programmed, remains active until another.
G code of the same group is programmed, after which 3 G01 X-----Z------F------;
the previous one gets cancelled, are said to be modal.
Application
G codes which remains active only in the block in which
it is programmed, is said to be Blockwise active (or) one a. Taper turning
shot G code. b. Chamfering
Where ‘F’ is the cutting feedrate specified in mm/Rev.
G00 - Rapid traverse
Function F
The Tool moves at a rapid (fast) traverse rate with linear
interpolation. The rapid traverse rate depends upon the The feed rate is used to move the tool from one point to
machine type (for example maximum speed in a two another point with constant feedrate. Feed is normally is
wheeler is 80-120 Km/hr depends on type of make). given mm/rev. or mm/min. The rapid traverse rate and
feed rate both are controlled by feed override switches in
This can be used in air movement like positioning, the machine panel.
relieving, non contact with work piece.
Example
Format F Four digits number following
the address F
1. G00 X ---------;

G01 X 50.0 Z -50.0 F0.1; X -axis & Z - axis move with Example
feed 0.1mm/Rev.
G04 U 1.0 (Dwell of 1.0 second)
Circular interpolation (Fig.1)
Note
G02-Circular interpolation clockwise direction
Decimal point is not available in ‘P’
G03-Circular interpolation Anti clockwise direction
Ex. Dwell of 2.5 seconds.
G04 U 2.5
G04 X 2.5
G04 P 2500
G28 - Zero Return (Home Position, First Reference

value)
Format
It is an inherent position on a machine axis. Automatic
Reference Point Return is a function to return each axis
G02⎫ to this inherent position automatically.
⎬ X − − Z − − R − − F − −;
G03⎭ 1 G28 U0
OR 2 G28 W0
G02⎫ 3 G28 U0 W0
⎬ X − − Z − − R − − F − −;
G03⎭ G30 - Second reference return
It is same as G28.But is to settled before First Reference

Where
Value (G28). It is called Temporary Reference Value.
XZ - End point of Arc
1 G30 U0
IK - Distance between start point of arc to
center point of arc in X & Z axis 2 G30 W0
R - Radius of the arc 3 G30 U0 W0
F - Feed
G50 - Co-ordinate value setting & maximum
spindle speed setting
Command I and K specify the distance from the start
point of arc to the center point of arc must be specified 1 G50 X---Z---;
incrementally even under Absolute mode and sign (+) or
Ex. G50 X 300.0 Z 150.0;
(-) for Values I & K is determined by the direction.
2 G50 X---Z---S---;
Example
Ex. G50 X300.0 Z 150.0 S 3000
G02 X 40.0 Z-5.0 R 5.0 F 0.1
G96-Constant Surface Speed Control
G03 X 40.0 Z-5.0 R5.0 F 0.1 (Cutting Speed Specification)
Where, R=Radius The G96 is used with an "S"-Function.

The G96 is used when the cutting speed is specified.
G04-Dwell
When G96 command is used the spindle speed is
If a block with G04 is real during automatic operation, the changed automatically, as the cutting diameter is
feed is stopped for the time followed U, X, P, and then changed. That is for smaller work piece of its cutting
the next block will be executed. diameter, the spindle speed becomes higher.
Format Calculation for cutting speed
G04 (U, X, P) time π DN

V= = mtr/min
1000

Where the number on offset screen (WEAR)
V = cutting speed
2 Tool Geometry offset
D = Diameter of the work piece in ‘millimeter’
N = spindle speed in rpm The distance from top of the tool fixed on turret at machine
zero point to the work piece zero point is input as tool
G97-Constant Surface Speed Control Cancel (Spindle geometry offset with this the CNC recognizes the position
Speed Specification) of work piece zero point. Input the offset amount to the
same number as the number on offset screen
The G97 is used when the spindle rotating speed is (Geometry).
specified.
Ex. G97 S300 M03.
With this spindle rotates at 300 rpm.
For the following should use G97 always

a. Threading
b. Tapping
c. Drilling etc
Tool function (Fig.2) Tool geometry offset (Fig.3)
This offset amount is not need to be cancelled after ev-

ery tool use because the next input of tool geometry off-
set cancels former offset automatically.
Tool wear offset
The tool wear offset is used to modify the finished work

piece dimension in order to keep them within their
Address: T tolerances. The programmed path is shifted by the offset
amount parallel to X and Z axes. The offset amount is
A four digits number address T Specifies the tool number input to "TOOL OFFSET /WEAR".
and tool offset number.
When the control reads T0101 and executes, the tool is
shifted by amount which is input in the tool wear offset
Format
number (X-0.600, Z0.300).
Example : T01 01 After the machining the tool is returned near the starting
point and if T0100 (Tool wear offset cancel) is executed,
Tool Number it returns to the starting point before offset. The same
movement is executed for other tools, only to assign tool
The left most two digits specify the number of tool. wear offset numbers which are required on the
programming and the amount to be offset should be
Offset Number decided by the operator.
The right most two digits specify the number of tool off- Procedure for setting work coordinate system (Fig.4)
set.
Step 1 Make sure that the component is securely
clamped.
Types of Offsets
Step 2 Now bring one of the tool near the face of the
There are two types offsets: job.
Step 3 I. Select MDI mode.
1 Wear offset
II. Press PROGRAM button.
2 Geometrical offset
Step 4 Enter S500
1 Wear offset Step 5 Select handle/jog mode and select the
appropriate feed.
The tool is moved adding the wear amount to part pro-
Step 6 Rotate the spindle in CW or CCW depending
gram. Input the offset amount to the same number as
on the type of the tool.
Step 7 Light facing out be taken up to the center.
Step 8 After the finish cut, move the tool back in x only.
do not disturb Z-axis.
All the travel commands for tool are mean their co-
Step 9 Now switch off the spindle. ordinate value from the work piece zero point (X0, Z0).
Step 10 Press MENU offset. The wear geometrical
and work shift are displayed on CRT. Position X Z
Step 11 Now, press GEOM soft key and position the 1 30.0 0.0
cursor using cursor movement buttons to be
2 30.0 - 10.0
required offset number corresponding to the
tool used. 3 40.0 - 10.0
Step 12 Press measure(m) key and press Z. Enter 4 40.0 - 25.0
Zero(MZ0).
5 50.0 - 25.0
Step 13 Now rotate the spindle in appropriate direction
6 50.0 - 45.0
and machine on OD
Step 14 Do not move X. In the above figure, points 1 to 6 can be specified as
follows in absolute dimension programming.
Step 15 Take Z away from the job.
Incremental method (Fig.6)
Step 16 Stop the spindle.
Step 17 Press MENU OFFSET PB. In this system, tool move from the previous point. In the
incremental programming the address "U" (diametrical)
Step 18 Press 'GEOM' soft key.
for "X" axis and the address "W" for "Z" axis are used to
Step 19 Position the cursor to the required tool offset distinguish incremental program from the absolute
number. program.
Step 20 Press M….X…. The incremental command should have the direction (+/
-) and distance from currently specified point to next
Step 21 Input "The OD dimension measured. The X-
command point.
The X-offset for the said tool is set.
Step 22 Repeat the procedure for all tools.
Step 23 After taking offset, select MDI and issue S0.
Programming method
In CNC for programming in Lathe, Absolute Command

and Incremental Command are available.
Absolute method (Fig.5)
In absolute dimensions programming, all the points of

the tool is coming from the datum point (or) zero point. In
CNC Lathe machines "X" and "Z" is the absolute input. Example
The "X" means diameter of work piece and the "Z" means
distance from the finished end surface of work piece. In the Fig.6 the points, 1 to 6 can be specified as follows
in incremental dimension programming.

Position U W – Give in the program (finish turning and boring). G41
(Tool Left) or G42 (Tool Right), The position of tool
1 30.0 0.0 viewing along the traveling direction and G40 (Tool
2 0.0 -10.0 Nose Radius Compensation Cancel). (Fig.9)
3 10.0 0.0
4 0.0 -15.0
5 10.0 0.0
6 0.0 -20.0
The tool path for finish cutting of a profile can be easily
derived by offsetting the nose radius. However, at the
beginning and end of inclined path, it is necessary to make
calculation based on simple trigonometry for the offset – Input nose radius of tool to R in geometry offset.
point from the original contour. By using the cutter
compensation, the need for all complex calculations will – Input the imaginal nose position to T in geometry offset.
be eliminated. The programming for the finishing cutting (Figs 10&11)
will be the direct path of the actual contour to be machined.
(Fig.7)
However, even after compensating the nose radius, the

point of contact between the tool nose and the work piece
will still be along the nose radius periphery which will be
changing depending upon the orientation of the tool with
respect to the cut surface. For example, the tool will leave
a small amount of metal along the inclined surface, when
the tool nose radius compensation is not active. For this
purpose, the turning centre controllers will provide the
necessary correction.
If the correction is active, then the controller automatically
compensates and removes the unwanted material.
However, in order for the correction to be active, the
controller will have to know the correct orientation of the
nose radius with respect to the machining surface. For
this purpose, nose radius direction is included in the
tool-offset registers.
Tool nose radius compensation (Fig.8)
The following data's must be specified to carry out

automatic tool nose radius compensation, to obtain
required profile exactly.

Part programming
• define the part programming
• list the APT programming sequence.
Part programming translation of APT program; automatically generate the

absolute locations of paths for repetitive jobs, with the
Definition wise "The part program is a sequence of help of a program.
instructions which describe the work which has to be done
Procedure for developing manual part programme
on a part, in the form required by a computer under the
control of an NC computer program".
The part programming requires an NC programmer to
Actually, part programming for NC production consists consider some fundamental elements before the actual
of the collection of all data required to produce the part, programming steps of a part takes place. The elements
the calculation of the tool path etc. in a standard format, to be considered are as follows:
which is in the form acceptable to its MCU or in other
- Type of dimensioning system
words, it is the task of preparing a program sheet. All
data is fed into the NC system using a standardized - Axis designation
perforated or punched tape. Hence, the methods of part - NC words
programming can be of two types depending upon the
two techniques employed to produce a punched tape: - Standard G and M codes
- Manual part programming - Tape programming format
- Computer aided part programming - Machine tool zero point setting
Manual part programming Automatically programmed tools (APT)
In manual part programming, the data required for Introduction

machining, is written in a standard format known as
program manuscripts. Each horizontal line in a manuscript Computer Aided Part Programming (CAPP) offer solution
represents a "block" of information. to these type of complex programmes. It makes use of
repeated patterns of events which occur often on most of
Computer aided part programming the engineering components.
If the component requires a great deal of machining such With the advent of programming languages the job of
as in case of milling machines or contouring application, part programmer has reduced to:
calculation of cutter paths requires more calculations and i. Define the geometry of work piece.
sometimes if a machining centre is used then selecting
different tool for drilling, tapping, boring and milling makes ii. Specify the sequence of operations and tool path.
all this part programming more tedious and time The job of computer in CAPP consists of the following
consuming. More mistakes are also likely to occur. Thus, steps
we use a general purpose computer as an add, to reduce
labour involved in part programming. Also one of the a. Input translation
high level language such as APT (Automatically b. Arithmetic calculation
Programmed Tools), ADAPT, SPLIT, 2CL, AUTO STOP
is used for writing a computer programme, which has c. Cutter offset computation
English like statements. A translator known as 'compiler' d Post processor
program is used to translate it in a form acceptable to
MCU. Programming languages
The work load of a part programmer is greately reduced, Different types of languages available for NC programing
because he has to do only following things: are:
a. Define the work part geometry by defining it in the APT
form line segments, circles, arcs etc.
b. If there is any repetition work such as drilling a number APT is an acronym for Automatically Programmed Tools.
of equal size and equal speed holes, then only defining It is the oldest and largest Computer Aided Programming
the dimensions of single hole. Language is developed by MIT. It is used for 5 axis control
of the 'tool' in three dimensional space. The tool can be a
c. Specifying the operation sequence and the relative drafting pencil, a point spray nozzle or even a cutting flame
position of repetitive job as in case of (b) with other torch.
locations.
This language is nowadays used for positioning systems
A computer aided programming method would do the as well as will perform the mathematical calculations
required for complex continuous path surface - General information used to identify the part such
applications. as PART NO, diameter of the cutter tool with
CUTTER/ .0975. These type of information is
ADAPT
required by post processor for calculation and
identifying purpose, coming under miscellaneous
It is an 'Adaptation of APT. It is a smaller version of APT information. NO POST, CLRPRNT, INTOL and
OUTTOL are other statements coming under this
used on small computer. It is very mach suitable for 2½
category.
axis control. - Geometrical statements that define the geometry
of the tool movements with reference to work part.
AUTOMAP The starting of these statements is from defining
points by POINT statement. These all are almost
Another subset of APT used for Numerical control self-explanatory.
programming.
- Movement statements directing the sequence of
EXAPT movement of tool for following a particular path.
- Auxilliary statement for setting speed, feed and tool
Extended subset of APT using same instruction with change etc.
additional boring and turning data also. Sometimes having
facility to automatically calculate feeds and speeds. c The program either typed with keyboard on computer
or punched on cards or tape.
PROMPT d In some cases, the computer produces the computed
tool positions.
Interactive language mainly designed for lathes,
machining centres and flame cutters etc. e The final computer output after post processing is
given on magnetic tape or punched card.
The APT language f This magnetic tape or punched cards are fed into
Reader Unit, of machine to start machining.
The APT language is the NC language. It is also used as
the computer program which performs the calculations The syntax rules for APT are very near to FORTRAN
to generate cutter positions based on APT statements. language. It uses alphabets from A, B….YZ and numerals
0, 1, 2, 3….8, 9. Special symbols used are: '/' used
These statements are given as under: sometimes for separating a single statements into two
parts ',' (comma) for separating different entities.
i Geometry Statements / Definition statements (Define
the geometric elements of the work piece). '()' used for nested definition , Arithmetic operators are
'+' (add), '-' (subtract), '*' (multiply). '/' (division), '**' for
ii Motion statements/movement statements (Define the exponentiation. The symbols used for defining geometric
path taken by the cutting tool). elements are:
iii Post processor statements (Define the feeds and - POINT
speeds and to actuate other features of the machine).
- LINE
iv Auxiliary Statements/Miscellaneous statements
(Define the part, tool tolerance etc). It is a 3-D system - CIRCLE
that can be used to control up to five axes. This can - PLANE
be used to control a variety of different machining
operations. - CENTER
APT programming sequence - RADIUS

Parametric subroutines
There are approximately 400 words in APT vocabulary.
The operations of developing a programme in APT are Consider a component as shown in Fig 1, which has a
followed in a sequence as follows: repetition feature namely square recess.
a Labelling the part. The part on the drawing is divided
into some basic geometric elements like lines, planes
and circles. Different elements are given different
labels and names. These elements are also needed
to be specified by their Cartesian co-ordinates.
b Prepare the program manuscript. The programme in
APT is then transferred on manuscript paper; the four
type of instructions are written in a program:

Writing a programme for such a component would involve Fig 5 (c) Nesting of two subroutines.
making a cycle of some moves which can be referred to
as a "routine" for producing just one recess.
"A subroutine is a portion of a programme, complete in
itself, which is stored in computer after programming
once. It is called with required data when required again
in a program". It is usually placed at the end of main
programme. Consider another example in Fig 2.
The table given below shows the difference between

canned cycle, loops and subroutines:
S.no Canned cycle Loops Subroutine

1 Consist of some These are, These are,
very common repeating some moves
(general) moves some moves (operations)on
of different m/cs on a a component
coded. component for a variable
A group of 5 holes occur in same geometric pattern. A for a fixed number of
simple solution may be giving a D0-loop, but making no. of times times.
'subroutine' will simply further the programming by placing
the single pattern in 'Subroutine', even if the holes at 2 They don’t allow They allow to They allow to
location 1 are of different size than at 2. optimisation of change only make their
program in their the no. of own cycles
The major difference between canned cycles and times movements with different
subroutines is that canned cycles are more of fixed type fixed for operation.operations are parametric
and they cater for easy programming of machine features to be repeated. dimensions at
that are often required, hence are more suitable for different
general situations. But if sometimes a part requires a locations i.e.
pattern, that is required a no. of times on a particular user defined
component, then a subroutine is the best solution. The carried cycles.
parametric subroutine is useful for turning, roughing outs,
thread cutting, keyway milling, drilling etc. Where a
sequence of motions is evolved. A few of them are given Nesting
in Fig 3 below:
The best way of writing an efficient part programme is to
Fig 3 (a) Turning subroutine place one or more loops in a subroutine i.e. repeating
some pattern at a fixed relative position within a subrou-
tine program. This is known as "Nesting" of subroutines.
This is explained with the help of Fig 3 and Fig 4.
Normally the machine movements (operations) are written
in a subroutine without dimensions and while calling the
subroutine, the X, Y, Z etc. Parameters are passed simply.
The general format for writing a subroutine is:
1 Subroutine
Fig 4 (b) Milling subroutine 2 Program information
3 End of subroutine
Defining a subroutine
a The subroutine is not defined by a subroutine number

but is simply added with a sequence number follow-
ing the main program.
b All blocks in a subroutine are numbered from 'N001'
onwards as if independent program.

Again some G - codes or M-codes are to be assigned
N004 Y - 02000 At location (2)
for:
N005 X + 02000 At location (3)
i Jump to a subroutine location (Call a sub) by a code
e.g. G25, M98, G37. N006 Y + 02000 At location (4)
ii Start of subroutine. N007 G80 Cancel cycle
iii End of subroutine e.g. G26, M99, G39. N008 G00 X+05000 Move to next relative
Y-01000 position B
L code is used to describe how many times a
subroutine is to be repeated. N009 M99 Return back to main
prog.
For our reference purpose, we will use M98,
M99 for respective coding of Begin, calling and Explanation: (main programme)
End of subroutine.
Ex: Make use of subroutines for making part N001 & N002 : Setting feed, speed & Tool.
programme of part shown in Fig 6. N003 : Locate tool above position 'A'.
The thickness of plate is 5 mm. R-plane may be assumed N004 : Call the subroutine for "drilling final
at 2 mm above plate surface. Z-0 at plate surface. holes and locating drill at a distance
of 50 mm".
Main programme
N005 : Call subroutine for two times for at
N001 G00 G71 G80 G90 Metric mode cancel 70mm (i.e. at location 50 mm apart)
and 120 mm (i.e. at
G80 G90 any previous cycle.
location 50 mm + 50 mm apart)
Set absolute mode
N006 : Cancel cycle
N002 S3500 F105 M06 Set speed feed,
replace N007 : Retract tool
T1 M03 tool and start spindle N008 : End
N003 G00 X02000 Set position to ‘A’ (Subroutine)
Y02000 M08
N001 : Incremental mode
N004 P009 M98 Call the subroutine of
N002 : Drill here itself because drill located
drilling 5 holes, at
at centre of pattern.
program location ‘P009’
Z - depth = (Plate thickness + chip
N006 G90 G80 Z00000 Absolute mode, cancel
clearance)
M09 cycle coolant off
= 5 mm + 0.3 dia of drill (6mm)
N007 G00 X00000 Rapid to (0,0) spindle
Y00000 M05 stop = 5 + 0.3 x 6 = 5 + 2 = 7 mm (appx)
N008 M30 End of programme R = -2 mm (given)

N003 : Drill by moving on path (1) i.e.
: 009 Start of subrouting
X ← X - 10
N001 G91 Set incremental mode Y ← Y + 10
N002 G81 Z00700 R-00200 Drill hole at that very N004 : Drill hole following path (2), i.e.
location i.e.centre X←same
Y←Y - 20
N003 X-01000 Y+01000 Drill hole at location (1)

N005 : Drill hole following path (3) There are four components a,b,c,&d
X ← X + 20 1. ‘a’ has two diameter ø1 and ø2
Y = same
2. ‘b’has ø2 portion increased in length
N006 : Drill hole following path (4), i.e.
X = same 3. ‘c’ has ø1 portion increased in diameter
Y←Y + 20 4. ‘d’ has ø2 portion eliminated
N007 : Cancel cycle don't drill more Mirror image
N008 : Locate drill at 50 mm apart on x-axis
and 10 mm below Ylast position, i.e. It reverses simply the sign + ve or - ve of an axis direction
as in Fig 9
X ←X + 50
Y ← Y - 10
N009 : Return
MACROS
Macros are another type of subroutines which are given

an identify and stored within memory or macrofile used
T h e r
for machining a complete component. A macro may have
fixed dimensions or it may have parametric variables.
This is also sometimes referred to as only 'Parametric
subroutines'. These are very useful when programming
a family of parts that have same shape but vary in size as
shown in Fig 8
Calling the centre line of this part as X0, Y0 the pattern is

machined. Then mirror imaging along X-axis by calling
subroutine and then mirroring both components along
Y-axis to get final shapes.

Operational modes
• state the various operational modes
• state the work piece zero point.
• state the tool zero point
• explain the machine reference point
• list the various types of offset
• prepare the part program for facing, plain turning, step turning, chamfering turning, radius turning and
drilling.
Operational modes by moving the slides so that the cutting tool is placed in
Single block mode the desired position in relation to the work pieces. This is
known as floating zero point.
This mode will function when the mode switch is set in
AUTO mode only. If we switch on the single block switch Machine zero point or machine datum (M)
and push the cycle start button, then the single block in It is a fixed point on a machine specified by the
the programme only will be executed. For the execution manufacturer. This point is the zero point for the
of the next block then again cycle start button should be coordinate system of the machine controller. In turning
pressed. If the single block switch is in off position, then centre, the machine zero point is generally at the centre
the program will be executed continuously. of the spindle nose face as shown in Fig 1. In machining
Auto mode centres, it is either fixed at centre of the table or a point
along the edge of the traverse range.
For this mode, the mode switch is set in AUTO mode. In
this mode the program will be executed continuously one
block after another block.
In this mode if we press the cycle start button, the current
program in the CRT panel will be executed.
Manual mode: MDI mode
MDI mode means manual data input. With this mode,
we can input the program command manually and
execute the program. Work piece zero point (W)
Jog mode This point determines the work piece coordinate system
Jog mode is used for moving the turret in X and Z direction in relation to the machine zero point as shown in Fig 2.
.After selecting jog mode if we press 'X+' axis button, the This point is chosen by the part programmer and input to
turret will move in 'X+' direction. In the same manner we the machine controller. The position of this point may be
can move in the ‘Z’ direction also. chosen in such a way that the dimensions of the work
piece drawing can be easily converted into coordinate
Incremental jog mode values. For turned components, it is placed along the
This mode is used to move the turret in micron level. By spindle axis in line with the right or left end face of the
pressing the axis button, in this mode, we can move the work piece. It is also known as program zero point.
button in 0.001, 0.01, 0.1, 1 mm range.
Edit mode
This mode is used to edit the program. In this mode edit
key should be in 'ON' position, to input a program.
Zero points and reference points
Zero point
In CNC machines, tool movements are controlled by
coordinate systems. The origin of the co-ordinate system
is considered as zero point. In some of the CNC
machines, the zero point may be located at a fixed place
and cannot be changed. This is known as fixed zero point.
Some other machines, a zero point may be established
Tool zero point (T) Operation devices
When machining a work piece, the tool must be controlled Edit alphanumeric keys
in precise relationship with the work piece along the When
Used to edit the part program, tool offsets, work offsets
machining a work piece, the tool must be controlled in
etc..
precise relationship with the work piece along the
machining path. This requires a point in the tool turret be Feed rate override switch
taken as reference point, which is known as tool zero Enables manual overriding of the programmed feed rate
point. during part machining. Can be varied between 0% and
At the tools in the tool turret have different shapes and 120% of the programmed feed rate, in steps of 10%.
sizes, the Offset distance between the tool zero point and Rapid rate override switch
work piece zero point is measured and entered in to the
computer. This known as tool offset setting. Enables manual overriding of the rapid traverse rate
during rapid motions. Can be varied between 0% and
Machine reference point (R) 100% of the programmed feed rate, in steps if 25%.
Machine reference point is also known as home position Spindle speed override switch
as shown in Fig 3. It is used for calibrating the measuring
system of the sides and tool movements. It is determined Enables manual overriding of the spindle speed during
by the manufactures. part machining.
Feed hold
Stops the motion of all axes temporarily during machining.
Cycle start
Machine rest
Stops all functions being executed, like spindle rotation,
axes motion, etc.
Emergency stop
Used when the machine is to be halted suddenly, like in
case of tool breakage. Pressing it shuts down all systems
The value of the machine reference coordinates (XMR, of the machine except the console-axes drives, spindle
ZMR) is fixed and cannot be changed by the user. The drive, coolant pump, hydraulic power pack etc.
positioning of the reference point is accurately
Single block ON/OFF
predetermined in every transverse axis by the trip dogs
and limit switches. When OFF, execution of the part program is automatic
and continuous. When ON, part program is executed
Programming details (Fig 4)
block-wise. In block-wise execution the cycle start button
------------- This line indicates the tool moves at rapid must be pressed to execute each block.
feed (G00)
Coolant ON/OFF Controls the coolant.
------------- This line indicates the tool moves at
Data input/output
linear interpolation (G01)
Used to transfer data between the machine and an
external device like a PC. Data that can be transferred is
part program, PLC data, tool offset and work offset.
Chip conveyor forward backward Moves the chip
conveyor.
Dry run
Sets the Dry run mode ON or OFF. The Dry run mode is
used to check the part program by executing it without
actually cutting a part. During this mode commanded
feedrate in the part program is not effective, and the axes
moves at a fixed Dry run feed rate. Dry run feed rate is
typically 1000 mm/min to 5000mm/min.
Machine lock and auxiliary function lock
Sets the Machine lock mode ON or OFF. The machine
lock mode is used to check the part program by executing
it without any axes motions and miscellaneous functions

like tool change, spindle rotation, etc. The screen display Ks=1800 N/mm² and a machine efficiency factor=0.75
appears as during normal execution. are used.
Operational modes
v .s .A.
− Auto mode P = kw
25
− Edit mode
III) Approximate value for surface finish
− MDI mode (Manual data input)
− Jog mode 2
s 1000
Profile depth R t = k
− MPG mode (manual pulse generation) data 8r
− Input/output mode The constant k is dependant on two factors, the work
− Zero return mode piece material and how well the cutting edge profile is
reproduced on the work piece. In normal machine steel
I) Selection of tools, speed feed & depth of cut k=1.4, Surface finish Ra = Rt/3.5.
D = work piece diameter mm Surface Ra = s2.50/R
V = cutting speed m/min IV) Effect of nose radius and feed rate on the surface
S = Feed mm/r finish requirements
N = RPM r/min The table below gives the recommended maximum

values of feed rate for finishing normal steels, when
A = Depth of cut mm turning materials which give rise to edge build-up, the
N = Efficiency for example 0.75 cutting speed must be sufficiently, high to avoid such
tendencies, if possible When turning highly abrasive
Ks = Specific cutting force N/mm2 materials, the feed rates should be reduced by about 20%
V = Metal removal rate cm3/min .To convert Ra to CLA multiply by 40.
P = power required kW Nose radius, mm

R = nose radius mm 0.2 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6 2.4
K = Constant for example 1.4
Ra value Feed rate, mm/rev
Rt = Profile depth μm
0.6 0.05 0.07 0.10 0.12 0.14 0.17
Ra = Surface finish μm
1.6 0.08 0.12 0.16 0.20 0.23 0.29
RPM v . 1000 3.2 0.12 0.26 0.23 0.29 0.33 0.40

n= =r/min
πD 6.3 0.23 0.33 0.40 0.47 0.57
8.0 0.40 0.49 0.57 0.69
Cutting speed π .D.n
v= m/min
1000 A large nose radius will usually result in a better surface
finish, provided that the cutting edge is sufficiently sharp
Metal removal rate V = V.S.A cm3/min and that the larger nose radius does not give rise to
vibrations. It is recommended that the depth of cut for
v . s . A. k s finishing should be more than the nose radius of the
Power required P = kW chosen insert. Fillet, etc on the component often restrict
6 0 0 0η
the choice of nose radius on finishing.
V) Cutting speed-wear life
II) Approximate value for power required
Providing the machining conditions are good i.e. stability
The above formula for power is exact but the specific of the work piece and tool, it is possible to increase the
cutting force ks is included. The ks-value is hard to set wear life of the insert.
because it is dependent on many factors. Such as work
piece materials, chip breaker, cutting rake, feed setting To achieve longer wear life, the cutting speed must be
angle chip thickness. reduced. Multiply the recommended cutting speeds by
the following factors
A simplified formula for approximate power required is
shown below, Based on the most common type of The cutting speeds given in this guide are for 30 min.wear
application-medium rough to rough turning of normal life. If higher surface speeds are required that wear life
steel, with a light-cutting edge-a specific cutting force. will decrease.

Approx. wear life
in minutes Factor
* 15 1.25 x V
* 30 1.00 x V
45 0.89 x V
VI) Edge condition factors (Fig.5)

- Fixed conditions
- Material specification
- Amount of material to be removed
Once the fixed conditions have been considered, the
- Component dimension
tooling and data parameters can be variable conditions
- Component shape
- Select carbide grade
- Hardness
- Select radius
- Surface condition
- Select insert shape
- Operation
- Select insert size
- Finish requirement
- Select insert rake
- Type of machine
- Select tool size
- Condition of machine
- Select tool-holder shank size
- Power available
- Select tool-holder style
- Chucking or clamping method
Now the cutting speed, depth of cut and the feed over
revolution can be selected.

Types of offsets
Objective: At the end of this lesson you shall be able to
• list the types of offsets used in CNC machine
• trace the tool path from the given program.
Types of offsets The procedure for geometrical offset is given below

Clamp the job in the chuck of the machine
There are three types of offsets used in CNC machine
operation. Set the tool in the required order in the machine turret
They are: Select the jog mode or MPG mode
i Work offset (or) zero offset Select the first tool and touch the face of the job
ii Geometrical offset Check with a piece of paper whether the contact of tool
with the job is proper
iii Wear offset
Now take the geometrical offset page and enter under
Work offset (or) zero offset.
the tool number the command MZ 0 (zero)
Every manufacturer fix a reference point on the spindle
This command will clear any previous values and will
of the machine according to the design of manufacturing.
measure the current tools tool offset in Z axis
The tool will take the command and move with reference
Now touch the tool to a know diameter on the component
to this machine reference point.
Again in the tool-geometry page enter the command MX
To make the tool to move with reference to the job, work
(The value of the diameter) for example if the diameter is
offset or zero offset has to be taken.
50mm then MX50
Procedure for taking work offset
Follow the same procedure for the remaining tools
Clamp the job in the chuck of the machine. enter the MZ and MX commands for various tools in the
under respective tool number.
Set the tool in the required order set in the machine turret.
Wear offset
Set the jog mode or the tool and touch the face of the job.
With the use of a paper check the proper contact of tool Because of long running the tool tip may wear out and
with the face. the dimension of the job may increase or decrease from
Now select the work co-ordinate system from G54 to G59. the original programmed dimension
Enter the z value in the selected work co-ordinate system To recitify this defect wear offset is used
Now touch the diameter with the same tool. Procedure for entering wear offset
Check the contact of the tool with the job using a paper. If the programmed size is X40.49 and the machine size
is 40.44 in this 0.04 mm is reduced due to tool wear.
Now enter the diameter of the job in the tool contact point
in the x value in the selected work co-ordinate system. To rectify this take the tool offset number of the worn out
tool.
This particular work co-ordinate system should be
mentioned in the part program. In that tools wear offset number enter the value U0.04.
Geometrical offset In the inner diameter defects instead of positive value
put U-0.04 in the wear offset number.
The tools used in CNC machine are of different geometry.
The length of the tools vary accordingly. Tool offset number and wear offset number are same.
Even if the work offset is taken for a tool it will not suit the
other tools
So for every tool offset is taken and entered in tool offset
value in work co-ordinate system
Because of this every tool will take the work zero point as
origin

Program Explanation
N001 G91 G71 G94 Increnental mode; metric units, feed rate is given in mm/
min
N002 G00 X0 Z0 M03 S1000 F100 Set the tool at (0, 0) position. Assign spindle
speed and rate.
N003 M08 G01 X-2.5 Depth of cut of 2.5 mm is given.
N004 G01 Z-30 Tool is moving towards left by-30 mm (plain turning)
N005 G01 X5 Z-30 Taper turning for the length of 30 mm
N006 G00 Z60 Tool retracts to its initial position
N007 G00 X +5 Again, infeed of 5 mm is given

Program Explanation
N008 G01 X-2.5 Depth of cut 2.5mm is again given
N009 G01Z-30 Simple turning operation for the length of -30mm
N010 G01 X 5Z-30 Taper turning operation for the length of -30mm is
performed
N011G00 X 0Z0 Tool moves to (0,0) position
N012 M09 M05 M02 Coolant off, spindle stop, end of the program
Step turning
Program Explanation
N001 G91 G71 G94 Absolute mode; metric units, feed rate is given in mm/
min
N002 G00 X0 Z0 M03 S1000 F100 Set the tool at (0, 0) position
N002 G00 Z+2 Move the tool towards right by 2mm
N003 G00 X-5 Infeed of 5mm is given to reach position A

Program Explanation
N004 G01 X-0.5 F100 Depth of cut of 0.5mm is given with a feed rate of
100mm/min.
N005 G33 Z-52 K3 M03 S100 Threading operation for a length of 52mm (50+2) with
a pitch length of 3mm
N006 G00 X1 F300 Tool goes back by 1mm
N007 G00 Z+52 Tool rapidly moves to position A
N008 G00 X - 1.5 F100 Instead of 1.5mm is given with a feed rate of 100 mm/min.
N009 G33 Z-52 K3 M03 S100 Threading operation is again performed for a length
of 52 mm (50+2)
N010 G00 X2 Tool goes back by 2mm
N011 M02 End of program

Tool path study of machining operation (Straight turning)

Objective : At the end of this lesson you shall be able to
• trace the tool path of the given drawing with linear interpolation
• learn to programme for straight turning, step turning and taper turning
• learn incremental method programming.
Straight turning %
O0020 (Fig 2)
G28 U0 W0 ;
G50 S3000 T0200 ;
G96 S200 M03 ;
G00 X60.0 Z0.0 T0202 M08 ;
G01 X0.0 F0.1 ;
G00 X30.0 Z2.0 ;
G01 Z-20.0 F0.2 ;
X50.0 ;
%
Z-35.0 ;
O0019 (Fig 1)
X60.0 ;
N1 ;
Z50.0 ;
G28 U0 W0 ;
G00 X55.0 Z2.0 M09 ;
G50 S3000 T0100 ;
G28 U0 W0 M05 ;
G96 S200 M03 ;
M01 ;
G00 X55.0 Z0.0 T0101 M08 ;
M30 ;
G01 X0.0 F0.1 ;
G00 X50.0 Z2.0 ; Mixed method programming
G01 Z70.0 F0.2 Z-70 ;

G00 X55.0 Z2.0 M09 ;
G28 U0 W0 M05 ;
M01 ;
M30 ;
Step turning
%
O0021 (Fig 3)
N1 ;
G28 U0 W0 ;
G50 S3000 T0100 ;
G96 S200 M03 ;
G00 X50.0 Z0.0 T0101 M08 ;
G01 X0.0 F0.12 ;
G00 X50.0 W2.0 ; Taper turning
G01 Z-40 F0.12 ;
X60 ;
W-30 ;
X80 ;
W-40 ;
X100 ;
W-40 ;
G00 U5.0 Z5.0 M09 ;
G28 U0 W0 M05 ;
M01 ;
M30 ;
Incremental method programming
%
O0023 (Fig 5)
N1 ;
G28 U0 W0 ;
G50 S3000 T0500 ;
G96 S200 M03 ;
G00 X55.0 Z0.0 T0505 M08 ;
G01 X0.0 F0.1 ;
G00 X25.0 Z2.0 ;
X30.0 Z-1.5 F0.1 ;
Z-30.0 ;
X50.0 Z-40.0 ;
Z-55.0 ;
% G00 X60.0 Z2.0 M09 ;
O0022 (Fig 4) G28 U0 W0 M05 ;
N1 ; M01 ;
G28 U0 W0 ; M30 ;
G50 S3000 T0100 ;
G96 S200 M03 ; Radius operation
G00 X30.0 Z0.0 T0101 M08 ;
G01 X0.0 F0.1 ;
G00 U46.0 W2.0 ;
G01 W-2.0 F0.1 ;
G01 U4.0 W-2.0 F0.1 ;
G01 W-28 F0.1 ;
U10.0 ;
W-25.0 ;
U10.0 W-10.0 ;
W-20.0 ;
G00 U5.0 W90.0 M09 ;
G28 U0 W0 M05 ;
M01 ;
M30 ;
% G28 U0 W0 M05 ;
O0024 (Fig 6) M01 ;
N1 ; M30 ;
G28 U0 W0 ;
Calculation
G50 S2000 T0600 ;
To calculate diameter
G96 S250 M03 ;
G00 X65.0 Z0.0 T0606 M08 ; Method 1
G01 X0.0 F0.12 ;
OPP
G00 X20.0 Z2.0 ; Tan θ = Tan =
ADJ
G01 Z0.0 F0.2 ;
G03 X25.0 Z-2.5 R2.5 F0.1 ; OPP
G01 Z-20.0 F0.12 ; Tan 25° =
7
X40.0 Z-30.0 ;
Opp = 0.4663 X 7
Z-35.0 ;
G02 X50.0 Z-40.0 R5.0 F0.12 ; Opp = 3.264 mm
G01 X50.0 F0.12 ; X = 2 X Opp.
Z-55.0 ; X = 2 X 3.264
G00 X65.0 Z2.0 M09 ; X = 6.528 mm
G28 U0 W0 M05 ;
d = D-X
M01 ;
d = 28 - 6.528
M30 ;
d = 21.47mm
Taper turning
Method II
D−d
Tan θ =
2L
28 − d
Tan 25 =
2 XL
2 8− d
0.4663 =
14
d = 28 - 6.528
d = 21.47 mm
% To calculate length
O0025 (Fig 7)
D−d
N1 ; Tan θ =
G28 U0 W0 ; 2L
G50 S3000 T0600 ; 38 − 28
G96 S200 M03 ; Tan 20 =
2L
G00 X30.0 Z0.0 T0606 M08 ;
G01 X0.0 F0.1 ; 10
L =
G00 X21.47 Z2.0 ; 2 × 0.3639
G01 X28.0 Z-7.0 F0.12 ; D = D-X
Z-32.0 ;
10
X38.0 Z-45.738 ; L =
Z-65.738 ; 0.7279
G00 X40.0 Z2.0 M09 ; L = 13.738 mm

Canned cycles
Objective : At the end of this exercise you shall be able to
• state the cycle used in CNC program
• learn to program for all canned cycles
• learn to program for threading OD/ID.
Canned cycles Example for G71 turning cycle

Canned cycle is used in stock removal operation in
turning. In this cycle, the tool is positioned at the starting
point. The finishing contour of the pocket is to be
programmed like the normal programming using G code.
G70 - Finishing cycle (Fig 9)
Format:
G70 P_Q_F_; Blank size: f 55 X 50
P : Starting Block Number %
Q : Ending Block Number
O0026 (Fig 11)
F : Finishing Feed
N1 ;
G71 - Turning cycle(Fig 10) G28 U0 W0 ;
G50 S1200 T0300 ;
G96 S250 M03 ;
G00 X65.0 Z0.0 T0303 M08 ;
G01 X0.0 F0.1 ;
G00 X61.0 Z2.0 ;
G71 U1.0 R1.0 ;
G71 P10 Q20 U1.0 W0.5 F0.3 ;
N10 G00 X30.0 ;
Format
G01 Z-20.0 F0.1 ;
G71 U_R_; X46.0 Z-28.0 ;
G71 P_Q_U_W_F_; Z-38.0 ;
G1 X71 ;
U : Depth of cut per pass in X Axis (Radial value)
G03 X75.0 Z-40 R2 ;
R : Relief Amount
G01 Z-63 ;
P : Starting Block Number
N20 Z-63.0 ;
G00 X65.0 Z2.0 M09 ;
U : Finishing Allowance in X Axis
G28 U0 W0 M05 ;
W : Finishing Allowance in z Axis
M01 ;
F : Feed
N2 ; (OD FINISHINING)
G28 U0 W0 ; N20 G00 Z-65.0;
G50 S2600 T0700 ; G01 X40 ;
G96 S150 M03 ; Z-53.0 ;
G00 X26.0 Z0.0 T0705 M08 ; X25.0 Z-45.0 ;
G01 X0.0 F0.1 ; Z-25.0
G00 X65.0 Z3.0 ; X20.0 Z-15.0 ;
G70 P10 Q20 F0.12 ; Z0.0 ;
G00 X65.0 Z2.0 M09 ; N30 ;
G28 U0 W0 ; G00 X55.0 Z2.0 M09 ;
M30 ; G28 U0 W0 M05 ;
M01 ;
G72 - Facing cycle
N2 ; (OD Finishing)
Format
G28 U0 W0 ;
G72 W_R_;
G50 S2600 T0700 ;
G72 P_Q_U_W_F_;
G96 S150 M03 ;
W : Depth of cut per pass in Z Axis
G00 X55.0 Z2.0 T0707 M08 ;
R : Relief Amount
G70 P20 Q30 F0.12 ;
P : Starting Block Number
G00 X65.0 Z2.0 M09 ;
G28 U0 W0 M05 ;
U : Finishing Allowance In X Axis
M30 ;
W : Finishing Allowance In Z Axis
F : Feed G73 - Pattern repeating cycle(Fig 13)
Format:
G73 U_W_R_;
G73 P_Q_U_W_F_;
Example for G72 Facing cycle

%
O0027 (Fig 12)
U : Total amount of stock in X axis (radial value)
N1 ;
W : Total amount of stocks in Z axis
G28 U0 W0 ;
R : Number of passes
G50 S1300 T0200 ;
P : Starting block number
G96 S150 M03 ;
Q : Ending block number
G00 X55.0 Z2.0 T0202 M08 ;
U : Finishing allowance In X axis
G72 W1.0 R2 ;
W : Finishing allowance in Z axis
G72 P20 Q30 U1.0 W0.5 F0.3 ;
F : Feed
N2 ;
G28 U0 W0 ;
G50 S2600 T0700 ;
G96 S150 M03 ;
G00 X28.0 Z0.0 T0707 M08 ;
G01 X0.0 F0.1 ;
G00 X55.0 Z2.0 ;
G70 P40 Q50 F0.12 ;
G00 X65.0 Z2.0 M09 ;
G28 U0 W0 ;
M30 ;
%
G74 - Peck drilling cycle
O0028 (Fig 14,15)
N1 ;
G28 U0 W0 ;
G50 S1200 T0300 ;
G96 S250 M03 ;
G00 X55.0 Z2.0 T0303 M08 ;
G73 U5.0 W3.0 R6 ;
G73 P40 Q50 U0.5 W0.1 F0.3 ;
N40 G00 X20.0 ; Format
G01 Z0.0 ; G74 R_;

G74 Z___Q___F___;
R : Retract value
Z : Depth of the hole
Q : Depth of cut per pass in Microns
F : Feed rate
%
O0029 (Fig 16)
N1 ; (C.D)
G28 U0 W0 ;
T0200 ;
G97 S1500 M04 ;
X24.0 Z-2.0 ;
G00 X0.0 Z5.0 T0202 M08 ;
Z-16.0 ;
G01 Z-3.0 F0.12 ;
G02 X32.0 Z-2.0 R4.0 ;
G00 Z5.0 M09 ;
G01 Z-36.0 ;
G28 U0 W0 M05 ;
G03 X44.0 Z-42.0 R6.0 ;
M01 ;
N50 G01 Z-54.0 ;
N2 ;
G00 X55.0 Z2.0 M09 ;
U0 W0 ;
G28 U0 W0 M05 ;
T0700 ;
M01;
G97 SI500 M04 ;
G00 X0.0 Z5.0 T0707 M08 ; G76 - Multiple thread cutting cycle(Fig 19)
G74 R4.0 ; Format:
G74 Z-50.0 Q8000 F0.05 ; G76 P___Q____R___;
G00 Z5.0 M09 ; G76 X___Z___P___Q____F____;
G28 U0 W0 M05 ;
M30 ;
G75 - Grooving cycle(Fig 17)
Format :
G75 R___;
G75 X____Z___P____Q___R___F___;
R : Relieving the tool (mm)

X : Groove diameter (mm) Explanation for the cycle:
Z : Groove length (mm)
P : NCA
P : Depth of cut in X axis in microns
(Radial value) N : Number of finishing passes
Q : Shift value in Z axis (microns) C : Chamfer amount
F : Feed A : Included angle
Q : Minimum depth of cut in microns (radial value)
R : Finishing depth of cut in microns (radial value)
X : External threading (minor dia) internal
threading(major dia)
Z : Thread length
P : Height of thread (microns)
Q : First depth of cut in microns (radial value)
% F : Feed (pitch of the thread)
O0030 (Fig 18) Example
G28 U0 W0 ; OD Threading
T0500 ;
G97 S1200 M03 ;
G00 X52.0 Z5.0 T0505 M08 ;
G00 Z-26.0 ;
G75 R2.0 ;
G75 X30.0 Z-37.0 P500 Q3000 F0.05 ;
G00 X46.0 ;
Z5.0 M09 ;
G28 U0 W0 M05 ;
M30 ;
% %
O0031 (Fig 20) O0032 (Fig 22)
G28 U0 W0 ; G28 U0 W0 ;
T0400 ; T0500 ;
G97 S600 M04 ; G97 S600 M04 ;
G00 X32.0 Z5.0 T0404 M08 ; G00 X38.0 Z5.0 T0505 M08 ;
G76 P030060 Q150 R20 ; G76 P030060 Q150 R20 ;
G76 X27.404 Z-42.0 P1298 Q300 F2.0 ; G76 X40 Z-110.0 P1298 Q300 F2.0 ;
G00 X32.0 ; G00 X38.0 ;
Z5.0 M09 ; Z5.0 M09 ;
G28 U0 W0 M05 ; G28 U0 W0 M05 ;
M30 ; M30 ;
Threading calculation
Minor dia, d = D - (2h)

(h = 0.649 p, for metric thread)
h = 0.649 2.0=1.298 mm.
d = 30 - (2 1.298)
= 27.404 mm.
ID Threading (Fig 21)
(h = 0.649 P, for metric thread)
h = 0.649 2.0 = 1.298 mm
d = 40 - (2 X 1.298)
=37.404 mm.

Production & Manufacturing Related Theory for Exercise 4.2.121 &122
Cutting parameters, cutting speed and feed, depth of cut,CSM, tool wear, tool
life
• differentiate between cutting speed and feed
• state select the recommended cutting speed for different materials from the chart
• state the factors governing the cutting speed
• state the factors governing feed & learn about interpolation.
Cutting speed (Fig 1) When more material is to be removed in lesser time, a

higher cutting speed is needed. This makes the spindle
to run faster but the life of the tool will be reduced due to
more heat being developed. The recommended cutting
speeds are given in a chart. As far as possible the
recommended cutting speeds are to be chosen from the
chart and the spindle speed calcualted before performing
the operation. (Fig 2) correct cutting speed will provide
higher tool life under normal working condition.
Cutting speed is the speed at which the cutting edge

passes over the material, and it is expressed in metres
per minute. When a work of a diameter ‘d’ is turned in
one revolution the length of the portion of work in contact
with the tool is πxdxn. This is converted into metres and
expressed in a formula form as
.D .N
V metre /min.
1000
Where V = cutting speed in m/min

π = 3.14
D = diameter of the work in mm
N = RPM
Cutting speed 120m/min length of metal passing calculated r.p.m. of spindle

cutting tool in 1 revolution
____ 78.56mm 1528
____ 157.12mm 756
___ 235.68mm 509.3

Example
Find out the rpm of a spindle of a 50mm bar to cut at
π × DN 1000 V
25m/minute ; V = ; N=
1000 π ×D
1000× 25 500
= = 159 r.p.m
3.14 x 50 3.14
Factors governing the cutting speed

Finish required
depth of cut
tool geometry
properties and rigidity of the cutting tool and its mounting
properties of the workpiece material
rigidity of the workpiece
type of cutting fluid used
rigidity of the machine tool
Feed (Fig 3)
The feed of the tool is the distance it moves along the
work for each revolution of the work, and it is expressed Cutting speeds and feeds for H.S.S. tools
in mm/rev.
TABLE 1
Factors governing feed
Tool geometry Material being Feed Cutting speed
turned mm/rev m/min
surface finish required on the work
rigidity of the tool Aluminium 0.2-1.00 70-100
coolant used Brass (alpha)-ductile 0.2-1.00 50-80
Rate of metal removal Brass (free cutting) 0.2-1.5 70-100
The volume of metal removal is the volume of chip that is Bronze(phosphor) 0.2-1.00 35-70
removed from the work in one minute, and is found by Cast iron(grey) 0.15-0.7 25-40
multiplying the cutting speed, feed rate and the depth of
cut. Copper 0.2-1.00 35-70
For super HSS tools the feeds would remain Steel(mild) 0.2-1.00 35-80
the same, but cutting speeds could be Steel
increased by 15% to 20%.
(medium-carbon) 0.15-0.7 30-35
A lower speed range is suitable for heavy, rough Steel (alloy high
cuts.
tensile) 0.08-0.3 5-10
A higher speed range is suitable for light, Thermosetting
finishing cuts. plastics 0.2-1.00 35-50
The feed is selected to suit the finish required
and the rate of metal removal Depth of cut
When carbide tools are used, 3 to 4 times The depth of cut is the difference between machined and
higher cutting speed than that of the H.S.S. un machined surface.
tools may be chosen. If D1 = initial diameter
The recommended cutting speed and feed rate D2 = Final diameter
for H.S.S. tools are listed on Table 1.

Production & Manufacturing : Turner (NSQF Level-5) - RT for Ex - 4.2.121 & 122 61
D1− D2 our programme, and this is known as limiting spindle
Depth of cut = speed. Once programmed, when the spindle reaches this
2
limiting value of speed, the controlled clamps it and the
The relationship between limiting spindle speed and rest of the operations are carried out at a constant speed,
the constant cutting speed limiting spindle speed. This will ensure that any possible
damage due to variationof spindle speed, is prevented.
when working with Constant cutting speed Mode, the
spindle speed increases as the tool moves towards the As an example, when we desire to carry out, at constant
axis. The spindle speed is calculated using the equation. cutting speed of 250m/min at 3000 RPM, the programme
as per Fanuc shall be
πDN
V(m et/m in) where D diameter
d of the G96 S250
1000
N = RPM of the spindle G92 S3000
As per the above equation,at a specific cutting speed What is the benefit of fixing Limiting spindle speed in the
(say V=250m/mm) when the dia is 30mm the spindle programme?
speed shall be 2652 rpm. when the diameter is reduced
to 20mm the spindle speed would be 3978 and if the If a component is rigidly fixed in the chuck and the
diameter reduces to 1mm the spindle speed would go component is cylindrical, spindle maximum. speed is set
up to 79577 rpm, and at certain diameter spindle speed as limiting spindle speed. If the part is not circular or
may go beyond the machine’s capacity. similarly when cylindrical, and is held in a fixture, not balanced, the
to tool go near the axis point, the spindle speed RPM centrifugal forces may cause the part to fly off, or it may
would be theoritically infinity since the diameter at axis spoil the fixture itself, if the Limiting speed is not
is (D=0) programmed.
At the axis of the part, in fact, the RPM would theoretically
1000V 1000V be infinity (D is zero). The machine however has a certain
N
.D .0 maximum spindle RPM, so in the CNC program we need
to specify what this maximum speed.
However, the CNC machine has certain maximum
spindle speed permissible, which should be specified in
Interpolation
• define the interpolation
• state the purpose of interpolation
• list the type of interpolation.
Interpolation iii) Radius and centre of a circle

As the co - ordinates of points on the profile of the job iv) Gradient angle for a line
vary continuously, it is necessary to define the path of
Types of interpolations
small segment.
Interpolations are classified as
This tedious work is done by the computer by means of
“ interpolator”. i) Linear interpolation
Definition ii) Circular interpolation
The methods by which control system calculate the iii) Helical interpolation
intermediate points and the speed of the motor is known iv) Parabolic interpolation
as interpolation.
v) Logarithmic interpolation
The parameters supplied may be
vi) Exponential interpolation of these the linear and
i) Radius circulate interpolators are commonly employed.
ii) Start and end point of a curve

Production & Manufacturing : Turner (NSQF Level-5) - RT for Ex - 4.2.121 & 122
Linear interpolation
In this interpolation, the interpolated points lie on the
straight line joining a pair of given points. (Fig 1a)
This is done in two or three dimensions.
Advantages of circular interpolation are

Better surface finish
Greater accuracy
The fast of linear interpolator is to supply velocity
commands to several axes simultaneously in pps (pulses Less total machining time
per second) (Fig 1b) Lower working costs.
By changing the frequency of the pulses, the feed can be Circular interpolation
controlled.
The circular interpolation,
The linear interpolator consists of Digital Differential
Analyser (DDA) integrators one for each axis of motion • Code G02 (clockwise)
hence each integrator functions separately one for X- axis • Code G03 (anti - clockwise)
and the other for Y - axis. (Fig 2a)
A circular interpolation permits the traversing of the tool
Circular interpolation with a defined speed along a circular path from the present
In circular interpolation, the interpolated points lie on a Start-points to the programmed destionation point.
specific circle between a pair of fixed points. Apart from the destination points co-ordinates, the control
In most cases, the circular interpolation is limited to one unit here also needs statements about the sense of
quadrant in the machine tool system. (Fig 2b) rotation and the centre of the circle. The centre is entered
with I,J and K with incremental dimensions with the centre
The input data should consists of the distances between points as origin.
the initial point and the centre of the circle.
The following assignment applies:
Two Digital Differential Analysers (DDA) are required for
circular interpolation. • I for the x - axis
• J for the Y - axis
• K for the Z - axis

Programming example with G2: Explanation:(Fig 3)
.........
N40 G0 X30 Y40 Z2 With rapid traverse to
N50 G1 Z-5 F100 the start point Groov
N60 G2 X50 Y40 I10 J-7 ing with Z Circular
N70 G1 Z2 F1000 interpolation clockwise
Circular Interpolation with mixed programming

Particularly the incremental statement of the centre of
the circle usually represents some difficulties to the
operator in practice, since it must often be evaluated using
triangle calculations.
This is a prime example of where the mixed co-ordinate
programming of the interpolation parameters in absolute
dimensions comes in useful.
The following example decribes an anti-clockwise circular
interpolation as shown in the sketch above. Programming example Explanation:
The end-point in the sketch is now the starting .........

point for the circular interpolation. N40 G0 X30 Y40 Z2 Circle centre absolute,
Programming example with G3: Explanation:(Fig 4) N50 G1 Z-5
......... N60 G2 X50 Y40 I=AC(40) J=AC(33)
N40 G0 X50 Y40 Z2 With rapid traverse to N70 G1 F2 F1000
N50 G1 Z-5 F100 the start point
N60 G3 X30 Y40 I-10 J-7 Circular interpolation
N70 G1 Z2 F1000 anti-clockwise

Principle of position control
• explain the principle of position control in a CNC machine
• explain the terms pulse and pulse frequency
• state the difference between closed loop and open loop control
• state feedback/measuring systems used in CNC machines.
It has already been stated that the slides of CNC

machine are driven by servo motors.
The feed rate and position to be reached by the slide
(tool) are indicated to the control by means of a
programme line such as the one given below.
G91 G71 G01 x 60 F30
The meaning of the above instruction is that the tool Therefore, this system is not providing any check to see
should travel a distance of 60 min along the x axis at a that the commanded position has actually been achieved.
feed rate of 30 mm/min from its existing positon. In other There is no feed back of information to the control also.
words the tool should travel a distance of 60 mm in 2 These system are not good where extremely accurate
minutes. positioning is required.
Principle of position control
The above instruction requires that the feed motor should

rotate at a predetermined r.p.m for a period of 2 minutes:
and to achieve this, the feed motor should receive the
required quantity of electrical energy. This calls for
regulation of the input current to the motor and basically
what the computer in the CNC machine does for position
control is nothing but regulating the current input to the
feed motor. Closed loop control (Fig 2 )
The control computer after receiving a travel instruction Closed loop control (Fig 2) is a term which is used very
perform certain calculations and arrive at the number of often when we talk about CNC machines. This term
pulsed to be sent out in the given time in order to achieve signifies, that the control system has provisions to ensure
the required travel. ( It may be noted that the basic output that the tool reaches the desired position, at the correct
from any computer is an intermittent supply of low strength feed rate, even if some errors creep in due to unforeseen
electric current called pulse or signal) Usually one pulse reasons.
sent out by the control causes a tool travel of 0.001, and
Hence, in the above example to achieve a travel of 60mm For instance in the previous example 60,000 pulses sent
in 2 minutes, the control after reading the above program in 2 minutes by the control should cause a tool travel of
line would send 60,000 pulses(60#0.001) in 2 minutes. 60mm at 30 mm/min, but even if the control sends these
may pulses it cannot be ensured that the tool has really
Pulse frequency travelled exactly 60 mm.
This term refers to number of pulses sent per second in A closed loop control has a device called encoder and
the above case the pulse frequency is 500/S (60,000/ this can continuously ascertain the distance acutally trav-
120). The pulse frequency , it may be noted, is elled by the tool and then monitor the same, in the form
proportionate to the feed rate. of feedback signals to the control. The control studies
The pulse output by the computer being of low strength this feedback information and takes corrective action in
and intermitted in nature, is not directly send to the drive case any error is detected in the tool position/feed rate.
motor, Instead the intermitted current is converted to an
equivalent continuous form, and is also strengthened
suitably.
The feed motor thus receives a regulated supply of
continuous current for a specified time interval, and hence,
ensures a tool travel as instructed by the programme
Open loop control system (Fig 1)
In an open loop control system (Fig 1) in which there is
no arrangement for detecting or comparing the actual
position of the cutting tool on the job with the commanded
value.
Tool life
• state the relationship between cutting speed and tool life
• explain tool life index equation
• determine the maximum cutting speed for a given tool life.
Relationship between cutting speed and tool life Vt n = C

Duration of correct cutting to the anticipated surface finish where V = cutting speed in m/min.
between grinding is termed as tool life. In metal cutting,
increase in cutting speed increases power requirement.
Therefore, the mechanical energy is converted into heat
energy at the cutting edge. Much of the heat is absorbed
by the cutting tool with corresponding increase in
temperature, resulting in softening of the cutting tool,
which is the reason for inefficient cutting action. The
effect of this reduction in tool life is largely present in high
carbon steels. Hence, they have to be operated at lower
cutting speeds.
Cutting materials such as high speed steel, metallic
carbides and oxides can operate at much higher
temperatures without reduction in hardness.
Fig 1 shows graphically the relationship between cutting
speed and tool life curve in logarithmic form. A small
increase in cutting speed from A to B causes large
reduction in tool life from C to D, while small reduction in
cutting speed causes a large increase in tool life.
t = tool life in minutes
Thus when the machine gearbox does not give the
n and C are constants for a given set of conditions.
required cutting speed, it is better to use the next lower
speed rather than the higher speed. The value of n lies between 0.1 to 0.2 and typical values
are given in the following table.
Tool life index
The following example is shown to determine the maxi-
The relationship between tool life and cutting speed can mum cutting speed for a given tool life.
be represented by the following equation for most practical
purposes.
Table
Tool life index
Material and conditions Tool material n
3 1/2% nickel steel Cemented carbide 0.2
3 1/2% nickel steel (roughing) Highspeed steel 0.14

0.125
3 1/2% nickel steel (finishing) Highspeed steel
0.15
High carbon, high chromium die steel Cemented carbide
0.2
High carbon steel Highspeed steel
0.15
Medium carbon steel High-peed steel
Mild steel Highspeed steel
Cast iron Cemented carbide

Example From the calculations, tool life is doubled by reduction of
cutting speed by 8.3 percent, or reduction of tool life can
The life of a lathe tool is 8 hours when operating at a be calculated for an increase of 8.3 percent in cutting
cutting speed of 40 m/min. Given that Vtn = C, find the speed. Hence, it is always important to select a lower
highest cutting speed that will give a tool life of 16 hours. cutting speed, rather than a higher cutting speed, if the
The value of n is 0.125. machine controls do not give optimum value.
(i) Determine the value of Log C from initial conditions. Tool life calculations are useful in achieving optimum
C = Vt1 where
n operating conditions of cutting tools. Modern cutting tool
materials are singularly resistant to softening under the
V = 40 m/min. heat of normal cutting and usually fail in two ways as
t1 = 480 min. shown in Fig 2.
n = 0.125
Log C = Log V + n Log t1
= log40 + (0.125 Log480)
=1.6021 + (0.125 x 2.681)
=1.6021 + 0.3351
=1.9372
(ii) Determine Vmax for revised conditions
Vmax =
C
n
t2
Where t2 = 960 min. (16x60)

Log Vmax = Log C – n Log t2
= 1.9372 – (0.125 x log960)
a) Wear of clearance face
= 1.9372 – (0.125 x 2.9823)
b) Crater of rake face
= 1.9372 – 0.3728
The above conditions can be corrected only by regrinding
= 1.5644 antilog 0.5644 immediately for effective metal cutting.
Vmax is 36.68 m/min.

Production & Manufacturing Related Theory for Exercise 4.3.123-124
Turner - Tool setting and Data Input
Cutting tool materials for Turning

• explain the properties of cutting tool
• state the types of tool material.
Cutting tool materials and their properties - 1980: First engineered carbide substrate
(cobalt-enrichment)
Tool materials are the subject of intense development. They
are the product of an evolvement that has taken place - 1982: First SiAION ceramic
almost entirely during the twentieth century, and especially
- 1985: First PVD coated carbide
since the thirties. Machining which took one hundred
minutes in 1900, today takes less than one minute. It is - Mid 80's: Modern cermets (TiCN-based)
not an exaggeration to say that the evolvement of tool - Late 80's: SiC whisker reinforced Al2o3 ceramic
materials has been one of the major contributing factors
that has helped to make the modern, efficient industrial - Early 90's: Advanced Sialons
world. - Mid 90's: thin film diamond coated carbide
Today, there is a tool material to optimize every metal
cutting operation-one that will cut a certain work piece,
under certain conditions in the best way. Not only have
completely new materials appeared but high speed steel,
which was the major break through at the beginning of the
century, has been developed to machine several times
faster. It is however, the introduction and continuous
improvement of hard materials that have really improved
metal cutting during the recent decades.
Cutting tool properties
The most important properties required by a cutting tool
material are, - Late 90's: PVD coated PCBN
Toughness - 2000: Advanced pre-coat & post-coat treatments
Ability to withstand the various cutting forces during Cutting tool materials
machining.
Metal cutting environment (Fig.1)
Hardness
- Heat (thermal deformation)
Ability to retain hardness under severe working conditions.
- Pressure (deformation, fracture)
High resistance to wear
- Wear (pure abrasion, chemical wear, notching)
The material must withstand excessive wear even though
- Interrupted cuts (thermal & mechanical cycling)
the relative hardness of the tool materials changes.
Types of tool materials
Frictional coefficient
The selection of proper tool materials depends on the type
The frictional coefficient must remain low for minimum
of service to which the tool is subjected. The commonly
wear and reasonable surface finish.
used cutting materials are:
Cost and easiness in fabrication
Carbon steels
The cost and easiness of fabrication should have within
- It is basically high carbon steel with percentage of
reasonable limits.
carbon in the range of 0.8 to 1.5
Evolution of cutting tools
- It may only be used in manufacture of tools operating
- 1910-1920: High speed steel at low cutting speed (12m/min).
- 1920's: Cemented carbide - They are comparatively cheap, easy to forge and simple
to harden.
- 1950's: Cermets (Tic -based)
- Disadvantage of carbon tool steel is their comparatively
- 1960's: Alumina-based ceramic
low heat and wear resistance.
- 1970: CVD coated carbide
High speed steel - They can with stand temperature up to 1200°C and
can be used at cutting speeds 4 times that of carbide
- It is the general purpose metal for low and medium
and up to 40 times that of HSS.
cutting speeds owing to its superior hot hardness and
resistance to wear. - To give them increased strength often ceramic with
metal bond know as cermets is used.
- HSS can operate at cutting speeds 2 to 3 times higher
than for carbon steels and retain its hardness up to - Heat conductivity of ceramics being very low the tools
900°C. are generally used without coolant.
- Tungsten in HSS provides hot hardness and form Cermets
stability. Molybdenum maintains keenness of the
Cermets -Ceramics and Metal
cutting edge. Cobalt makes the cutting tool more
wear resistant. Characteristics of cermets
Stellites - High Hardness
- Stellites is the trade name of a non-ferrous cast alloy - High Hot Hardness
composed of cobalt, chromium and tungsten. - Resist oxidation
- The range of elements in these alloys is 40% to 48% - Low Friction
cobalt, 30% to 35%, chromium and tungsten.
Advantage of cermets
- Stellites can be operated on steel at cutting speeds 2
times higher than for HSS. - High efficiency
- They are used for non metal cutting application such - Long life
as rubbers, plastics etc., - Large batch
Carbides - Avoid Build Up Edge
- They are composed principally of carbon mixed with - Surface Finish Control
other elements.
- Cermets Have the properties of higher cutting speed
- The basic ingredient of most carbides is tungsten and wear resistance which enables hard part turning.
carbide, which is extremely hard. Pure tungsten
powder, is mixed under high heat(1500°C) with pure
carbon in the ratio of 94% and 6% weight.
- The two types of carbides are the tungsten and titanium
and both are more wear resistant.
Coated carbides
- The coated carbide has substrate and coating layer
- Substrate-for toughness having hard material and soft
material (cobalt + carbide)
- Coating -Layer of carbide (very hard)
- Perform well on all work material
- Better impact strength to resist fracture
- Allow good coating adhesion
Diamond
Ceramics
- The diamond is the hardest known material and can
- The latest development in the metal cutting tool uses
be run at cutting speed about 50 times greater than
aluminium oxide, generally referred to as ceramics.
that of HSS tool and 5 to 6 times of tool life than
- Compacting aluminium oxide powder in a mould at carbide.
about 280 kg/sq.cm or more makes ceramic tools. The
- Diamond is incompressible, readily conducts heat and
part is then sintered at 2200 °C. This method is known
has low coefficient of friction.
as cold pressing.
- Diamond are suitable for cutting very hard material
- Ceramic tool material are made in the form of tips that
such as glass, non-ferrous materials, plastics etc.,
are to be clamped on metal shanks
- For poly crystalline diamond (PCD) the tool life is 30
- The tools have low conductivity and extremely high
times of carbide.
compressive strength, but they are quite brittle and
have a low bending strength. The following picture shows the comparison of the
various materials in terms of their properties. (Fig 2)
The second letter specifies the relief angles (Fig.4).
Tool inserts
Symbol Relief Angle
Carbides and other harder tool materials are very costly.
Moreover, they cannot be machined. So, only tool tips are N 0°
made for such materials using powder metallurgy A 3°
technique. In this method, the tool material is taken in a
B 5°
powder form. It is mixed with a suitable binder (in powder
form) and compressed in the shape of an insert. C 7°
Inserts are available in various shapes such as triangle, P 11°
square, rectangle, pentagon, hexagon, octagon, diamond
D 15°
shaped and circle. They cannot be resharpened, but they
have a number of cutting edges. (Fig 3) E 20°
Inserts are produced in various sizes and thicknesses. F 25°
Smallest possible size is chosen to produce the desired
G 30°
depth of cut. Thickness of an insert affects its strength.
Hence, for a large depth of cut and feed, a thicker insert is The third letter specifies tolerances on various dimensions
chosen. (Fig.4) (e.g., thickness) of the insert. The different tolerance
classes are A, F, C, H, E, G (absolute values) and J, K,
ISO standard is commonly followed for specifying inserts.
L,M,N,U (tolerance values depend on the diameter of the
An example is CNMG120408. The first letter, C in this
inscribed circle of the insert)
case , indicates the shape of the insert. The common
types are: Significance of the fourth letter
The fourth letter describes the overall geometrical features
Symbol Shape
of the insert (refer table). For example, an insert may or
S Square may not have a hole at the centre. The hole may be
cylindrical or cylindrical with single or double
T triangular
countersink.The insert may or may not have a chip-breaker.
H hexagonal The chip-breaker may be single-sided or double-sided.-
O octagonal
P pentagonal
L rectangular
R round
A, B, K parallelogram (nose angles
85°, 82° and 55° respectively)
C, D, E, F, M, V Diamond shaped or rhombic
(nose angles 80°, 55°, 75°, 50°,
86°, 35 ° respectively)
W Trigon (nose angle 80°)
Symbol Hole Shape of Hole Chip-Breaker
N without
R without no hole single-sided
F double -sided
A cylindrical without
M single-sided
G double -sided
W cylindrical without
with 40o-60o
T countersiink single sided
Q with cylindrical without
with 40°-60°
double double-sided
countersink
B cylindrical without
with 70°-90° Cutting direction (Fig.5b)
H countersink single-sided
L for machining with left - rotated (CCW) spindle (M04),
C cylindrical without
R for machining with right - rotated (CW) spindle (M03)
J with 70°-90° double-sided and N for both left-and right - rotated.
double
The appropriate character designations are appended to
countersink
the right, after the radius specification.
X special shape
Tool holders for lathe
Cutting edge condition (Fig.5a) There is an ISO designation system for tool holders also,
to suit various types of inserts. The first five characters
describe insert clamping method, compatible insert shape,
insert holding style of the tool holder (side cutting edge
angle/end cutting edge angle and straight shank/offset
shank), clearance angle and cutting direction, respectively.
Next four digits specify shank height and shank width in
mm (two digits for each). Tool length is specified next, by
a character code. The next and the last two digits specify
F for sharp,
T for chamfered,
E for honed and
S for chamfered and honed.
This information , however, is non-obligatory.
.

TABLE 1
ISO designation for lathe tool holders (Contd.)
1st character 2nd character 3rd character 4th character 5th character
Insert holding Insert shape Tool holder Insert relief Hand
method style (clearance)
M=top clamp A-85° A = 0° side N = 0° R = right -hand
and lock pin via parallelogram cutting striaght
the bore shank
P = lock pin via the B = 82° B = 15° side cutting A = 3° L = left-hand
bore only parallelogram cutting straight shank
C=top clamp only C=80° diamond C = 0° end cutting B = 5° N - neutral
straight shank
S=centre D=55° diamond D = 45° side cutting, C = 7°
screw lock only 45°end cutting,
straight shank
X = other methods E = 75° E = 30° side P = 11°
diamond cutting, straight shank
H = hexagon F = 0° end D = 15°
cutting, offset shank
K = 55° G = 0° side E = 20°
parallelogram cutting, offset shank
L = rectangle H = -17.5° side F = 25°
M = 86° diamond J = -3° side G = 30°
cutting,offset shank
O = octagon K=15° end cutting,
offset shank
P = pentagon L=5°sidecutting,5°
R = round M=40°side cutting
50° end cutting,
straight shank
S = square N=27°sidecutting,
straight shank
T = triangle P=-27.5°side cutting,
offset shank
V = 35° R=15°side diamond
W = 80° S = 45° side
trigon cutting, offset shank
T=30°side cutting,
offset shank
U=3°endcutting,offset
shank
V=17.5°side cutting,
straight shank
W = 30° end cutting,
offset, shank
Y= 5° end cutting
offfsest, shank

cutting edge length in mm. Manufacturers, specific angle and cutting edge length have the same
codes may be appended in the end. (Figs 6 & 7) representation for tool holders as well as boring bars.
For a boring bar, the cutting. If cutting is possible with
Insert clamping method (S) Retained via central
clockwise rotation (MO3) of the spindle. The example,
screw
considered in the figure is S32u SSKCR12 type boring
Compatible insert shape (C) 80° diamond bar. Manufacturer-specific information may be appended
Style of the tool holder body (L) -5° side cutting in the end, after a gap. Separating dash (1) is also used
edge angle, 5° end in place of gaps. Referring to Table 1 and Figs 8&9, the
cutting edge angle description of S32U SKKCR12 is as follows:
and offset shank Shank type (S) Steel shank
Clearance angle (C) 7° Shank diameter (32) f 32 mm
Cutting direction (R) Right-hand Tool length (U) 350 mm
Shank height (25) 25 mm Insert clamping method Retained via central screw
Shank width (25) 25 mm Compatible insert shape (S) Square
Tool length (M) 150 mm Style of the boring bar -15 o end cutting edge
Cutting edge length (12) 12 mm body (R) angle. offset shank.
Clearance angle (C) 7o
Manufacture specific information None
Cutting direction (R) Right-rotated (CW spindle)
Boring bars for lathe (Figs 8&9)
Cutting edge length (12) 12 mm
There is a similar ISO designation system for the internal
tool hodlders also (which are called boring bars). See Manufacturer - specific
Fig.8 and Fig.9 for details. Refer to Table 1 also for shapes
information None
not shown in these figures. In fact, tool length, clamping
method, compatible insert shape, body style, clearance

Production & Manufacturing Related theory for Exercise 4.3.125
Tool Geometry, Insert Type, Nomenclature of Inserts

• discuss the features of tool geometry
• identify various tool angles
• state what is a negative rake angle and its features
• learn various types of inserts
• understand nomendature of insert and ISO designation.
Tool Geometry 1 Approach angle

The tool geometry of cutting tool is a complicated subject. 2 Cutting angle
It is very difficult to determine the scope of the tool face.
3 Trailing angle
The straight edged tool moving with a constant velocity un
the direction perpendicular to the work is known as tool 4a Front clearance-primary
geometry. The cutting tool geometry deals mainly with
4b Front clearance-secondary
factors like approach angle,cutting angle, training angle,
clearance angles,rake angle . The following sketches 5a Side clearance-primary
indicates various angles (tool geometry) relating to fFcinf 5b Side clearance-secondary
tool,rough turning tool,finish turning tool,parting tool,boring
tool. The advantages of negative rake is also explained. 6 Top rake-negative
7 Side rake
The carbide turning tools generally used for various turning
operations are listed below. These angles for various tools are shown in the figures.
(IS 2163-1973 and 2163-1976)
- Straight round nose
Generally the manufacturers of carbide tools maintain
- Right hand and left hand roughing tool
these angles while manufacturing these tools. Hence it is
- Facing tool only needed to maintain these angles while re-sharpen-
ing.
- Right and left hand knife edge tool
The illustrations are as indicated below.
- Heavy duty roughing tool
1 Facing tool (Fig 2)
- Cranked round nose tool
- Recessing tool
- Parting tool
- Screw cutting tool.
The various cutting angles provided in these tools are as

follows. (Fig 1)
2 Rough turning tool (Fig 3)

3 Finish turning tool (Fig 4)
Negative rake angle
4 Parting off tool (Fig 5) It is used to achieve the following advantages.

- The cutting edge becomes stronger.
- It can withstand excessive compressive loads.
- The tool can be operated at higher cutting speeds.
- It decreases tool wear and increases the tool life.
- Heavier depth of cut can be given.
The limiting conditions for the applications of negative rake

turning tools are:
– the machine must have a wider range of high spindle
speeds
5 Boring tool (Fig 6) – the machine and the tool-holding devices must be quite
rigid and must be free from vibrations since the
cemented carbide tip may chip off under vibrations
– provision must be there for quickly dissipating the higher
degree of heat generated during machining
– the power of the motor of the machine must be atleast
10 to 15% higher than that provided on machines on
which positive rake tools are used under similar working
conditions.
Tool inserts
Carbides and other harder tool materials are very costly.

Moreover, they cannot be machined. So, only tool tips are
made for such materials using powder metallurgy
technique. In this method, the tool material is taken in a
Negative rake is used in cemented carbide tip tool for rough powder form. It is mixed with a suitable binder (in powder
turning. form) and compressed in the shape of an insert.
The true rake angle is the resultant of front rake and side Inserts are available in various shapes such as triangle,
rake angles. The top rake may be positive, zero or negative square, rectangle, pentagon, hexagon, octagon, diamond
as shown in Figure 7. shaped and circle. They cannot be resharpened, but they
have a number of cutting edges. (Fig 8)
Most of the cutting tools have positive rake angles. Turning Inserts are produced in various sizes and thicknesses.
tools for brass have zero rake as the metal chips are short Smallest possible size is chosen to produce the desired
and do not exert excessive cutting pressure on the tool depth of cut. Thickness of an insert affects its strength.
face while cutting. Zero rake increases the strength of the Hence, for a large depth of cut and feed, a thicker insert is
tool and prevents the cutting edge from digging into the chosen.
work.

The second letter specifies the relief angles (Fig 9).
ISO standard is commonly followed for specifying inserts. Symbol Relief Angle
An example is CNMG120408. The first letter, C in this
case , indicates the shape of the insert. The common N 0°
types are: A 3°
Symbol Shape B 5°
S Square C 7°
T triangular P 11°
H hexagonal D 15°
O octagonal E 20°
P pentagonal F 25°
L rectangular G 30°
R round The third letter specifies tolerances on various dimensions

(Fig.4) (e.g., thickness) of the insert. The different tolerance
A, B, K parallelogram (nose angles classes are A, F, C, H, E, G (absolute values) and J, K, L,
85°, 82° and 55° respectively) M, N, U (tolerance values depend on the diameter of the
C, D, E, F, M, V Diamond shaped or rhombic inscribed circle of the insert).
(nose angles 80°, 55°, 75°,
50°, 86°, 35 ° respectively)
W Trigon (nose angle 80°)

Describe tooling system for turning

• learn about the tooling system used in lathe understand the characteristics of tool material
• learn about the fixing of tool - tips.
Tooling System cartridges are available in different sizes to hold different

sizes to hold different inserts of multi-cutting edges.
For ordinary lathe turning (SSSC) lathe the operator such
as sliding, surfacing, screw cutting and taper turning
operation, We use the standard element of the lathe itself
namely compound rest.
The compound rest can hold only one tool at a fine, and was
replaced square tool post in which for tools can be held on
each face.
Important Tooling System includes self chuck, fonjaw

chuck, collect chuck, faceplate chuck to hold the job.
In older days high speed steel, hardened was used as a tol,

which was ground to required tool shape. But modern days
the tool holder are made out of medium carbon steel shank
with the tool brazed or filled in the form of topped tool. the
parts of a throw-away tip tool is shown in Fig 1
The tool-holder for holding throw-way tips are specially

designed. They are made to accommodate different shapes
of inserts. Othe rfeatures like different angles and chip
breakers are incorporated in the tool-holders. They are
made up of alloy steel.
Parts of a throw-away tip tool-holder (Fig 1)
The parts of a throw-away tool-holder are as shown in

Fig 1 above. Different types of tool-holders are used for
holding different shapes of throw-away tips.(Fig 2)
Tool-holders for internal machining (Fig 3 & 4)
The cartidges (one of the parts of an internal tool-holder
of carbide is called the cartridge) are used for internal
boring work. It as used along with the standard bar. The

With light duty cartrudges minimum size of bore will be 32 Fig 5 indicates threading tool held on a square tool post,
mm (1.26”), and with medium duty cartridges the sizes will used for threading a component.
be 45 mm (1.77”).
The following are the points to be noted when using carbide

throw-away inserts for machining.
• Select proper tool post.
• Select the correct size and shape of tool-holder to fix
the tool bit.
• Ensure the tool is set at the centre of the axis.
• Do not overhang the tool-holder.
• Use appropriate spped and feed while using the throw-
away tips.
• Use copious supply of coolant while machining with
throw-away tips.

Setting work and tool offset

• list the types of offsets used in CNC machine
• trace the tool path from the given program.
Types of offsets Because of this every tool will take the work zero point as
origin
There are three types of offsets used in CNC machine
The procedure for geometrical offset is given below
operation.
Clamp the job in the chuck of the machine
They are:
Set the tool in the required order in the machine turret
i Work offset (or) zero offset
Select the jog mode or MPG mode
ii Geometrical offset
Select the first tool and touch the face of the job
iii Wear offset
Check with a piece of paper whether the contact of tool
work offset (or) zero offset.
with the job is proper
Every manufacturer fix a reference point on the spindle of
Now take the geometrical offset page and enter under the
the machine according to the design of manufacturing.
tool number the command MZ 0 (zero)
The tool will take the command and move with reference
This command will clear any previous values and will
to this machine reference point.
measure the current tools tool offset in Z axis
To make the tool to move with reference to the job, work
Now touch the tool to a know diameter on the component
Again in the tool-gemetry page enter the command MX
Procedure for taking work offset (The value of the diamter) for example if the diameter is
50mm then MX50
Clamp the job in the chuck of the machine.
Set the tool in the required order set in the machine turret.
enter the MZ and MX commands for various tools in the
Set the jog mode or the tool and touch the face of the job. under respective tool number.
With the use of a paper check the proper contact of tool
Wear offset
with the face.
Now select the work co-ordinate system from G54 to G59. Because of long running the tool tip may wear out and the
Enter the z value in the selected work co-ordinate system dimension of the job may increase or decrease from the
original programmed dimension
Now touch the diameter with the same tool.
To recitify this defect wear offset is used
Check the contact of the tool with the job using a paper.
Now enter the diameter of the job in the tool contact point Procedure for entering wear offset
in the x value in the selected work co-ordinate system.
If the programmed size is X40.49 and the machine size is
This particular work co-ordinate system should be 40.44 in this 0.04 mm is reduced due to tool wear.
mentioned in the part program.
To rectify this take the tool offset number of the worn out
Geometrical offset tool.
In that tools wear offset number enter the value U0.04.
The tools used in CNC machine are of different geometry.
In the inner diameter defects instead of positive value put
The length of the tools vary accordingly.
U-0.04 in the wear offset number.
Tool offset number and wear offset number are same.=
other tools
So for every tool offset is taken and entered in tool offset
value in work co-ordinate system.

Describe tooling system for CNC Turning centres

• learn what are the elements of a tooling system in CNC
• understand the locking fixture and roleution knob
• learn the factors of selecting a tool holder.
The Tooling System for a CNC machine includes, universal

quide change chuck, adopters for drilling, reaming and
tapping adjustable adopter floating holders,
non-reversible quick change tapping chuck, hydraulic

chuck.
The fixture to hold the tool is to be designed based on the

turret head. A tool holder locking fixture is shown below at
Fig 1
Tools can be convenients and quickly clamped to tool

handers, for which collet type chucks are used. The Fig 2
Selection of tool holder
indicates CNC tool holder with ER collets.
The three factors that determine the selection of tool
The collets have a shoot range and comes in different
holders for a job include flange type, spindle taper nunmber
sizes. A set of collets is shown in the Fig 2
and cutting tool to be used. In selection of an adapter, the
Tool holders for machining cetre provide a standard spindle following must be considered
nose taper (Fig 3) and size for insertion of tool holders. The • Gauge distance
tool holder knob in the tool holder allows the locking. The
• Diameter of cutting tool shawk
locking drawbar to pull the tool firmly into the spindle and
to released auomatically. The retention knob is either • Adapter outside daimeter
flange type, threaded type or tapered size.

Cutting tool material for CNC turning

• identify the cutting tool material for CNC
• learn the characteristics of cutting tool making.
Cutting tool for CNC tool life is estimated using formula V(T)n = C Where
Though carbon steels, containing 0.9% C, 1% manganese, V = cutting speed , m/min.

duly hardened for 62 HRC used in older days, High speed T = Tool life in minutes
steel is invariably used for ordinary lathe turning. HSS also
used for tools like drill, reverse taps, dies etc;but had a C = Cutting speed for tool life of 1 minute
maximum cutting speed of 60m/min However for CNC n = Taylor exponent
coated carbide or sintered carbide were used which had
high thermal conductivity. Tool material Typical ‘n’ value
Presently Coated Carbide tools, using titanium nitride,

titanium carbide and Aluminium oxide with a thickness HS steel 0.08 - 0.2
upto 15 micron is used for increased tool life. Cubic boron Cast alloy 0.1 - 0.15
nitride (CBN) a hardest material is used for machining alloy
and tool steel. These tool bits are coated with thick layer carbide 0.2 - 0.5
of poly crystaline boron nitride sintered onto a carbide ceramic 0.5 - 0.7
substrate under pressure and this can have as high as 310
metres/min of cutting speed.
Diamond tools are for more specific application, replacing

(PCD), polycrystalline diamond. This tool can be used for
very high speed machining. Aluminium Alloys and
non-metallic material. This tool can go up to a high cutting
speed of 2000m/min.
The tool life of a CNC tool is more important factor and the

ISO Nomenclature for Turning tool holder, boring tool holder, indexable
insert
• understand ISO nomenclature for turning tool holder
• learn about boring tool holder
• learn about indexable inserts.
Turning holders names follows an ISO nomenclature 6 Shank length

standard If you are working on a CNC shop floor in the lathe,
7 shank width
knowing ISO nomenclature is a must. The name looks
complicated but actually it is very easy to interpret 8 Holder length
9 Insert cutting edge length.
P C L N L 25 25 M - 12
When selecting a holder there are in fact only 4 parameters
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 that you really need to understand to select the right holder
for your application. There are numbers marked as Nos.
1 Insert clamping method
2,3,4 and 9 respectively. The others are automatically
2 Insert shape decided.
3 Holder style
In the table below you have to use only your brain in
4 Insert clearance angle selecting the parameter, Where there is a brain symbol in
5 Hand of holder the rows.
Sl.No Parameter Brain How is this decided
1 Insert clamping method Selection based on cutting forces top clamping

is the most steady,screw clamping is the best.
2 Insert type Decided by the contour that you want to turn
3 Holder style
4 Insert clearance cycle Positive/negative based on applicaton
5 Hand of holder Decided based whether you want to cut towards

the chuck or away from chuck and turret position
6 Shank height Decided by machine
7 Shank width
8 Holder length Decision based on part Geometry
9 Insert cutting edge length Decision based on depth of cut you want to use

Tool holders for lathe angle and cutting edge length have the same
representation for tool holders as well as boring bars.
There is an ISO designation system for tool holders also, For a boring bar, the cutting. If cutting is possible with
to suit various types of inserts. The first five characters clockwise rotation (MO3) of the spindle. The example,
describe insert clamping method, compatible insert shape, considered in the figure is S32u SSKCR12 type boring
insert holding style of the tool holder (side cutting edge bar. Manufacturer-specific information may be appended
angle/end cutting edge angle and straight shank/offset in the end, after a gap. Separating dash (1) is also used in
shank), clearance angle and cutting direction, respectively. place of gaps. Referring to Table 1 and Figs 8&9, the
Next four digits specify shank height and shank width in description of S32U SKKCR12 is as follows:
mm (two digits for each). Tool length is specified next, by
a character code. The next and the last two digits specify Shank type (S) Steel shank
cutting edge length in mm. Manufacturers, specific codes
Shank diameter (32) f 32 mm
may be appended in the end. (Figs 6 & 7)
Tool length (U) 350 mm
Insert clamping method Retained via central screw
Compatible insert shape (S) Square
Style of the boring bar -15o end cutting edge
body (R) angle. offset shank.
Clearance angle (C) 7o
Cutting direction (R) Right-rotated (CW spindle)
Manufacturer-specific
information None
Insert clamping method (S) Retained via central

screw
Compatible insert shape (C) 80° diamond
Style of the tool holder body (L) -5° side cutting
edge angle, 5° end
cutting edge angle
and offset shank
Clearance angle (C) 7°
Cutting direction (R) Right-hand
Shank height (25) 25 mm
Shank width (25) 25 mm
Tool length (M) 150 mm Indexable Insert
Cutting edge length (12) 12 mm Inserts are very for machining various application. This
Manufacturer specific information None can be used either in lathe or in a milling machine. The
selective indexable insert commonly used are shown
Boring bars for lathe (Figs 1&2) below:
There is a similar ISO designation system for the internal 1 Boring insert
tool hodlders also (which are called boring bars). See Fig.1 This is mainly used for internal machining including boring
and Fig.2 for details. Refer to Table 1 also for shapes not operation.
shown in these figures. In fact, tool length, clamping
method, compatible insert shape, body style, clearance
2 Cut-off insert 4 Threading insert
These type of inserts are used to parting or cutting purpose, This type is mainly used for fine threading both in lathe
generally referred as cut-off inserts. and in a milling machine.
3 Grooving insert
This insert is mainly used when grooving is needed in a
component.

Production & Manufacturing Related theory for Exercise 4.3.131
Tool holders and inserts for radial grooving, face grooving, threading and
drilling
• understand the ISO designation of tool holders for CNC machine
• learn about various shapes of tool inserts
• learn about the type of clamping for tool holder
• understand the clearance angle and included angle of inserts.
Tool holders The shape of the tool holder can be either straight shank
type or off-set shank type. Another classification of the
For CNC machine tool, we need special tool holders, and tool holder is Right hand (R), left hand (L) and neutral type
the conventional holders used in ordinary lathe and other (N) The tool holders are so designed to suit the various
machine tool may not fit. The tool holders for CNC shapes of available inserts.
machines are specified under ISO designation holders. It
The nomenclature and ISO designation of lathe tool holder
can be clamp type, screw type, locking pin via the bore
is shown in Table1.
etc;
ISO designation for lathe tool holders (Contd.)

1 character
st
2 nd
character 3rd character 4th character 5th character
Insert holding Insert shape Tool holder Insert relief Hand

method style (clearance)
M=top clamp A-85° A = 0° side N = 0° R = right -hand

and lock pin via parallelogram cutting striaght
the bore shank
P = lock pin via the B = 82° B = 15° side cutting A = 3° L = left-hand
bore only parallelogram cutting straight
shank
C=top clamp only C=80° diamond C = 0° end cutting B = 5° N - neutral
straight shank
S=centre D=55° diamond D = 45° side cutting, C = 7°
screw lock only 45° end cutting,
straight shank
X = other methods E = 75° E = 30° side P = 11°
diamond cutting, straight
shank
H = hexagon F = 0° end D = 15°
K = 55° G = 0° side E = 20°
parallelogram cutting, offset shank
L = rectangle H = -17.5° side F = 25°
M = 86° diamond J = -3° side G = 30°
cutting,offset shank
O = octagon K = 15° end
P = pentagon L = 5° side cutting, 5°end

The included angle of the tool inserts generally varies 55°
to 85°. The inserts can be rectangular pentagonal,
hexagonal, triangular, circular, diamond shape etc.
There is a special tool holder used in CNC machines for

boring bars, Which is generally steel shank type, with a
length of 350 mm, retained through central screw, with
offset shank. The clearance angle for boring bar tool is
around 7°.The details of boring bar is shown in
Shank height (25) 25 mm

Shank width (25) 25 mm
Tool length (M) 150 mm
Manufacturer specific information None

Turner - Programming and Simulation
Preparation of Part programming

• define the part programming
• state the purpose of preparatory (G codes) & Miscellanious function (M codes)
• develop the part programming.
Part programming Type of dimensioning

Definition wise “the part program is a sequence of instructions After deciding what NC machines is best suitable and
which describe the work which has to be done on a part, in available for the application, we determine what type of
the form required by a computer under the control of an NC dimensioning system “he machine uses i.e., whether an
computer program”. absolute or incremental dimensional system. (Explained
in previous chapter).
Actually, part programming for NC production consists of
the collection of all data required to produce the part, the Axis designation
calculation of the tool path etc. in a standard format. The
Another consideration is designation the axis of the machine
methods of part programming can be of two types depending
tool. In most cases the programmer already known this
upon the two techniques employed to produce a punched
fundamental element when he select the NC machine tool
tape
for his job. The most important factor in axis designation is
- Manual part programming the location and position of the spindle.
- Computer aided part programming. The part programmer also determines how many axes are
available on machine tool i.e. X, Y, Z, a, bar c and so on.
Manual part programming
Also whether machine tool has a continuous path and point
In manual part programming, the data required for machining, to point control system.
is written in a standard format known as program
NC words
manuscripts. Each horizontal line in a manuscript represents
a ‘block’ of information. In order to understand the language of NC information
processing the following definitions should be understood
Computer aided part programming
A ‘bit’ is the basic unit of information represented by either
If the component requires a great deal of machining such
the absence or the presence of a hole punched on the tape.
as in case of milling machines or contouring applications,
Bit is an abbreviation of “Binary digit”, which can be ‘0’ or’1'.
calculation of cutter paths requires more calculations and
sometimes if a machining centre is used then selecting A code or character is the series of combination of ‘1’ s and
different tool for drilling, tapping, boring and milling makes ‘0’ s. It represents a number of an alphabet or any symbol.
all this part programming more tedious and time consuming.
An NC word is a unit of information, such as a dimension
More mistakes are also likely to occur Thus, we use
(e.g. X01 000 orY1 0025) or feed rate (e.g. F1000 and so on.
general purpose computer as an add, to reduce labour
involved in part programming. Also one of the high level A block is a collection of complete group of NC words
representing a single NC instruction (e.g. N1G01 X100
language such as APT (Automatically Programmed Tools),
Z100 F100). An end of block (EOB) symbol is used to
ADAPT, SPLIT, 2CL, romance, auto stop is used for writing
separate the blocks.
a computer programme.
Block number/sequence number (N - words)
Procedure for developing manual part program
Each block of the program has a sequence number which
The part programming requires an NC programmer to
is used to identify the sequence of a block of data in it which
consider some fundamental elements before the actual
is in ascending numerical order. This enables the operator
programming steps of a part takes place. The elements to
to know which sequence of block is being preformed
be considered are as follows.
practically by the tool. It consists of a character ‘N’ followed
Types of dimensioning system by a three digit number raising from ‘0’ to ‘999’.
- Axis designation Preparatory functions (G - words)
- NCwords The preparatory function is used to initiate the control
commands, typically involving a cutter motion i.e. it prepares
- Standard G and M Codes
the MCU to be ready to perform a specific operation and
- Tape programming format interpret, the data which follows the way of this function. It
- Machine tool zero point setting is represented by the character ‘G’ followed by a two digit

number i.e. ’00 to 99'. These codes are explained and listed model and non - model. Model codes remain active until
separately. cancelled by a contradictory and code of same class. e.g.
G70 is a model code which defines that the dimensional
Dimension words (X,Y and Z words)
units are metric. It will remain active until cancelled by G
These dimension words are also known as ‘co - ordinates’. - 71, which tells that the dimensional units are in inches
Which give the position of the tool motion. These words can now. Non - model G codes are active only in the block in
be of two types. which they are programmed. G04 is non- model code.
Linear dimension words
CNC program procedure (Figs 1 & 2)
- X,Y,Z for primary or main motion.
- U, V, W for secondary motion parallel to X, Y, Z axes
respectively.
- p, q, r for another third type motion parallel to X, Y, Z
axes respectively.
Angular dimension words
- a, b, c for angular motion around X,Y, Z axes respectively.
- I,J,K in case of thread cutting is for position of arc
centre, thread lead parallel to X, Y, Z axes.
These words are represented by an alphabet representing
the axes followed by five or six digits depending upon the
input resolution given.
Feed rate word (F - word)
It is used to program the proper feed rate, to be given in mm/
min or mm/rev as determined by the prior ‘G’ code selection
G94 and G95 respectively.
It is represented by ‘F’ followed by three digit number e.g.
F100 represents a feed rate of 100 mm/ min.
Spindle speed/cutting speed word (S) - word)
It specifies the cutting speed of the process or the rpm of
spindle. It is also represented by ‘S’ followed by the three
digit number. If the speed is given in meter per min. Then
the speed is converted in rpm rounded to two digit accuracy,
e.g. S - 800 represents the 800 rpm of spindle.
Tool selection word (T - word)
It consists of ‘T’ followed by max five digits in the coded
number Different numbers are used for each cutting tools.
When the T number is read from the tape, the appropriate
tool is automatically selected by ATC (Automatic Tool The following are the steps involved in the development of
Changer). Hence this word is used only for machines with a part program and its proving.
ATC or programmable tool turret. e.g. T01, T02, T03……..
represents the tool selection word. Process planning: The programmer carryout a careful
study of part drawing to prepare the process plan. It
Miscellaneous words (M - words) includes the following
It consists of character M followed by two digit number - Machine tools used
representing an auxiliary function such as turning ON/OFF
spindle, coolant ON/OFF. - Fixtures required
End of Block (EOB) - Sequence of operations
It identifies the end of instruction block. - Cutting tools required
G and M codes (G, codes) - Process parameters
This is the preparatory function word, consists of the Axes - selection: The reference axes should be chosen so
address character G followed by a two digit code number, that the coordinates for various features can be determined
known as G - code. This comes after the sequence number easily.
word and a tab code. There are two types of G - codes

Tool selection: Various tools are feasible for a given Fixed sequential format with tab ignored: This is the
operation, but some of them would be more economical same as the fixed sequential format except that TAB codes
than others So it is essential to chose the right tool for the are used to separate the words for easier reading.
job.
Example
Cutting process parameters planning: For a given tool
001 00 70 30 03
and the operation, the appropriate process parameters
such as speed, feed and depth of cut are to be selected. 002 00 70 60 03
These may be taken from the handbooks supplied by the Tab sequential format: This is same as fixed sequential
cutting tool manufacturer or based on the shop experience. format with tag ignored except that words with the same
Job and tool setup planning: The initial position of job value as in the preceding block can be omitted in the
and tool are defined carefully. sequence.
Tool path planning: A careful planning of the tool path Example
ensures that the required manufacturing specifications are 001 00 70 30 03
achieved at the lowest cost.
002 00 60
Part program writing: This involves the actual writing of
the part programs undertaking the format and syntax Word address format: This format uses a letter prefix to
restrictions into account identify the type of word. Repeated words can be omitted.
The words run together, which makes the code difficult to
Part program providing: Once the part program is read.
created, ‘it should be verified before it can be loaded on the
machine controller for the manufacture of the component. Example
A trial run can be carried out with or without the tool or work N001G00X70Y30M03
piece to enable visualization of movements taking place,
and any collision possible between the tool, the work piece N002Y60
and the clamping device. Word address format with tab separation and variable
Definition of character, word and block word order: This is the same format as word address
format except that words are separated by TAB, and the
Bit: A binary digit is called a bit. In includes 0 or 1. In words in the block can be listed in any order. It is the block
punched tape, the values 0 or 1 are represented by the format used on all modern CNC controllers.
absence or presence of a hole in a certain row and column
position. Example
Character: A character is formed from a row of bits. A N001 G00 X70 Y30 M03
character is a combination of bits representing a numerical N002 Y60
digit (0 to 9), an alphabetical letter (A - Z and a - z ), or a
symbol. Structure or format of a part program
Word: Award is formed from a sequence of characters. A The complete part program for a given component consists
word specifies a detail about the operation, such as X - of a beginning code of %. A part program consists of large
position, Y - position, feed rate, or spindle speed. number of blocks each representing an operation to be
carried out in the machining of the part. The words in each
Block: A block is formed from a collection of words. A block block are usually given in the following order.
is one complete NC instruction. It specifies a destination
for the move, the speed and feed of the cutting operation, - Sequence number (N - word)
and other commands that determine what the machine will - Preparatory word (G - word)
do.
- Coordinates (X -, Y-,Z- words for linear axes; A-, B-,C-
Block format words for rotational axes)
The order in which words appear in a block of instruction is - Feed rate (F -word)
called the format. The following are the block formats used
in NC programming. - Spindle speed (S - word)
Fixed sequential format: This formal was used on many - Tool selection (T·· word)
of the first commercially available NC machines. Each - Miscellaneous command (M - word)
instruction block contain five words in only numerical data
and in a very fixed order. - End - of - block (EOB symbol)
Example The structure of part program used in fanuc controller is

given below. .
00100703003
%; (program start)
00200706003
03642 (program number)
N010
Blocks ................
Address Function
N100 M02; (program end)
N Sequence number to identify a block.
M30 (program rewind)
Program number G Preparatory word that prepares the
controller for instruction given in the block.
Each of the program that is stored in the controller memory
requires an identification. It is used while running and X,Y,Z Coordinate date for three linear axes.
editing of the programs directly from the control console.
This identification is specified in terms of a program number U,V,W Coordinate data for incremental moves
with 0 word address. The number can be a maximum off our in turning in the X, Y and Z directions
digits. respectively
Sequence number (N - word) A,B,C Coordinate data for three rotational axes
X, Y and Z respectively.
Each block in a part program always starts with a block
number, which is used as identification of the block. It is R Radius of are, used in circular
programmed with a N word address. interpolation.
Coordinate function
I,J,K Coordinate values of arc centre,
The coordinate values are specified using the word address corresponding to X,Y and Z-axes
such as X,Y, Z, U, V, W, I, J, K, etc. All these word respectively.
addresses are normally signed along with decimal point
depending upon the resolution available in the machine F Feed rate per minute or revolution in
tool. either inches or millimeters.
Comments S Spindle rotation speed.

Parentheses are used to add comments in the program to T Tool selection, used for machine tools
clarify the individual functions that are used in the program. with automatic tool changer or turrets.
When the controller encounters the opening parenthesis,
it ignores all the information till it reaches the closing D Tool diameter word used for offsetting
parenthesis. the tool.
Example P It is used to store cutter radius data in
N010 GOO Z50 M05 (Spindle stops and rapidly moves up) offset register. It defines first contour
Table - common word addresses used in word address block number in canned cycles.
format. Q It defines last contour block number in
canned cycles.
M Miscellaneous function.
Types of offsets
• list the types of offsets used in CNC machine.
Types of offsets To make the tool to move with reference to the job, work
There are three type of offsets used in CNC machine
operation. They are: Procedure for taking work offset
(i) Work offset (or) zero offset Clamp the job in the chuck of the machine
(ii) Geometrical offset Set the tool In the required order set in the machine turret
(iii) Wear offset Set the jog mode or the tool and touch the face of the job.
Work offset (or) zero offset With the use of 2 paper check the proper contact of tool with
the face.
Every manufacturer fix a reference point on the spindle of
the machine according to the design of manufacturing. Now select the work co - ordinate system from G54 to G59.
The tool will take the command and move with reference to Enter the Z value in the selected work co - ordinate system.
this machine reference point. Now touch the diameter with the same tool.
Check the contact of the tool with the job using a paper. This command will clear any previous values and will mea-
sure the current tools tool offset in Z axis.
Now enter the diameter of the job in the tool contact point
in the X value in the selected work co - ordinate system Now touch the tool to a know diameter on the component.
This particular work co - ordinate system should be Again in the tool - geometry page enter the command X
mentioned in the part program. (The value of the diameter) for example if the diameter is
50 mm then X50.
Geometrical offset
The tools used in a CNC machine are of different
geometry. The length of the tools vary accordingly. Enter the Z and X commands for various tools in the under
respective tool number.
other tools. Wear offset
So for every tool offset is taken and entered in tool offset Because of long running the tool tip may wear out and the
value in work co - ordinate system. dimension of the job may increase or decrease from the
original programmed dimension.
Because of this every tool will take the work zero point as
origin. To rectify this defect wear offset is used.
The procedure for geometrical offset is given below. Procedure for entering wear offset
Clamp the job in the chuck of the machine. If the programmed size is X40.48 and the machine size is
40.44 in this 0.04 mm is reduced due to tool wear.
Set the tools in the required order in the machine turret.
To rectify this take the tool offset number of the worn out
Select the jog mode or MPG mode.
tool.
Select the first tool and touch the face of the job.
In that tools wear offset number enter the value U0.04
Check with a piece of paper whether the contact of tool
In the inner diameter defects instead of positive value put
with the job is proper.
U - 0.04 in the wear offset number.
Now take the geometrical offset page and enter under the
The tool offset number and wear offset number are same.
tool number the command Z 0 (zero).
Reference points of CNC machines

• explain the features of reference point applied in CNC machine tools.
Zero and reference points on CNC machine tools - Initial set - up of the machine.
Reference zero points are the base or starting points that - As the reference point for other reference points such
are chosen as the reference for calculating the coordi- as reference return points, work zeros, and program
nates of the other points. Also, reference zero points are zeros.
called the zero points. CNC controls use the following
- As the tool change position.
zero points to facilitate the programming of tool paths.
Work part zero point
M Machining reference zero point
W Work part zero point W
R Relative point
A work part zero point is the origin of the work piece's
Machine zero point coordinate system. It is used to determine the work's co-
ordinate system in relation to the machine zero point. The
M work zero points are often referred to as set - up points
because they are the location for setting up the workpiece
The machine zero point is the origin of the machine coor- on the machine table. some CNC controls allow the use
dinate system. It is set by the machine tool manufacturer of multiple work zero points in one machine set up or
and cannot be changed. operation. The work zero point is labelled by W and repre-
sented by the symbol above.
The machine zero is labelled with an M and represented
by the symbol shown above. The work zero point can be chosen by the programmer at
any convenient location within the working envelope of the
Normally the machine zero is not directly used as the machine. It is recommended that you place the workpiece
reference point for writing part programs. It may be used zero point in a way that it can be easily located and mea-
in one of the following three applications. sured on the workpiece.
Reference return point The location of the first reference return point is precisely
predetermined in each moving axis in relation to the ma-
chine zero point. Because of this, it can be used for cali-
R brating and regulating the measuring system of the slide
table and spindle.
In Fig 1 reference return points are the locations to which
the machine table or the spindle is returned. They are Specifically, the reference point is used in four situations
identified by the letter R and are represented by the above - When the control is powered up, all axes always must
symbol. be positioned at the reference return point to calibrate
the measuring system.
- The machine must be re-positioned to the reference
return point for re-establishing the proper coordinate
value in situations such as losing the current position
data due to electrical failure or improper operation.
- All axes must be retracted to the reference point
before the tool change can take place.
- At the end of the program, all axes must be retracted
to the reference return point to reset the control sys-
tem for re - running the part program or running a new
program.

CNC Simulation Process

• understand the function of a CNC simulation
• learn the benefits of simulator.
Simulation process in a CNC machine system is a program Purpose of Simulator

verification activity. Most of the CNC machines come with
suitable simulation software installed. The purpose of CNC Simulator Pro is to provide the CNC
community with a versatile Full 3D simulator with CAD/
This software simulates the tool movement on a graphic CAM capability. In the simulator you may find different type
screen. The software first checks the program syntax. of machines like milling machines, router, lathes, cutter,
3D printer etc,.
When the program is found correct, the simulation starts.
It automatically adapt your part programmes to different
In simulation, the dimensions of the given component is CNC machines. The simulator solution provides the break
shown on the screen and the chosen tool start moving with down of the details of tools used during the job, the
respect to the program command. positioning of fixtures & part for multi-setup operation;
through providing a shop floor documentation.
The resulting shape that will be obtained on completion of
simulation represents the final size & shape of component. The traditional APT-based simulation system, only simulate
the planned tool-path where as modern advance control
Simulation (verification of program) can be done block by Enulator, delivers a more meaning simulation, recreating
block. how the machine will react the G-code generated by your
post-processor. It provides powerful validation method
With this software, it is easily possible to analyse the tool allowing users to determine the association between
path, during the turning process. G-code & specific operations inside the NC program.
The flow chart for simulation process is shown below:- Ex: G04 X2.0 [Dwell at 2 second]
X30.25 Y5.00
G03 X35.25 Y10.00
G01 X35.25 Y50.10 - Toolpath
G03 X5.00 Y50.10
G03 X35.25 Y10.00
Most common used of simulator:-

• Technical Training for programmers & operators in
Training center.
• Editing/simulation in design dept.
• Machining time estimate.
• In preparing equation processing.

Process and tool selection (CNC)

• understand selection of tool for CNC
• understand the factors contributing for tool selection
• learn about MachiningCloud APP.
The main factors that should be considered while writing a workpiece clamping. Similarly tool holding details
CNC programme, is what type of tooling should be selected such as Holding strength, axis/radial runout, tool
for a specific job. Making the right selection depends on overhang etc needs to be considered.
how well one understand the vital factors that may have
step 4: What Machining Operation needed?
impact on the job.
The operation can be face turning, OD turning, ID
The selection of tool is based on: turning (Boring), grooving/profiling, threading of
the components. Geometry & tolerances
• The machine being used for the manufacture. permissible such as dimensional accuracy,
surface finish, part distortion, surface integerity
• The material used for the job.
etc.
• The quantity of machining parts.
step 5: In what order should operations to be performed?
• The requirement of the customer.
This includes minimising tool changes, travel
• The specification of the tool to be used. distance between operations, achiving shortest
cycle time, maintaining consistency etc,.
All the above five factors are related and interlinked. All the
information are avaliable in Router of Tool Directory. spet 6: What type of tool are needed?
Parameters such as part material/tool mateial,
The tool used for CNC mainly depends on the type of depth of cut to be given, smallest concave radius
material used, type of workdone, quality of finish needed etc are to be taken into consideration to decide
the no.of components to be run etc,. the tool material, inserts, shape, tolerance etc,.
CNC machine may have different tool configuration. One C & W inserts are used for rough machining
should know which tool configuration is suitable for hard D & V inserts are used for finish machining.
material or a typical raw material. The Direction of cut, is
another factor which affects the tool life, and quality of the Square or round shape inserts used for grooving.
cut based on customer specification, the cutting speed, 3 point inserts are used for threading.
spindle speed & feed are important in the manufacturing
step 7: Are the required tools available?
process.
MachiningCloud APP is an independent provider
The tool selection has to be done following the steps shown
of CNC cutting tool product data. This provides
below:
most up-to-date information, directly obtained
step 1: What type of machining is needed? from the manufacturer. Information can be obtained
Collect the machine drawing of the finished part by download Machining Cloud APP.
and collet important information such as
step 8: What feeds & speeds should I use?
size,shape, stock material,speed & feed for various
operation, namely turning, facing, boring etc. Material run better at specific SFM. The
recommended SFM for cutting aluminium is 150
step 2: What is the work piece material?
to 400. SFM is the combination of cut diameter &
Ascertain the workpiece material & the parameters RPM. SFM is constant for a material. RPM mode
like chip forming, material hardness, alloy G97 is useful for centre cutting operations (drilling)
elements.These information have significant CSS mode (G96) is useful for good surface finish,
influence on the spindle speed & feed rates. better tool life. (SFM- Surface Feet / Minute,
step 3: What are the Capabilties of your machine? CSS- Common Surface Speed)
This includes machine HP, stability, horizontal or

vertical type, spindles type & size, no.of axes,

Part programe for Grooving

• learn about G75 grooving cycle
• understand that grooving linking with parting
• follow the part programme of a grooving cycle.
Introduction Grooving canned cycle [G75]

Grooving is an important & complicated operation in
turning. G75 is the grooving cycle in ‘X’ in a CNC machine.
Grooving is an operation in which the tool is plunged into

surface of the work piece until the proper depth is reached.
The grooving has to be done step by step and grooving
cycles have been developed which allows for wide grooves
to be cut with multiple passes by a specific shift value with
a Q-word, and P word for depth of cut.
Grooving cycle (G75)

%
O0013
N1;
G28 U0 W0;
G97 S600 M03;
In grooving, the grooving tool is positioned to the start point,
T0303; [4mm groove width]
then call the canned cycle. The tool will take an initial cut
to the finished diameter. Then it will retract to the starting G00 X31.0 Z5.0 M08;
X-position & move over in the Z axis by the amount specified G01 Z-29.0 F0.1;
with the P-word. The tool will make several passes until it
reaches the programmed Z cooridnate. If the X coordinate G75 R1.0;
is programmed to zero grooving will become parting. G75 X20.0 Z-37.0 P500 Q4000 F0.08;
The syntax of G75 code is as follows: G00 X35.0;
Z5.0 M09;
G75 R___;
G28 U0 W0;
G75 X___Z___P___Q___F___;
M05;
Where,
M30;
R = Reliving the tool
X = Groove diameter (mm)
Z = Groove length (mm)
P = Depth of cut in ‘x’ axis in microns (radial value)
Q = Shift value in Z axis microns
F = Feed

Part Programming for Drilling

• understand the part programme for drilling in CNC machine.
The part program is a sequance of instructions, which F : Feed rate

decribe the work, which has to be done on a component in %
the form as required by a computer under the control of a
NC computer program. All data is fed into numerical control O0029
system using standard format. N1; (C.D)
In manual part programming: The programmer first G28 U0 W0;
perpares the manuscripts which is typed on flexo writer, T0200;
and carried out in the machine.
G97 S1500 M04;
Important details for a part programming:-
G00 X0.0 Z5.0 T0202 M08;
• Machining sequence, tool start up point, cutting depth,
tool paths. G01 Z-6.0 F0.12;
• Cutting conditions, spindle speed, feed rate, coolant G00 Z5.0 M09;
etc. G28 U0 W0 M05;
• Selection of cutting tool. M01;
In drilling operation in CNC, a special program of G74 is
used, Known “Peck” cycle and a part programme for drilling N2;
using the above G74 cycle is given below: G28 U0 W0;
G74 - Peck drilling cycle T0700;

G97 S1500 M04;
G00 X0.0 Z5.0 T0707 M08;
G74 R4.0;
G74 Z-50.0 Q8000 F0.05;
G00 Z5.0 M09;
G28 U0 W0 M05;
M30;
Format
G74 R__;
G74 Z___Q___F___;
R : Retract value
Z : Depth of the hole
Q : Depth of cut per pass in Microns

Turner - Programming and simulation
Part Programme for Boring

• understand the programme for boring in CNC machine.
Boring operation in CNC is preceeded by a drilling operation. N57 G0 X19.7 LF

Hence the component should be initially programmed for
drilling either manual or G74 canned cycle. The important
factors to be considered for part programming for boring N58 G01 Z-62 F100 LF
operation includes:
1 Boring sequence, tool start point, cutting depth, tool N59 G0 X17 Z2 LF
path.
2 Cutting parameters, spindle speed, feed rate, coolant, N60 G0 X20.7 LF
cutting condition ect.
3 The boring is carried out in steps with 4 operation with N61 G01 Z-30 F100 LF
initial heavy cuts followed by lesser feed.
4 Selection of correct cutting tool, and cutting speed N62 G0 X17 Z2 LF
suitable for the component should be done.
N63 G0 X22.7 LF
N64 G01 Z-30 F100 LF
N65 G0 X17 Z2 LF
N66 G0 X22.7 LF
N67 G01 Z-30 F100 LF
N68 G0 X17 Z2 LF
N69 G0 X23.7 LF
N70 G01 Z-30 F100 LF

The part programming for the sbove component is indicated,
with normal boring operation. N71 G0 X17 Z2 LF
(Boring)
N72 G0 X24 LF
N51; S1200 M03 LF
N73 G01 Z-30 F100 LF
N52 T6 D6 M06 LF
N74 G01 X20 F100 LF
N53 G0 X17 Z2 M08 LF
N75 G01 Z-62 F100 LF
N54 G0 X19 LF
N76 G00 X17 Z2 M09 LF
N55 G01 Z-62 F100 LF
N77 G0 G90 G53 Z180 Z0 LF
N56 G0 X17 Z2 LF
N78 D0 LF
N79 M05 LF N7 G00 X49 Z2 LF
N80 M30 LF N8 G01 Z-25 F100 LF
2nd Operation:
N9 G00 X48 Z2 LF
%8
N1 G0 G90 G53 X180 Z0 LF N10 G01 Z-25 F100 LF
N2 S1500 M03 LF N11 G00 X55 Z10 M09 LF
N3 T1 D1 M06 LF N12 G0 G90 G53 X180 Z0 LF
N4 G0 X52 Z5 M08 LF N13 D0 LF
N5 G0 Z0 LF N14 M05 LF
N6 G01 X0 F100 LF N15 M30 LF

Part Programme for Threading

• understand the programme for external and internal threading in CNC machine.
The threading operation in a CNC machine is precceded by N32 G0 G90 G53 X180 Z0 LF
a turning operation. The threading programme will therefore
have rough turning G73 and finish turning G72 operation.
The external threading is represented in N29 and internal N33 D0 LF
threading in N48 blocks of the part programe for the
component shown below. N34 M05 LF
N35 M01 LF
N36 M30 LF
(ID Threading)
N45 S1000 M04 LF
N46 T8 D8 M06 LF
N47 G0 X28 Z5 M08 LF
N48 R20=1.5 R21=280.53 R22=0 R23=2

R24=-0.973 R25=0.03 R26=3 R27=2
R28=5 R29=30 R31=30 R32=-52
LF
N49 L97 P1 LF
N50 G0 X25 LF
N51 G0 Z10 M09 LF
N52 G0 G90 X53 X180 Z0 LF

(Threading)
N53 D0 LF
N26 S900 M04 LF
N54 M05 LF
N27 T5 D5 M06 LF
N55 M30 LF
N28 G0 X33 Z5 M08 LF
G76 - Multiple therad cutting cycle
N29 R20=1.5 R21=28 R22=0 R23=3
R24=-0.97 R25=0.02 R26=3 R27=2 Format:
R28=5 R29=30 R31=26.05 R32=-22 G76 P____Q____R____;
LF
G76 X____Z____P____Q____F____;
N30 L97 P1 LF
N31 G0 X50 Z10 M08 LF

G76 X27.404 Z-42.0 P1238 Q300 R20;
G00 X32.0;
Z5.0 M09;
G28 U0 W0 M05;
M30;
(h = 0.649 p, for metric thread)
h = 0.649 2.0 = 1.298 mm.
d = 30 - (2 1.298)
= 27.404 mm.
ID Threading
%
Explanation for the cycle:

P : NCA
N : Number of finishing passes
C : Chamber amount
A : Included angle
Q : Minimum depth of cut in microns (radial value)
R : Finishing depth of cut in microns (radial value)
O0032
X : External therading (minor dia) internal threading G28 U0 W0;
(minor dia)
T0500;
Z : Thread length
G97 S600 M04;
P : Height of thread (microns) G00 X38.0 Z5.0 T0505 M08;
Q : Firast depth of cut in microns (radial value) G76 P030060 Q150 R20;
F : Feed (pitch of the thread) G76 X40 Z-110.0 P1298 Q300 F2.0;
Example G00 X38.0;
OD Threading Z5.0 M09;
G28 U0 W0 M05;
M30;
%
O0031
G28 U0 W0;
T0400; Minor dia, d = D - (2h)
G97 S600 M04; (h = 0.649 p, for metric thread)
G00 X32.0 Z5.0 T0404 M08; h = 0.649 2.0 = 1.298 mm.
G76 P0300 Q150 R20; d = 40 - (2 1.298)

= 37.404 mm.
Turner - CNC Turning Operation
Programming on CNC Tapping

• learn what is G84 code in CNC
• understand tapping cycle
• learn the differefce between rigid tapping & long form tapping.
G84 code in CNC progrmming refers to tapping cycle in Tapping comes under canned cycle with intermittent feed,
CNC. This is carried out with tapping heads, and Tension/ with Dwell spinlde CW with feed retraction in Z direction as
Compression tap holders. shown in table below.
G84 code is commonly used program for tapping, used on Example: Tap 1/4-20 thread 0.500” deep at 0,
threaded holes. There are two ways of tapping program.
Here is the Gcode
• One using tapping cycle with rigid tapping capabilities.
M03;
• Long Form (no canned cycle needed) programming
M8 (Speed & feed rate)
when a tapping head is used that do not have rigid tapping.
S400 F20 (Tapping)
To use rigid tapping, the CNC machine should support the
synchronnisation of feed motion with the spindle speed. Z1.0;
G84 code is tapping RH threads with M3 spindle rotation. G00 X0.0 Y0.0;
G74 code is tapping LH threads with M4 G01 M29;
Rigid motion mode is used in Fanuc control using M29 G84 Z-0.5 R02;
code. M03 spindle in right direction
Advantages M8 collant ON
• A tapping head may have a gear ratio that allows it to S400 Spindle speed 400rpm & feed rate 20
retract faster. You will want to change feed rate when
retracting. Next we move to save Z&XY.
• A Dwell at the bottom of the hole may be helpful as the Switch G01 & M29 to turn rigid tapping lastly G84 is run
spindle reverse to even out the amount of spring with Z indicating coordinate & R retracting coordinate.
adjustment being used. If we had more holes to be tapped we can list their XY
• It is possible to drag the feed rate a bit. coordinate, viz
G84 Z-0.5 R0.2;
X0.0 Y1.0 etc etc;

TABLE 1
Canned cycle used in OMC
G-code Application Z-direction operation at the Retraction in

bottom of the hole Z direction
G73 High speed peck drilling Intermittent feed Dwell-spindle rotates Feed
CW spindle orientation
Tool tip moved opposite
to cutting & retracted
G76 Fine boring Feed ------- -------
G80 Canceling of G81-G89 ------- ------- -------
Cycles
G81 Centre/spot drilling Feed ------- -------
G82 Counter bore/counter sink Feed Dwell Rapid traverse
G83 Peck/deep hole drilling Intermittent feed ------- Rapid traverse
G84 Tapping cycle Feed Dwell spindle CW Feed
G85 Boringcycle Feed ------- Feed
G86 Boring cycle Feed Spindle stop Rapid traverse
G87 Back boring cycle Feed Spindle CW Rapid traverse
G88 Boring cycle Feed Dwell-spindle stop Manual retract
G89 Boring Feed Dwell Feed

CNC Programme for Grooving OD/ID

• learn parameters of grooving cycle
• understand reading a grooving program.
Grooving is a very difficult operation amoungst turning

operation. In CNC G75-code is meant for grooving cycle in
x axis. The explanation of parameters of Fanuc G75
grooving cycle is as shown below.
Explanation of parameters of Fanuc G75 grooving
cycle
N10 G75 R
N20 G75 X Z P Q R
G75 First CNC Programming Block
R = Return amount
G75 Second CNC Programming Block
X = Groove Depth
Z = Last groove position in z-axis Job sequence
P = Peck increment in x-axis • Switch on the CPU and monitor.
Q = Stepping in z-axis • Selct the software.
R = Relif amount at end of the cut. • Study the drawing.
G75 Canned Cycle Grooving CNC Programming • Enter the programme in edit mode.
Example
• Using cycles.
• Select required tool and clamping devices.
• Connect the interface cable from external device to CNC
lathe machine.
• Execute the programme.
A detailed part programme of a component involving
turning, drilling,groove using G75 canned cycle is shown
below
Part Program
O0009
N10 G50 S500 T0100 N1: (Turning)
N20 G97 S400 M03 G28 U0 W0;
N30 G00 X90.0 Z1.0 T0101 G50 S2000 T0101;
N40 X82.0 Z-60.0 G96 S200 M03;
N50 G75 R1.0 G00 X30.0 Z5.0 M08;
N60 G75 X60.0 Z-20.0 P3000 Q20000 F0.1 Z0.0;
N70 G00 X90.0 G01 X-1.0 F0.1;
N80 X200.0 Z200.0 T0100 G00 X28.0 Z2.0;
N90 M30 G71 U1.0 R1.0; ;

G71 P10 Q20 U0.0 W0.0 F0.1;

N10 G01 Z0.0 F0.1; M01;
X16.0; N4; (OD Grooving 3 mm width)
X20.0 Z-2.0; G28 U0 W0;
Z-25.0; G97 S600 M03;
X24.0 Z-40.0 T0303;
N20 G01 Z-50.0 F0.1; G00 X22.0 Z5.0 M08;
G00 X30.0 Z5.0 M09; G01 Z-23.0 F0.1;
G28 U0 W0; G75 R2.0;
M05; G75 X16.0 Z-25.0 P500 Q2000 F0.06;
M01; G00 X25.0;
N2; (Centre drill) Z5.0 M09;
G28 U0 W0; G28 U0 W0;
G97 S2000 M04; M05;
T0202; M01;
G00 X0.0 Z5.0 M08; N5; (Threading)
G01 Z-6.0 F0.08; G28 U0 W0;
G00 Z5.0 M09; G97 S600 M04;
G28 U0 W0; T0505;
M05; G00 X22.0 Z5.0 M08;
M01; G01 Z3.0 F0.1;
N3; (ø6 Drill) G76 P030060 Q150 R20;
G28 U0 W0; G76 X16.177 Z-22.0 P1622 Q300 F2.5;
G97 S1800 M04; G00 X25.0 Z5.0 M09;
T0404; G28 U0 W0;
G00 X0.0 Z5.0 M08; M05;
G74 R2.0; M01;
G74 Z-53.0 Q10000 F0.06; M30;
G00 Z5.0 M09; %
G28 U0 W0;
M05;

CNC programming on Threading

• learn about G-WIZARD software
• programme for thread canning cycle
• understand the difference between single line and double line command.
The important thing in thread authing operation is to fix up have to do quite a lot of calculation to figure out exactly
the thread start and thread end positions. The end position how many passes will be made.
is easier in Z axis, as we know the length of threaded
But there if you have a GCode Simulator, it may be able
component. For thread cutting in CNC lathe, G-Wizard
to help out. Take a look at this screen shot of G-Wizard
thread calculator software, provides complete database
Editor:
for all threads.
Fanuc Double Line G76 Threading Cycle
The start position is interesting as we start threading
somewhere from outside the threads. You need to leave G76 P(m) (r) (a) Q(dmin) R(d)
some allowance in Z to give CNC machineto synchronize
G76 X(U) Z(W) R(i) P(k) Q(d) F(L)
the feed rate with spindle rotational position, Cutting
thread puts more stress on the cutter. Thread height, taper P Word: The P-word has 6 digits consisting of three 2-
amount, thread pitch or lead, therad infeed angle (TN digit clusters for m, r, and a.
angle) are important in making the programme. m: Repetitive finishing count (1 to 99)-spring passes.
G76 is threading cycle followed in CNC Program. r: Chamfering amount (1 to 99)
Tips & thoughts on passes in threading cycle is detailed a: Angle of Tool Nose. Select 80, 60, 55, 30, 29 or 0
below. degrees.
G76 Threading Cycle Tips and Thoughts on Passes Q Word: dmin is the Minimum Cutting Depth. If the depth
Passes of either a roughing or finish pass is less than this, it is
clamped to be at least this much.
The number of passes that must be cut to make your
thread is very important. Take too few passes, and surface R Word: d is the finish allowance.
finish is apt to be poor and you might even break your X/Z/U/W words (2nd line): Specify the coordinates of the
threading tool by forcing it to work too hard. Take too end point. X, Z use the current mode (absolute or relative)
many passes and you're going to waste a lot of time. while U, W can be used to specify a relative position.
You can't change most of the information relating to the R Word (2nd line): i is the taper amount when cutting
thread's specifications, so your primary tools for controlling tapered threads.
the number of passes include:
P Word (2nd line): k is the thread height expressed as a
– Start Position: Turn things down as I describe above radius (not diameter) value.
to minimize the work the threading tool must do.
Q Word (2nd line): d is the depth of the first cut.
– First Pass Depth: Pick the largest pass you can. G-
Wizard Calculator will give you a good recommendation F Word (2nd line): L is the lead of the thread.
here. Example: Fanuc 2 line G76 cutting a tapered pipe thread:
– Minimum Pass Depth: Try to avoid using this parameter Fanuc Single Line G76 Threading Cycle
too much and set it to your Finish Allowance.
G76 X.. Z.. I.. K.. D.. F.. A.. P..
– Finish Allowance: A smaller finish allowance can mean
larger roughing passes remove most of the material. X = Diameter of last threading pass
Just remember, too small an allowance will force your Z = Position of the thread end
cutter to rub.
I = Taper over total length
– Spring Passes: You shouldn't need more than 2 passes
and 1 may suffice. Experiment with your particular K = Single depth of the thread - positive
situation to see if you can get by with 1 or perhaps D = Depth of first threading pass - positive
even no spring passes.
A = Included angle of the insert - positive
Your next challenge will be in determining how many
passes the cycle will actually make. This is not easy as P = Infeed method (one of 4)
G76 will dynamically change the depth of each pass after Haas G76 Threading Cycle
the first to equalize the amount of material removed. You
Copyright @ NIMI Not toG76
beD..Republished
K.. X.. Z.. U.. W.. I.. P.. F.. A..
105
D = Initial cut depth Q = Compound slide angle (optional)
K = Thread height H = Spring passes (optional)
Z* = Z-axis absolute ending location. Determines thread E = Distance along drive line for taper
length.
L = Which end of the thread gets tapered. L0 = no taper.
U* = X-axis incremental distance to end. May be used L1 = entry taper. L2 = exit taper. L3 = entry and exit
instead of X. taper.
W* = Z-axis incremental distance to end. May be used Mach 3 G76 Threading Cycle
instead of Z.
G76 X.. Z.. Q.. P.. H.. I.. R.. K.. L.. C.. B.. T.. J..
I* = Thread taper amount (radius measure).
X = X end
P* = Subsequent pass positioning method (1-4)
Z = Z end
F* = Feedrate
P = Pitch
A* = Tool nose angle (0 -120 degrees. 0 assumed if not
H = Depth of first pass
specified)
I = Infeed angle
LinuxCNC / PathPilot G76 Threading Cycle
R = X Start (optional)
G76 P.. Z.. I.. J.. R.. K.. Q.. H.. E.. L..
K = Z Start (optional)
P = Thread pitch in distance per revolution
L = chamfer (optional)
Z = Final position of threads
C = X Clearance
I = Thread Peak offset. Negative for external, positive for
internal. B = Depth Last Pass (optional)
J = Initial cut depth T = Taper (optional)
K = Full thread depth J = Minimum depth per pass (optional)
R = Depth digression (optional). R = 1 is constant depth,
R =2 is constant areas.

Production & Manufacturing RelatedTheory for Exercise 4.5.142
Trouble shooting in CNC machines

• learn trouble shooting of CNC machines
• understand electrical/electronic problems & remedy
• understand hydraulic problem & remedy.
Introduction: A CNC Machine operates on 3 Dust particles results in short circuit,corrosion of tracts,
electrical,electronics mechanical, pneumatic and hydraulic PCBs and fuse getting blown. To avoid this dust
system invovled in its automation. If one of the above protective guards should be fitted.
elements doesnot function or function partially the whole
machine will come to stand still position. In CNC machine 4 Improper ventillation results in malfunctioning of
trouble shooting arises due to electrical,servo and electronic circuits.
mechanical problems. 5 Poor supply voltage with poor voltage regulation affects
the sensitive electronic device. Suggested not to operate
The trouble shooting can be split in to: welding machines near CNC machine.
1 PLC trouble shooting 6 Electrostatic charges transfer from human body may
damage electronic components,leads to lose of data
2 Low voltage problem and hence, store PCBs in anti-static covers.
3 Power up problem Poor switching devices like contactors,chokes.
4 Zero return problem Transformers are to be grouped & separated from CNC
system. The AC cables should not run parallel for long
5 Door inter lock circuit problems distance.
6 Relay board repair and problems
Safety Interlocks in CNC machines:
7 Hydraulic system trouble shooting
Power chucks should be damped befroe execution in
General causes of failure in electrical and electronic MDA, Auto mode or single mode.
devices
• Poor earthing During cycle, in case of pressure failure, both spindle and
axis should stop.
• Loose connection
• Dust particles or coolant entry If slide lubrication system fail, cycle may continue till M30/
M02 of programme. The fault has to be rectified for cycle
• Improper ventillation restart.
• Blocked air circulation
Jogging of axis is not permitted when the cycle is in
• Poor supply voltage condition progress. Spindle & collant stops automatically with M30/
• Sag for duration less than 2.5 seconds M02 command.
• Surge for duration less than 2.5 seconds If an unspecified battery is used (For memory, pulse coder)
• Spike (very high voltage lasting for few micro seconds) it may explode. Replace the battery only with the specified
one (A02B-0177-K106). Dispose used batteries in
• Blockout/Brown out greater than 2.5 seconds accordance with applicable laws.
• EMI (electromagnetic interference) affect switching
drill, leads to data corruption. Trouble shooting of Alarm 960 due to abnormal 24V input
power (Fish bone diagram) is shown.
Tips
1 Earthing between servo amplifier and CNC machine is
a wrong practice. CNC mchine and electrical cabinet
should be earthed directly individually.
2 Loose connections leads to failure of CRT monitors,
input/output cards, measuring circuit, interfaces.

Shaft jammed, Defective motor, PLC malfunction, Fuse on
spindle drive etc are other causes.
Effects :
Spindle not rotating
The cause and effect diagram shown, can be further
developed by adding some more causes.
By carrying out the corrective action the problem can be
sorted out.
Trouble shooting on specific elements
Elements Sympton Remedy
1 Motor Surface Cutting fluid on motor Clean the motor
2 Fan motor Not rotating Tighten the loose connection,

remove dirt etc
3 Motor shaft bearing Unusual sound Replace Bearing
4 Abnormal vibration Noise Check all Bearing, belts,etc
5 Cooling air path Clogged with dust Clean air path
6 Interlock safety circuit control cabinet Check all interlock keys fully
engaged at rest.
Check interlock module in
control cabinet, check
contacters
7 Chuck/Actuator Hyd, pump not running Check ladder diagram

Power ON and test, set
the pressure higher
Check input signal of foot switch
8 Soft over travel machine Brake does not stop axis Reset after completing zero
alarm occurs on zero returning return
9 CNC is crashed (some slips CNC control gets goofed up Power down & then backup or
during machine switch) reset
Backup battery Needs replacement Keep encoder position when

power is shut off
Lubrication pump problem Noise in axis Double the oil

Axis motor overload alarms Check for leaks
Check the distribution mainfold
Clean the filter if clogged, ensure
correct oil is fed.

Remedies For Chart 1 d Install pressure gauge and adjust to correct pressure
(keep atleast 125 psi difference between valve settings)
a Any or all of the following: Replace dirty filters. When
strainers in solvent compatible with system fluid. Clean e Overhaul or replace.
clogged inlet line. Clean reservoir breather vent. Change
f Change filters and also system fluid if improper viscosity.
system fluid. Change to proper pump drive motor speed.
Fill reservoir to proper level.
Overhaul or replace super-charge pump. Fluid may be
too cold. g Clean cooler and/or cooler strainer. Replace cooler
control valve. Repair or replace cooler.
b Any or all of the following: Tighten leaky inlet
connection. Fill reservoir to proper level (with rate Remedies For Chart 3
exception all return lines should be below fluid level in a Any or all of the following : Replace dirty filters, clogged
reservoir). Bleed air from system. Replace pump shaft inlet line. Clean reservoir breather vent. Fill reservoir to
seal (and shaft if worn at seal journal). proper level. Overhaul or replace supercharger pump.
c Align Unit and check condition of seals, bearings and b Tighten leaky connection. Bleed air from system.
coupling.
c Check for damaged pump or pump drive. Replace and
d Install pressure gauge and adjust to correct pressure. align coupling.
e Overhaul or replace. d Adjust
e Overhaul or replace.
f Check-position of manually operated controls. Check
electrical circuit on solenoid operated controls. Repair
or replace pressure pump.
g Reverse for rotation.
h Replace with correct unit.
Remedies For Chart - 4
a Replace dirty filters and system fluid.
b Tighten leak connecitons (fill reservoir to proper level
and bleed air from system).
c Check gas valve for leakage. Charge to correct
pressure. Overhaul of defectives.
d Adjust.
Remedies For Chart - 5
a Fluid may be too-cold or should be changed to clean
fluid of correct viscosity.
b Locate bind and repair.
c Adjust, repair or replace.
d Clean and adjust or replace. Check conditons of system
fluid and filters.
Remedies For Chart 2
a Any or all following: Replace dirty filters.clean clogged
inlet line. Clean reservoir breather vent. Change system f Repair command console or interconnecting wires.
fluid. Change to proper pump drive motor speed. g Lubricate.
Overhaul or replace supercharge pump.
h Adjust, repair or replace counterbalance valve.
b Any or all the following: Tighten leaky inlet connections.
Fill reservoir to proper level (with rare exception all return
lines should be below fluid level in reservoir). Bleed air
from system. Replace pump shaft seal (and shaft if
worn at seal journal).
c A link unit and check condition of seals and bearings.
Locate and correct mechanical binding.
Check for work load in excess of circuit design.
Factors affecting Quality & Productivity

• understand the definition of quality
• learn characteristic & elements of quality
• learn the increased productivity through implements TPM.
Introduction • Durability of product life

• Providing service after sales & fully resolving problems
Quality & Productivity are vital requirements of modern
& complaints
advanced manufacturing techonologies. Better quality is
achieved through adopting (TQM) and higher productivity • Customer handling and care is a highly sensitivity area
can be achieved through implementing Total Productive
• Meeting customer’s delight through improving aesthetics
Maintenance (TPM).
• Estabilishing reputation through past performance and
To achieve exact quality, we should know the real meaning other intangible efforts.
of quality which is defined by many Quality Experts such
as, Quality characteristic:
It can be broadly grouped under Design, Conformance,
Quality:
Assurance & Control,
• Is fitness for use Quality of Design
Quality of design is the excellence of the design in relation
• Should be aimed at needs of customer
to the ease of manufacture and meeting the customer
requirements.
• As the conformance to requirements
Quality of conformance
• Meeting the customer satisfaction
Quality of conformance is the fidelity with which a product
• Meeting all the characteristic of a product as per or a service conforms to the specified requirements.
specification Quality Assurance
• As per ISO defined as ratio of P/E, with P performance Quality Assurance comprises of all those planned and
& E Expectation systematic actions necessary to provide adequate
confidence that a material, structure, component or system
Importance of Quality: will perform satisfactorily in service. Quality assurance
includes quality control.
• Quality can be result in,
Quality Control
• Bringing out customer delight
Quality control comprises of all those quality assurance
• Increasing market share, easy marketability actions related to the physical characteristics of a material,
• Increasing customer base with more repeated structure, component or system which provide the means
customers to measure and maintain the material, structure,
component or system to pre-determined requirements. The
• Increased profitability main aim of quality control is defect prevention.
• Becoming an industrial hero,entering globalisation
Predictive Maintenance
• Increased morale of the employees of ISO unit
In predictive technique, on the prediction of any fault,
Dimensions of Qulaity: maintenance is being done. It is comparatively a newer
• The various paramters of quality of a product can be maintenance technique.
listed out as: In this technique, equipment condition is measured
• Performance of the product periodically or on a continuous basis.
• Features of the product This enables maintenance staff to take a timely action
such as equipment adjustments, repairs and overhaul.
• Conformance with the requirement of product standard
Predictive maintenance extends the service life of an
• Reliability of the product not failing within stipulated life equipment without any fear of failure.
cycle
TPM Implementation (Fig 1) work culture resulting in better product quality and
productivity.
Objectives
Get operators in touch with their equipment to make them
more familiar with it, develop curiosity and sense of
belonging of ownership and concern.
Establish and maintain basic equipments conditions by
thorough cleaning, lubricating and Tightening.
Increase the availability of plant and Machinery, capacity
utilization and to improve overall equipment efficiency.
TPM Target
P Productivity improvement…………. 1.5 to 2 times
For a productive manufacturing system, a good
• Reduction in Number of Sporadic
maintenance is the fundamental requirement. TPM is all
about keeping the plant and equipment at its highest Failure …………………………… 1/10 to 1/250
productive level through co-operation of all areas of the • Equipment Operating…………… 1.5 to 2 times
organization. This approach does not disregard the
techniques such as predictive and preventive maintenance. Q Reduction in Product Defects…….. 1/10
Predictive maintenance and preventive maintenance are Reduction in Customer Claims…… 1/4
the basis for a successful TPM environment. C Reduction in Maintenance Cost…. 30%
Benefits of TPM D Reduction in Product Inventories.. 0
The properly implemented TPM has made excellent S Reduction in Accident, Elimination
progress in a number of areas. These include: of Pollution ………………………… 0
• Increased equipment productivity M Increase in Number of Employee
• Improved equipment reliability Suggestions …………………… 5 to 10 times
• Reduced equipment downtime
• Increased plant capacity The Goals OF TPM
• Extended machine line Maximize equipment effectiveness (Improve Overall
efficiency)
• Lower maintenance and production costs
• Approaching zero equipment - caused defects Equipment effectiveness increases the productivity by
minimizing input and aiming maximum output. Though
• Improved team work between operators and "Output" means not only the quantity of production, but
maintenance people also the better quality, lower cost, timely delivery, improved
• Enhanced job satisfaction industrial safety & hygiene, higher moral and favourable
working environment. Equipment effectiveness is increased
• Improved return on investment by the reduction of the following six big losses:
• Improved safety • Downtime losses
Total Productive Maintenance (TPM) • Break down
TPM is system oriented structured approach towards • Setup & adjustment

excellence in all spheres of Industrial Management and • Speed losses
powerful means to achieve high level product quality and • Idling & Minor stoppages
productivity through efficient utilization of all resources like,
man, Machine, Material, Money, Minute, space and • Reduced speed
opportunity by Total employee participation through group • Defect losses
activities and Autonomous Maintenance.
• Defects in the process and reworks
TPM implementation calls for change in attitude of • Reduced yield between machine startup and stable
operational personnel. It requires patience, perseverance production
and persuasion to encourage workmen to think.
It is my machine and I have to maintain it : I operate this
machine and someone else maintains it" though change
of attitude is slow to achieve but has dramatic effect on

Types of TPM 2 Scheduled or Routine Maintenance
• Corrective or Breakdown Maintenance Scheduled maintenance is a stitch-in-time procedure
• Scheduled or routine maintenance aimed at avoiding breakdowns. This includes all work
undertaken to keep the production equipment in efficient
• Preventive Maintenance condition. It may cover periodic inspection, cleaning,
• Predictive Maintenance lubrication, overhaul, repair, replacement etc.
3 Preventive Maintenance
1 Corrective or Breakdown Maintenance
Corrective maintenance implies that repairs are made after Preventive maintenance is carried out before the failure
the failure of machine or equipment. It says wait until a arises or prior to the equipment actually breaks down. It is
failure occurs and then remedy the situation as quickly as a safety measure designed to minimize the possibility of
possible. For example, replacing gears in a machine only unanticipated breakdowns and interruptions in production
after the gears get failed and become inoperative. It involves repetitive and periodic upkeep, overhauling,
servicing to the equipment to prevent breakdown.

Parting off Operation in a CNC

• understand what is G75 command
• learn the parting off operation
• aware of latest techniques in parting off.
Out of all the turning operation like turing, facing, grooving, Many of the machine controls have a peck option on G75
taper turning etc, parting off operation is the one which grooving code, which is used for parting off. In conventional
causes trouble to most operators. ‘Parting off’ is definitely CNC mode, there is a provision for “Parting off with peck”
a challenging operation when you look at it mechanically, option Fanuc’s G75 is newer control uses a two line format:
because the cutting tool is fairly thin, plunging deep into the
material. G75 R0.002
Once the tool tip is deep down in the parting groove of the G75 X1.0 P0.125 F10 (Refer Fig 1)
material, getting chips out & lubrication of cutting tool, is
a real program. If the lathe is sturdier, and has good rigidity Where R is the amount of retraction after each peck (X1.0,
parting may be easier. In manual parting, the operator with Z-10.0) is the lower left corner of the grooving to its
draws the tool from the groove whenever he hears a reference point and the grooving is being done from right to
squeaks. The parting tool should be set to exact centre of left. P is the depth of cut for each peck at a feed rate of F.
the job, otherwise there is a definite possibility of an So each peck cuts a distance of P retracts a distance R,
accident, involving tool breakage, or job getting damaged. Then re-engages the material and does another peck of
distance p and cycle goes on till the bottom is reached.
But parting in CNC is different where the “touchs” of manual
machining is absent, hence the idea of “Peck Parting” was If ‘Q’ value is specified with a Z value, then it means the
developed. groove is wider than tool widths
Most machinist will be familar with peck drilling cylces,

where the drill bit is retracted a little to break a chip or a lot
to help extract chips from a deep hole over and over again.
In parting off also we get the benefit if the tool retaces for
every advances.

Bar Feeding System through Bar Feeder

• learn about the bar feeding operation
• learn the advantages of bar feeding mechanism
• learn the limitations of the system.
The Bar feeding mechanism is a metal cutting machine tool The motor will be rotated, so that the bar is moving from
designed to feed the metal. This machine is exclusively initial position to the determined position.
intended for mass production and they represent faster and
IR sensor unit is used to deternmine the bar dimension to
more efficient way to feed a stock. Automatic Bar Feeding
be cut.
mechanism (ABF) consists of three major blocks. They
are: The compressed air from the compressor reaches the
solenoid valve. The solenoid valve changes the direction of
• Metal feed mechanism flow according to the signal from the sensor unit.
• Bar clamping mechanism The pneumatic cylinder is used to clamp the work piece
automatically with the help of IR sensor unit.
• IR sensor unit
Advantage
The IR unit determines the dimension for cutting the bar
1 Simple in construction than mechanical hacksaw.
clamping is through pneumatic system, which is highly
reliable and effective. 2 It is a compact one
3 Less maintenance
Need for Automation of Bar feeding
4 Fast production
• To achieve mass production in manufacturing process.
Limitation
• To reduce man power employed.
• To increase the efficiency of the machine. • Additional cost is required to do the automation.
• To reduce the workload & production cost. • Leakage of air affects the working of the unit.
• To reduce material handling & production time.
Application
• To reduce the fatique of workers.
• Small and medium scale industries Application.
• To achieve good product quality.
• Metal Cutting Industries and Work Shops.
• To reduce maintenance cost.

Input and Output of data

• understand the importance of input/output data for a CNC
• learn about output data, CNC parameter
• learn about pitch error, custom macro variables.
The Input/Output data is very important elements in a CNC <3> Soft key [OFF : 0] :
machine. The CNC stores parameters like pitch error Item with cursor position is set to 0 (bit parameter)
compensation PMC parameter CNC parameters, took
<4> Soft key [+INPUT] :
compensation amount etc. The conrtrol of input and output
Input value is added to the value at cursor
datas through set of keys and commands are indicated
below. <5> Soft key [INPUT] :
Input value is replaced with the value at cursor
Setting procedure of parameters
<6> Soft key [F INPUT] :
Parameters are input from reader/puncher
Parameter writing is enabled with following steps 1 to 3.
interface.
1 Set to MDI mode or emergency stop state.
<7> Soft key [F OUTPUT] :
2 Press function key several times or press soft key Parameters are output to reader/puncher interface.
[SETTING] to display SETTING (HANDY) screen.
6 After the parameters have been input, set PARAMETER
3 Set the cursor to PARAMETER WRITE and, press and WRITE on the SETTING screen to 0. Press key to
keys in this order. Here alarm 100 will be displayed. release alarm 100.
4 Press function key several times to display the following 7 Convenient method
screen.
<1> To change parameters in bit unit, press cursor
key or , then the cursor becomes bit length and
→
⇒
⇐ PARAMETER (SETTING) 1234 N12345 you can set parameters bit by bit (Bit parameter
only).
0000 SEQ INI ISO TVC
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 <2> To set data consecutively, use key.
0001 FCV
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 (Ex.1)
0012RMV MIR This key sequence sets data as follows:
X 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Y 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1234
0 ⇒ 4567
Z 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 9999
B 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0020 I/O CHANNEL (Ex.2)
This key sequence sets data as follows:
S 0 T0000
0 1234
REF **** *** *** 10: 15: 30 0 0
[PARAM][DGNOS][ ][SYSTEM][(OPRT)] 0 9999
0 0
To make the cursor display in bit unit, press the cursor key <3> To set the same data sequentially, press = .
or . (Ex.1)
5 Press soft key [(OPRT)] and the following operation This key sequence sets data as follows:
menu is displayed. 0 1234
0 1234
<1> Soft key [NO. SRH] : 0 1234
Searched by number. 0 0
Examination) Parameter number [NO. SRH]. <4> Bit parameters can be set as follows:
<2> Soft key [ON : 1] :
Item with cursor position is set to 1 (bit parameter)
(Ex.1) #7 #6 #5 #4 #3 #2 #1 #0
This key sequence sets data as follows: 0101 NFD ASI SB2
00000000 00011000 NFD 0: Feed is output when data is output.

00000000 00011000 1: Feed is not output when data is output.
00000000 00011000 ASI (*) 0: EIA or ISO code is used for input/output
00000000 00000000 data.
8 After the required parameters are set, set (input: automatic detection, output: setting
PARAMETER WRITE to 0. of bit 1 (ISO) of parameter No. 0000)
1: ASCII code is used.
Inputting/ Oupputting Data (To use the ASCII code, set bit 1 (ISO) of
parameter No. 0000 to 1. )
The CNC memorized the following data. SB2 0: No. of stop bits is 1.
Outputting the data I/O device while the CNC is running (*) 1: No. of stop bits is 2.
normally.
0102 Number specified for the input/output device
1 CNC parameter
2 PMC parameter Set value Input/output device
0 RS-232-C (Used control codes DC1 to DC4)
3 Pitch error compensation amount
1 FANUC CASSETTE ADAPTOR 1 (FANUC
4 Custom macro variable values CASSETEE B1/B2)
5 Tool compensation amount 2 FANUC CASSETTE ADAPTOR 3 (FANUC
6 Part program (machining program, custom macro CASSETEE F1)
program) FANUC PROGRAM FILE Mate, FANUC FA
Card Adaptor
Conforming the Parameters Reqiured for Data Input/ 3 FANUC FLOPPY CASSETTE ADAPTOR,
Output FANUC Handy File
FANUC SYSTEM P-MODEL H
Be sure that data output cannot be done in an alarm
status. 4 RS-232-C (Not used control codes DC1 to
DC4)
The following parameters are needed to input/output data
with a reader or puncher: 5 Portable tape reader
In addition, (*) indicates the standard setting for input/ 6 FANUC PPR
output devices made by FANUC. Change these settings FANUC SYSTEM P-MODEL G, FANUC
according to the unit you actually use. SYSTEM P-MODEL H
(Parameter can be changed in MDI mode or emergency

0103 Baud Rate
stop status.)
#7 #6 #5 #4 #3 #2 #1 #0 1: 50 7: 600 11: 9600
0000 ISO 3: 110 8: 1200 12: 19200 [BPS]
ISO 0: Output with EIA code 4: 150 9: 2400
1: Output with ISO code (for RS-232-C serial 6: 300 (*)10: 4800
port 1 or 2) #7 #6 #5 #4 #3 #2 #1 #0
0020 Selection of I/O channel 0139 ISO
ISO 0: ASCII code input/output

(*) 0: Channel 1 (RS-232-C serial port 1: JD36A
1: ISO code input/output (with memory card)
of mainboard)
1: Channel 1 (RS-232-C serial port 1: JD36A #7 #6 #5 #4 #3 #2 #1 #0
of main board) 0908 ISO
2: Channel 2 (RS-232-C serial port 2: JD36B
of main board) ISO 0: ASCII code input/output
4: Memory card interface 1: ISO code input/output (with Data Server)
5: Data Server interface
NOTE Outputting CNC Parameters
In the operation examples in this chapter, data in-
put/output is done with an I/O device connected to 1 Enter EDIT mode or the emergency stop condition.
JD36A. (I/O channel = 0) 2 Press function key and soft key [PARAMETER] to
select a parameter screen.
3 Press soft key [(OPRT)] and continuous menu key . NE8 (*) 0: Programs of 8000s are edited.
1: Programs of 8000s can be protected.
4 Press soft keys [F OUTPUT] and [EXEC], and the
(Protected programs are not output.)
parameters are started to be output.
2 Select EDIT mode.
Outputting Pitch Error Compensation Amount
3 Press the function key and then the soft key
[PROGRM] to select the program content display
If pitch error compensation is enabled, a pitch error
screen.
compensation amount is output.
4 Press soft key [(OPRT)] and press continuous menu
1 Select EDIT mode.
key .
2 Press the function key .
5 Input a program number to be output. To output all
3 Press continuous menu key several times, then press programs input as:
soft key [PITCH] to select the pitch error compensation
6 Press soft keys [F OUTPUT] and [EXEC], then program
setting screen.
output is started.
4 Press soft key [(OPRT)] and continuous menu key .
5 Press soft keys [F OUTPUT] and [EXEC], then pitch Inputting CNC Parameters
error compensation amount is started to be output.
1 Set to the emergency stop state.
Outputting Custom Macro Variable Values 2 Press the function key and then the soft key [SETTING]
to select the setting screen. Confirm “PARAMETER
When custom macro function is valid, values of variable WRITE=1” on the setting screen.
No. 500 and later are output.
3 Press function key and soft key [PARAMETER] to
1 Press function key . select the parameter screen.
2 Press continuous menu key several times, then press 4 Press soft key [(OPRT)] and continuous menu key .
soft key [MACRO] to select custom macro variable
5 Press soft keys [F INPUT] and [EXEC]. Then input of
screen.
parameters are started.
3 Press soft key [(OPRT)] and then continuous menu
6 Upon completion of parameter input, turn off the power
key.
then turn on the power again.
4 Press soft keys [F OUTPUT] and [EXEC], then custom
7 Alarm 300 is issued if the system employs an absolute
macro variable values are output.
pulse coder. In such a case, perform reference position
Outputting Tool Compensation Amount return again.
1 Select EDIT mode. Inputting Pitch Error Compensation Amount
2 Press function key and soft key [OFFSET] to display If pitch error compensation is enabled, a pitch error
the tool compensation amount screen. compensation amount is input.
3 Press soft key [(OPRT)] and continuous menu key . 1 Select EDIT mode.
4 Press soft keys [F OUTPUT] and [EXEC], and the 2 Confirm that PARAMETER WRITE=1 on the setting
tool compensation amount is started to be output. screen.
Outputting Part Program 3 Press the function key .

4 Press continuous menu key several times, then press
1 Confirm the following parameters. If their setting does soft key [PITCH] to select the pitch error compensation
not match those indicated with the asterisk, select setting screen.
the MDI mode and re-set them and keep them re-set
only while this work is being done. 5 Press soft key [(OPRT)] and continuous menu key.
However, if you changed the parameter setting, restore 6 Press soft keys [F INPUT] and [EXEC], then pitch
the original value after finishing this work. error compensation amount is started to be input.
7 After a pitch error compensation amount is input,
#7 #6 #5 #4 #3 #2 #1 #0 display the setting screen and reset “PARAMETER
3202 NE9 NE8 WRITE” to “0” on the setting screen.
NE9 (*) 0: Programs of 9000s are edited. Inputting Custom Macro Variable Values
1: Programs of 9000s can be protected.
(Protected programs are not output.) When custom macro function is valid, input the variable
values.
1 Select EDIT mode. However, if you changed the parameter setting, restore
the original value after finishing this work.
2 Turn off the program protect (KEY2=1).
#7 #6 #5 #4 #3 #2 #1 #0
3 Press the function key .
3201 NPE RAL
4 Press continuous menu key several times, then press
soft key [MACRO] to select the custom macro variable NPE When programs are registered in part program
screen. storage area, M02,M30 and M99 are:
5 Press soft key [(OPRT)] and continuous menu key. 0: Regarded as the end of program.
6 Press soft keys [F INPUT] and [EXEC], then custom (*) 1: Not regarded as the end of program.
macro variable values is started to be input. RAL When programs are registered:
(*) 0: All programs are registered.
Inputting Tool Compensation Amount 1: Only one program is registered.
#7 #6 #5 #4 #3 #2 #1 #0
1 Select EDIT mode.
3202 NE9 NE8
2 Turn off the program protect (KEY=1).
3 Press the function key . NE9 (*) 0: Programs of 9000s can be edited.
1: Programs of 9000s are protected.
4 Press soft key [OFFSET] to display the tool NE8 (*) 0: Programs of 8000s can be edited.
compensation amount display screen. 1: Programs of 8000s are protected.
5 Press soft key [(OPRT)] and continuous menu key. 2 Select EDIT mode.
6 Press soft keys [F INPUT] and [EXEC], then tool 3 Turn off the program protect (KEY3=1).
compensation amount is started to be input.
4 Press the function key and then the soft key
Inputting Part Programs [PROGRM] to select the program content display
screen.
1 Confirm the following parameters. If their setting does 5 Press soft key [(OPRT)] and press continuous menu
not match those indicated with the asterisk, select key .
the MDI mode and re-set them and keep them re-set
only while this work is being done. 6 Press soft keys [F INPUT] and [EXEC], then program
input is started.

DNC system
• learn about the DNC system
• learn type the DNC system
• understand the advantage of DNC.
DNC System instruction to machine tools. The cost of BTR system is

very less. The special machine control unit replace a
It is a manufacturing system in which number of machines regular controler, with the control unit capable of facilating
are controlled by a computer through direct-connection communication between machine tool and computer. This
and in realtime. It is also a system connecting to a set of system achives very high accuracy of interpolation and fast
NC. Machines to common memory for a part programme metal removal rate.
or machine programme storage with provision of
on-demand distribution of data to machines. Functions of DNC
The function of DNc system is to perform.
The main components of a DNC are;
1 NC with out punched tape.
1 Central computer. 2 NC part programme storage.
2 Bulk memory with storage of part programme. 3 Data collection, processing and reporting.
3 Telecommunication lines and set of NC machine tools. 4 Communication.
A schematic sketch indicating a set of NC machine A communication Network accomplishes the previous
connected to a DNC is shown below: functios of DNC. This links DNC with central computer and
machine tools, Central computer and NC part programmer
terminal, central computer and Bulk Memory.
Advantages of DNC system
It eliminates punched tape and tape reader.

It is convenient to store are NC part programme in computer
files.
It has greater computational capability and flexibility.
It can report the shop performance at the click of a button.
DNC’s are very convenient in editing and dignoistic feature.
There are two types of DNC machines namely 1. Behind DNC is a first step in the development of production plant
the Tape Reader System (BTR), 2. Special Machine automated with computer.
Control Unit (MCU). In BTR system computer is linked
directly to NC controler unit the operation of the system is
very similar to conventional NC. The controler unit, uses
two temporery storage buffer to receive instruction from
DNC computer and convert them in to machine action. One
buffer receives Data the other is providing controlling

Use of CAM Programme

• understand usefulness of CAM in manufacturing process
• learn the output format of CAM programe
• understand terms like CAD/CAE/DNC etc.
Introduction: Usefulness of CAM

Computer-aided manufacturing (CAM) is the use of a Good CAM software is equally as important to manufacturers
software to control machines and the related devices & as the powerful machines and tool they use to cut desired
equipment in the manufacture of components. CAM software parts. Machine shops of all sizes and budgets are reaping
also assist in all operations such as process planning, benefits of good CAM software beyond efficiency
production management, product transportation within the programming their machining jobs. Users can structure
plant, storage of semi finished/finished product. their job, set their Toolpath, then use the simulation
function to make sure their plan goes accordingly. Part
The purpose of CAM is to increase productivity and improve
gouges or collisions can potentially ruin a very crucial and
tooling, to enhance greater consistency of quality,
expensive CNC machine, threatening to affect that shop’s
minimising raw material wastage. CAM software is also
profitablilty or ability to take on additional projects. It is
useful for training & academic educational purposes.
much easier to readjust a Toolpath in the CAM software
CAM process has come out of CAD and sometimes CAE than it is to fix or repalce a CNC machine!
computer aided engineering, as a model generated by
Structuring your job with CAM Software
CAD, verfied by CAE and put into CAM software, which
controls the CNC machine tool Let’s take s sprocket for example. You created your
sprocket using CAD software, now how will you make it?
CAM is a numerical control (NC) programming tool, for 2D/
CAM software looks at what designed& determines how to
3D models generated in CAD. CAM does not eliminate the
machine it out of materials. For starters, most CAM
need for skilled professionals, but assists manufacturing
software products provide a standard “Job Tree” for
personnel in building skills through visualisation, simulation
machining strategy organization. Then you will need to set
and optimization tools. Integration of CAD with other
up and save the features of the machine from your shop
components of CAD/CAM/CAE, Product Life Cycle (PLC)
within the CAM software. This is important for developing
management environment requires an effective CAD data
programs that are specific to your machine, allowing you
exchange, such as IGES/STL/ Parasolid formats. The
to easily machine future projects, editing machine setting
output from CAM is usually a text file of G-code/M-code,ad
as needed. Next, you will identify your stock, allowing you
thousands of commands, which can be transfered to a
to set initial work cooridinates, material type and the tools
DNC programme.
to be used during machining. Lastly, you set your cutting
CAM is specifically effective in typical areas like. conditions, tool patterns, tool crib and tool holder for error-
• High speed machining, streamlining tool paths. free CNC programming. One of the greatest benefits of
CAM software is the ability to save the information you put
• Multifunction machining. in the system, making future projects much more easily
• 5-axis machining & Automatic machining. programmed.
A finished components has to undergo different machining Setting your Toolpaths within the CAM software:
process in its conversion from raw material i.e, Once you have your starting points clearly identified
a Rough machining: From raw stock,raw casting passes (machine, tools and stock), you can move into the next
through zig-zag clearing, plunge roughing, rest roughing, phase of developing your machining operations. Start with
trohoidal milling aiming at maximum material removal your stock. Decide the toolpaths for your roughing and
in the least amount of time, maintaining dimensional finishing cycles that will ultimately determine your desired
accuracy. part design. Your Job Tree comes into play now, keeping
your machining operations organized and correctly
b Semi-finishing: In this process, small amount of material sequenced. CAD-CAM software, like that from BobCAD-
only removed, to enable the tool to cut accurately such CAM, used wizard guides that act as a series of dialog
as Raster passes, constant step-over process, pencil boxes that walk you through the process step-by-step until
milling etc. your Toolpath is properly created. Wizards are sort of a
c Finishing machining: It involve very light material removal fool-proof way to make sure all your information is entered
to produce polished finish product. The feed is increased in correctly, reducing programming time significantly for
to target SFM with high speed refered as highspeed users.
machining (HSM) CAM is mainly useful for contour
milling on four or more axis.
After you created a Toolpath for each of your operations, After you structure your job, creat your Toolpath and run
you can move into most critical aspect of CAM software; simulations to satisfaction, you are ready for post
simulation. This allows you to see your machine create processing. This is the final step before your part is
your part in a digital environment. There are three major machined. G-code is created by the CAM software, which
things that are being accomplished during the time: is the NC file that is read by the CNC machine. Think of the
G-code as the GPS in your car; it basically tells the
1 Part deviation analysis- the CAM software identified machine where to go. Each machine’s G-code can vary, so
what’s not cut by the tool or where the tool went too it’s important you have the proper post processor added to
deep using multiple colors to represent different levels your CAM software.
of deviation.
2 Costly gauges or collisions are digitally detected prior
to engaging your shop’s machine.
3 Cycle time can be easily calculated.

Turner - Advanced Turning
Setting of tool for taper threads calculation of taper setting and thread depth.
• state the application of taper thread
• state the methods of producing taper threads
• describe methods of turning tapers on a lathe with its merits and demerits.
Taper thread - Insert the screw, bold or rod in the chuck of the lathe.
Install a threading die in the opposite chuck of the lathe
Taper threads are used on fasteners and pipe. A and machine the tapers threads, similar to the way
common example of a fastener with a taper thread is wood you cut the threads on the outside of the pipe.
screw. The threaded pipes used in some plumbing
installations for the delivery of fluids under pressure have Cutting taper thread
a threaded section that is slightly conical. Examples are
NPT and BSP series. The seal provided by a threaded Whereas the axial moment required for pitch feed is
pipe joint is created when a tapered externally threaded provided by the machine, the radial moment required in
into an end with internal threads. addition for producing a tapered thread is obtained by the
tool slide feed. Do not clamp the slide by tightening locking
Inside tapered threads
screw .During thread cutting both the machine feed and
the feed of the head must be in continuous engagement.
- Insert the pipe into the chuck of the lathe and tighten
down the chucks with an Allen wrench. Install the tap Same as per taper turning ,the sensitiveness to release of
in the opposite chuck of the lathe. Move the ram forward retaining pin must be reduced to the minimum by means
until the tapping tool reaches the inside of the pipe. of regulating screw stop rod must not be displaced by
Center the tapping tool to the interior of the pipe. changing over from clockwise to anti-clockwise rotation
from the position held.
- Start the ram and slowly close the tapping tool.
Lubricate the tapping tool periodically with metal cutting Depending on the pitch of thread, taper angles will vary
fluid as it machines the tapered threads. Reverse the with varying cross feeds. The tool mounting and depth
ram of the lathe and slowly back the tapping tool out of adjustment are same as taper turning attachment method.
the interior of the pipe. Check the tapered threads with
The method of operation is the same as for straight thread
a thread gauge.
cutting.
- Set the steel plate, with holes drill holes, on the base
The taper for the taper thread is prepared by using normal
plate of the drill press and secure it in place. Insert a
taper turning attachment methods.
tapping tool in the chuck of the drill press and secure
with a chuck tool. Fill the drilled hole with metal cutting Tapers may be produced by any conventional methods
fluid and slowly lower the tapping tool. Align the tapping according to the requirement and die sets are also used
tool before machining the tapered threads. for producing taper threads.
Outside tapered threads Tailstock offset method (Fig 1)
- Insert the pipe in the lathe's chuck and secure it in

place, similar to the way you secured the pipe when
machining inside tapered threads. Open the mouth of
the opposite chuck and insert a threading die, instead
of attaching a tapping tool to the opposite chuck.
Tighten down the chuck. Align the threading die with
the outside of the pipe.
- Cover both the end of the pipe and the interior of the
die with metal cutting fluid .Start the lathe and close
the ram slowly until it starts machining the tapered
threads. Pour more cutting fluid on the end of the pipe
as you continue to close the ram of the lathe. Reverse
the lathe ram after reaching the desired thread depth.
Checks the threads with the thread gauge.

In this method the job is held at an angle and the tool Calculation of Thread depth formula.
moves parallel to the axis. The body of the tailstock is
BSN - 0.6403 x Pitch
shifted on its base to an amount corresponding to the
angle of taper. Metric - 0.6134 x Pitch
Square - 0.5 x Pitch
Tail stock set over (Fig 2)
Acme - 0.5 x Pitch
B.A - 0.6134 x Pitch
Buttress - 0.75 x Pitch
Worm thread - 0.68 x Pitch
Taper turning by attachment (Fig 3)

This attachment is provided on a few modern lathes. Here
the job is held parallel to the axis and the tool moves at an
angle. The movement of the tool is guided by the
Taper attachment.
Tapers may be produced by any conventional methods
Taper angle is found by formula (Fig 3)
according to the requirement and die sets are also used
for producing taper threads. D−d
Tanφ =
The taper can be turned between centres only and this 2l
method is not suitable for producing steep tapers.The
amount of offset is found by the formula. (Fig 3)
(D − d) XL
Offset =
2l
where D = big dia. of taper

d = small dia. of taper
l = taper length
L = total length of job
Advantages
Power feed can be given
good surface finish can be obtained
Advantages
maximum length of the taper can be produced
Both internal and external tapers can be produced.
external thread on taper portion can be produced
Threads on both internal and external taper portions can
duplicate tapers can be produced
be cut.
Disadvantages Power feed can be given.
only external taper can be turned lengthy taper can be produced.
accurate setting of the offset is difficult Good surface finish is obtained
taper turning is possible when work is held between cen- The alignment of the lathe centres is not disturbed.
tres only.
It is most suitable for producing duplicate tapers because
damages the centre drilled holes of the work. the change in length of the job does not affect the taper.
the alignment of the lathe centres will be disturbed The job can be held either in chuck or in between centres
steep tapers cannot be turned
Disadvantage
only limited taper angles can be turned.

Heat treatment of plain carbon steels
• state the purpose of heat treatment of steel
• state the types of structure, constituents and properties of plain carbon steels.
Heat treatment and its purpose Structure of steel when heated (Fig 2)
The properties of steel depend upon its composition and its

structure. These properties can be changed to a
considerable extent, by changing either its composition or
its structure. The structure of steel can be changed by
heating it to a particular temperature, and then, allowing it
to cool at a definite rate. The process of changing the
structure and thus changing the properties of steel, by
heating and cooling, is called ‘heat treatment of steel’.
Types of structure of steel (Fig 1)
If steel is heated, a change in its structure commences

from 723° C. The new structure formed is called
‘AUSTENITE’. Austenite is non-magnetic. If the hot steel
is cooled slowly, the old structure is retained and it will have
fine grains which makes it easily machinable.
If the hot steel is cooled rapidly the austenite changes into

a new structure called “MARTENSITE’. This structure is
very fine grained, very hard and magnetic. It is extremely
wear-resistant and can cut other metals.
The structure of steel becomes visible when a piece of the
metal is broken. The exact grain size and structure can be Heat treatment processes and purpose
seen through a microscope. Steel is classified according
to its structure. Because steel undergoes changes in structure on heating
and cooling, its properties may be greatly altered by
steel is an alloy of iron and carbon. But the carbon content suitable heat treatment.
in steel does not exceed 1.7%.
The following are the various heat treatments and their
Ferrite purposes.
Pig iron or steel with 0% carbon is FERRITE which is Hardening To add cutting ability
relatively soft and ductile but comparatively weak.
To increase wear resistance
Cementite
Tempering: To remove extreme brittleness
When carbon exists in steel as a chemical compound of caused by hardening to an extent.
iron and carbon it is called ‘iron carbide’or CEMENTITE.This
To induce toughness and shock
alloy is very hard and brittle but it is not strong.
resistance
Eutectoid/Pearlite steel
Annealing: To relieve strain andstress
A 0.84% carbon steel or eutectoid steel is known as To eliminate strain/hardness
PEARLITE steel. This is much stronger than ferrite or
cementite. To improve machinability
To soften the steel
Hypereutectoid steel
Normalising: To refine the grain structure of
More than 0.84% carbon steel or hypereutectoid steel is the steel
pearlite and cementite.
Hardening of carbon steel
• state the hardening of steel
• state the purpose of hardening steel
• state the process of hardening.
What is hardening?
Hardening is a heart-treatment process in which steel is
heated to 30-50° C above the critical range, smoking time
is allowed to enable the steel to obtain a uniform
temperature throughout its cross-section. Then the steel
is rapidly cooled through a cooling medium.
Purpose of hardening
To develop high hardness and wear-resistance properties.
Hardening affects the mechanical properties of steel-like

strength, toughness, ductility etc.
Hardening adds cutting ability.
Process of hardening
Steel with a carbon content above 0.4% is heated to 30- Then the steel is cooled rapidly in a suitable medium.
50°C above the upper critical temperature. (Fig1) A soaking Water, oil, brine or air is used as a cooling medium,
time of 5mts./10 mm thickness of steel is allowed. (Fig 1) depending upon the composition of the steel and the
hardness required.
Tempering the hardened steel

• state what is tempering
• state the purpose of tempering
• relate the tempering colours and temperatures with the tools to be tempered
• state the process of tempering of steels.
What is tempering? - to decrease the brittleness

Tempering is a heat-treatment process consisting of - to restore some ductility
reheating the hardened steel to a temperature below 400°C, - to induce shock resistance
followed by cooling.
Process of tempering the steel
Purpose of tempering the steel
The tempering process consists of heating the hardened
Steel in its hardened condition is generally too brittle to be steel to the appropriate tempering temperature and soaking
used for certain functions. Therefore, it is tempered. at this temperature, for a definite period.
The aims of tempering are: The period is determined from the experience that the full
- to relieve the internal stresses effect of the tempering process can be ensured only, if the
tempering period is kept sufficiently long. Table 1 shows
- to regulate the hardness and toughness the tempering temperature and the colour for different tools.

TABLE 1
Tools or Temperature Colour

articles in degrees (ºC)
Turning tools 230 Pale straw

Drills and
milling cutters 240 Dark straw
Taps and shear 250 Brown
blades
Punches,
reamers, twist
drills 260 Reddish brown
Rivets,snaps 270 Brown purple
Press tools,
cold chisels 280 Dark purple
Cold set for
cutting steels 290 Light blue
Springs, screw
drivers 300 Dark blue
320 Very dark blue
340 Greyish blue
For toughening
without undue
hardness 450-700 No colour
Annealing of steel
• state the purpose of annealing
• state the process of annealing.
The annealing process is carried out by heating the steel

above the critical range, soaking it for sufficient time to
allow the necessary changes to occur, and cooling at a
predetermined rate, usually very slowly, within the furnace.
Purpose
- To soften the steel

- To improve the machinability
- To increase the ductility
- To relieve the internal stresses
- To refine the grain size and to prepare the steel for
subsequent heat treatment process
Annealing process Soaking is holding at the heating temperature for 5 mts/

10mm of thickness for carbon steels.
Annealing consists of heating of hypoeutectoid steels to 30
to 50°C above the upper critical temperature and 50°C The cooling rate for carbon steel is 100 to 150°C/hr
above the lower critical temperature for hypereutectoid
steels. (Fig 1) Steel, heated for annealing, is either cooled in the furnace
itselfby switching off the furnance or its covered with dry
sand, dry lime or dry ash.

Normalising of steel
• state the meaning of normalising steel and its purpose
• state the process of normalising steel
• state the precaution to be taken while normalising steel.
The process of removing the internal defects or to refine the

structure of steel component is called normalising.
Purpose
- To produce fine grain size in the metal

- To remove stresses and strains formed in the internal
structure due to repeated heating and uneven cooling or
hammering
- To reduce ductility
- To prevent warping
Process
To get the best results from normalising, the parts should

be heated uniformly to a temperature of 30 to 40°C above Precautions
the upper critical temperature (Fig1), followed by cooling in
still air, free from drought, to room temperature. Normalizing Avoid placing the component in a wet place or wet air,
should be done in all forgings, castings and work-hardened thereby restricting the natural circulation of air around the
pieces. component. Avoid placing the component on a surface that
will chill it.
Heating / Quenching steel for heat treatment

• differentiate between the lower critical and the upper critical temperatures
• state the three stages in the heat treatment process
• determine the upper critical temperature for different carbon steels from the diagram.
Critical Temperatures
Lower critical temperature
The temperature, at which the change of structure to

austenite starts-723°C, is called the lower critical
temperature for all plain carbon steels.
Upper critical temperature
The temperature at which the structure of steel completely

changes to AUSTENITE is called the upper critical
temperature. This varies depending on the percentage of
carbon in the steel. (Fig 1)
Example
0.57% and 1.15% carbon steel: In these cases the lower

critical temperature is 723°C and the upper critical Three stages of heat treatment
temperature is 800°C.
- Heating
For 0.84% carbon steel, both LCT and UCT are 723°C. This
- Soaking
steels is called eutectoid steel.
- Quenching
When the steel on being heated reaches the required The most widely used quenching media are:
temperature, it is held in the same temperature for a period
of time. This allows the heating to take place throughout the - brine solution
section uniformly. This process is called soaking. - water
Soaking time - oil
- air
This depends upon the cross-section of the steel, its
chemical composition, the volume of the change in the Brine solution gives a faster rate of cooling while air cooling
furnace and the arrangement of the charger in the furnace. has the slowest rate of cooling.
A good general guide for soaking time in normal conditions
is five minutes per 10mm of thickness for carbon and low Brine solution (Sodium chloride) gives severe quenching
alloy steels, and 10 minutes per 10 mm of thickness for because it has a higher boiling point than pure water, and
high alloy steels. the salt content removes the scales formed on the metal
surfaces due to heating. This provides a better contact with
Heating steel the quenching medium and the metal being heat-treated.
This depends on the selection of the furnace, the fuel used Water is very commonly used for plain carbon steels.
for heating, the time interval and the regulation in bringing While using water as a quenching medium, the work
the part up to the required temperature. The heating rate should be agitated. This can increase the rate of cooling.
and the heating time also depend on the composition of the
steel, its structure, the shape and size of the part to be The quenching oil used should be of a low viscosity.
heat-treated etc. Ordinary lubricating oils should not be used for this
purpose. Special quenching oils, which can give rapid and
Preheating uniform cooling with less fuming and reduced fire risks, are
commercially available. Oil is widely used for alloy steels
Steel should be preheated at low temperature up to 600°C where the cooling rate is slower than plain carbon steels.
as slowly as possible.
Cold air is used for hardening some special alloy steels.
Quenching
Depending on the severity of the cooling required, different

quenching media are used.
Induction hardening
• state the process of the induction hardening method
• state the advantages of the induction hardening process.
Induction hardening
This is a production method of surface-hardening in which The depth of hardening for high frequency current to
the part to be surface-hardened is placed within an induction 1.0mm. The depth of hardening for medium frequency
coil through which a high frequency current is passed. current is 1.5 to 2.0 mm. Special steels and unalloyed
(Fig 1) The depth of penetration of the heating becomes steels with a carbon content of 0.35 to 0.7% are used.
less, as the frequency increases.
After induction-hardening of the workpieces, stress
relieving is necessary.
The following are the advantages of this type of hardening
- The depth of hardening, distribution in width and the

temperature are easily controllable.
- The time required and distortion due to hardening are
very small.
- The surface remains free from scales.
- This type of hardening can easily be incorporated in
mass production.

Carburising of steel
• state the process of pack carburising
• state the process of liquid carbursing
• state the process of gas carburising.
Pack carburising (Fig.1) about 0.9% carbon, and the core will still contain 0.15%
The parts are packed in a suitable metal box in which they carbon. There will be a gradual transition carbon content
are surrounded by the carburising medium, such as wood, between the case and the core. (Fig 2)
bone, leather or charcoal, with barium carbonate as an
energiser.
The lid is fitted to the box and sealed with fireclay and tied
with a piece of wire so that no carbon gas can escape and
no air can enter the box to cause de-carburisation.
Owing to the prolonged heating, the core will be coarse and

in order to produce a reasonable toughness, it must be
refined.
To refine the core, the carburised steel is reheat about 870°
C and held at that temperature long enough to produce a
uniformitly of structure, and is then rapidly to prevent grain
growth during cooling.
The temperature of this heating is much higher the suitable
Liquid carburising for the case, therefore, an extremly brittle martensite will be
produced.
Carburising can be done in a heated salt bath. (Sodium The case and the outer layers of the core must be refined.
carbonatte,sodium cyanide and barium chloride are typical
carburising salts). For a constant time and temperature of The refining is done by reheating the steel about 760º to suit
carburising, the depth of the case depends on the cyanide the case, and quenching it.
content. Tempering
This is suitable for a thin case, about 0.25 mm deep. Its Finally the case is tempered at about 200° C to relive
advantage is that heating is rapid and distortion is minimised, quenching stresses.
and it is suitable for batch production.
Fig 3 illustrates the apperance of the structure across its
Gas carburising section produced by case hardening.
The work is placed in a gas-tight container which can be

heated in a suitable furnace, or the furnace itself may be the
container.
The carburising gas ‘methane or propane’s is admitted to

the container, and the exit gas is vented.
Fig 2 illustrates the appearance of the structure across its

section produced by carburising.
Heat treatment
After carburising has been done, the case will contain

Nitriding
• state the process of case hardening by gas nitriding
• state the process of case hardening by nitriding in a salt bath.
In the nitriding process, the surface is enriched not with bath, the workpieces are quenched and washed water and
carbon, but with nitrogen. There are two systems in dried.
common use, gas nitriding and salt bath nitriding.
Advantages
Gas nitriding
The parts can be finish-machined before nitriding because
The gas nitriding process consists of heating the parts at no quenching is done after nitriding, and, therefore, they will
500°C in a constant circualtion of ammonia gas for up to not suffer from quenching distortion.
100 hours and cooling them in air.
In this process, the parts are not heated above the critical
Nitriding in salt bath temperature, and, hence warping or distortion does not
occur.
Special nitriding baths are used for salt-bath nitriding. This
process is suitable for all alloyed and unalloyed types of The hardness and wear-resistance are exceptional. There
steel, annealed or not annealed, and also for cast iron. is a slight improvement in corrosion resistance as well.
Process Since the alloy steels, used are inherently strong when
properly heat-treated, remarkable combinations of strength
The completely stress-relieved workpieces are preheated and wear-resistance are obtained.
(about 400°C) before being put in the salt bath (about 520-
570°C). A layer 0.01to 0.02mm thick is formed on the
surface which consists of a carbon and nitrogen compound.
The duration of nitriding depends on the cross-section of
the workpieces (half an hour to three hours). It is much
shorter than for gas nitriding. After being taken out of the

Interchangeability meaning, procedure for adoption,quality control procedure
for quality production
• state the terms used under the BIS system of limits and fits
• define each term under the BIS system of limits and fits.
Size Maximum limit of size
It is a number expressed in a particualr unit in the It is the greater of the two limits of sizes.(Fig 2) (Table 1)
measurement of length.
Minimum limit of size
Basic size
It is the smaller of the two limits of size.(Fig 2) (Table 1)
It is the size based on which the dimensional deviations
are given. (Fig 1) Table 1
(Examples)
Sl. Size of Upper Lower Max.limit Min limit

No. component deviation deviation of size of size
+.008
1 20
-.005 + 0.008 - 0.005 20.008 19.995
+.028
2 20
+.007 + 0.028 - 0.007 20.028 20.007
-.012
3 20
-.021 + 0.012 - 0.021 19.988 19.979
Hole
In ths BIS system of limits and fits, all internal features of
a component including those which are not cylindrical
Actual size are designated as hole. (Fig 3)
It is the size of the component by actual measurement
after it is manufactured. It should be lie between the two
limits of size if the component is to be accepted.
Limits of size
These are the extreme permissible sizes within which the
operator is expected to make the component. (Maximum
and minimum limits) (Fig 2)
Shaft
In the BIS system of limits and fits, all external features
of a component including those which are not cylindrical
are designated as shaft (Fig 3)
Deviation
It is the algebraic difference between a size and its
corresponding basic size. It may be positive, negative or
zero.(Fig 2)

Upper deviation
It is the algebraic difference between the maximum limit

of size and its corresponding basic size.(Fig 2) (Table 1)
Lower deviation
It is the algebraic difference between the minimum limit of

size and its corresponding basic size.(Fig 2) (Table 1)
Upper deviation is the deviation which gives the maximum

limit of size. Lower deviation is the deviation which gives
the minimum limit of size.
Actual deviation The position of tolerance zone with respect to the zero
line is shown in Figs 6 and 7.
It is the algebraic difference between the actual size and
its corresponding basic size. (Fig 2)
Tolerance
It is the difference between the maximum limit of size and

the minimum limit of size. It is always positive and is
expressed only as a number without a sign.(Fig 2)
Zero line
In the graphical representation of the above terms, the

zero line represents the basic size. This lines is also called
the line of zero deviation .(Figs1 and 2)
Fundamental deviation
There are 25 fundamental deviations in the BIS system

represented by letter symbols (capital letters for holes
and small letters for shafts),i.e. for holes-ABCD----Z
excluding I,L,O,Q and W. (Fig 4)
The fundamental deviations are for achieving the different

classes of fits.(Figs 8 & 9)
In addition to the above, four sets of letters JS, ZA, ZB and

ZC are included.
For shafts, the same 25 letter symbols but in small letters

are used.(Fig 5)

Fundamental tolerance
This is also called ‘grade of tolerance’. In the B.I.S. system,
there are 18 grades of tolerances represented by number
symbols both for hole and shaft, denoted as IT01, IT0, IT1, A very wide range of selection can be made by the
IT2 ______ IT16 (Fig 10) combination of the 25 fundamental deviation and grades of
tolerance.
Example
In figure 13, a hole is shown as 25± 0.2which means that
25mm is the basic dimension and ± 0.2 is the deviation.
As pointed out earlier, the permissible variation from the

basic dimension is called ‘DEVIATION’.
The deviation is mostly given on the drawing with

dimensions.
In the example, 25± 0.2 is the deviation of the hole of 25mm

diameter. (Fig 13) This means that the hole is of acceptable
size if its dimension is between.
25±0.2=25.2 mm; or 25-0.2=24.8 mm
A higher number gives a larger tolerance.
Grade tolerance refers to the accuracy of

manufacture.
In a standard chart, the upper and lower deviations for

each combination of fundamental deviation and
fundamental tolerance are indicated for sizes ranging up
to 500mm. (Refer to IS 919). An extract up to 500 mm is
gien in Table 2.
Tolerance size
This includes the basic size, the fundamental deviation
and the grade of tolerance.
Examples 25.2mm is the maximum limit. (Fig 14)

25H7-is the tolerance size of a hole whose basic size is
25. The fundamental deviation is represented by the letter
symbol H and the grade of tolerance is represented by
the number symbol 7.(Fig 11)
25 e8 - is the tolerance size of a shaft whose basic size is

25. The fundamental deviation is represented by the letter
symbol and the grade of tolerance is represented by the
number 8. (Fig 12)

24.8 mm is the minimum limit (Fig 15) All dimensions of the hole within the tolerance zone are of
an acceptable size as shown in Fig 17.
The difference between the maximum and minimum limits

is the TOLERANCE. Tolerance here is 0.4 mm. (Fig 16)
As per IS 696, while dimensioning the components as a
drawing convention, the deviations are expressed as
tolerance.
Fits and their classification as per the Indian standard

• define ‘fit’ as per the Indian standard
• list out the terms used in limits and fits as per the Indian standard
• state examples for each class of fit
• define the graphical representation of different classess of fits.
Fit
It is the relationship exists between two mating parts, a

hole and a shaft, with respect to their dimensional
differences before assembly.
Expression of a fit
A fit is expressed by writing the basic size of the fit first,

(the basic size which is common to both the hole and the
shaft) followed by the symbol for the hole, and the symbol
for the shaft. Example
Example 20 H7 / g6
H7 With the fit given, we can find the deviations from the chart.
30 H7 / g6 or 30 H7 - g6 or 30 g6
For a hole 20 H7 we find in table 2, + 21.
Clearance
These numbers indicate the deviations in microns.
In a fit the clearance is the difference between the size of (1 micrometer = 0.001 mm)
the hole and the size of the shaft, when the hole is bigger
than the shaft. The limits of the hole are 20+0.021=20.021mm and
20+0=20.000mm. (Fig 2)
Clearance fit
for a shaft 20 g6 we find in the Table - 7
It is a fit which always provides clearnace. Here the - 20
tolerance zone of the hole will be above the tolerance zone
of the shaft. (Fig 1)
Interference
It is the difference between the size of the hole and the
shaft before assembly, and this is negative. In this case,
the shaft is always larger than the hole size.
Interference fit
It is fit which always provides interference. Here the
tolerance zone of the the hole will be below the tolerance
zone of the shaft. (Fig 5)
So the limits of the shaft are

20 - 0.007 = 19.993 mm
and 20 - 0.020 = 19.980 mm. (Fig 3)
Example
Maximum clearance
Fit 25 H7 / p6 (Fig 6)
In a clearance fit or transition fit, the maximum clearance
is the difference between the maximum size hole and the
minimum size shaft. (Fig 4)
The limits of the hole are 25.000 and 25.035mm. and the
limits of the shaft are 25.022 and 25.035. The shaft is
always bigger than the hole. This is an interference fit.
Maximum interference
In an interference fit, it is the algebraic difference between
the minimum hole and the maximum shaft. (Fig 7)
Minimum clearance
In a clearance fit, the minimum clearance is the difference
between the minimum hole and the maximum shaft. (Fig.4)
The maximum clearance is 20.000 - 19.993 = 0.007mm.

(Fig. 4)
The maximum clearance is 20.021 - 19.980 = 0.041mm.

(Fig. 4)
There is always a clearance between the hole and the

shaft. This is the clearance fit.

Minimum interference The fundamental deviation symbol ‘H’ is chosen for the
holes, when the hole basis system is followed. This is
In an interference fit, it is the algebraic difference between
because the lower deviation of the ‘H’ hole is zero. It is
the maximum hole and minimum shaft. (Figs 7 and 8).
known as the “basic hole”. (Fig 10)
In the example shown in figure 6.
the maximum interference is = 25.035-25.000

= 0.035
the minimum interference is = 25.022-25.021 Shaft basis system

= 0.001 In a standard system of limits and fits, where the size of
the shaft is kept constant and the variations are given to
Transition fit the hole for obtaining different classes of fits, then it is
It is a fit which may sometimes provide clearance, and known as shaft basis system. The fundamental deviation
sometimes interference. When this class of fit is symbol ‘h’ is chosen for the shaft when the shaft basis is
represented graphically, the tolerance zones of the hole followed. This is because the upper deviation of the ‘h’
and shaft will overlap each other. (Fig 8) shaft is zero. It is known as the ‘basic shaft’. (Fig 11)
The hole basis system is removed mostly. This is because,

Example depending upon the class of fit, it will be always easier to
alter the size of the shaft as it is external, but it is difficult
Fit 75 H8 / j7 (Fig 9) to do minor alterations to a hole. Moreover the hole can be
produced by using standard toolings.
The three classes of fits, both under the hole basis and
the shaft basis, are illustrated in Fig 12.
The limits of the hole are 75.000 and 75.046 mm and those
of the shaft are 75.018 and 74.988 mm.
Maximum clearance = 75.046 - 74.988
= 0.058 mm.
If the hole is 75.000 and the shaft 75.018 mm, the shaft is
0.018mm bigger than the hole. This results in interference.
This is a transition fit because it can result in a clearance
fit or an interference fit.
Hole basis system

If a standard system of limits and fits, where the size of
the hole is kept constant and the size of the shaft is varied
to get the different classes of fits, it is known as the hole
basis system.

The B. I. S system of limits and fits - reading the standard chart
• refer to the standard limit system chart and determine the limits of sizes.
The standard chart covers sizes up to 500 mm (I.S.919 of Example

1963) for both holes and shafts. It specifies the upper and 30H7 (Fig 1)
lower deviations for a certain range of sizes for all
combinations of the 25 fundamental deviations, and 18
fundamental tolerances.
The upper deviation of the hole is denoted as ES and the

lower deviation of the hole is denoted as EI. The upper
deviation of the shaft is denoted as ‘es’ and the lower
deviation of shaft is denoted as ‘ei’.
It is an internal measurement. So we must refer to the
es is expanded as ECART SUPERIOR and ei as chart for ‘holes’.
ECART INFERIOR.
Look for es, and ei values in microns for H7 combination
Determining the limits from the chart for 30mm basic size.
Note whether it is an internal measurement or an external It is given as + 25
measurement. +0
Note the basic size. Therefore, the maximum limit of the hole is 30 + 0.025 =
30.025 mm
Note the combination of the fundamental deviation and
the grade of tolerance. The minimum limit of the hole is 30 + 0.000 = 30.000 mm.
Refer to the chart and note the values of 40 g6.
The deviations which are given in microns, with the sign.
Accordingly add or subtract from the basic size and The table for tolerance zones and limits as per
determine the limits of size of the compnents. IS2709 is attached. (Table 1)

TABLE FOR TOLERANCE ZONES & LIMITS (DIMENSIONS IN μ m)
142
s6 r6 p6 n6 k6 js6 h6 h7 h9 h11 g6 f7 e8 d9 c11 b11 a11 S7 R7 P7 N7 K7 JS7 H7 H8 H9 H11 G7 F8 E9 D10 C11
B11 A11
From 1 +20 +16 +12 +10 +6 +3 0 0 0 0 -2 -6 -14 -20 - 60 -140 -270 -14 -10 -6 -4 0 +5 +10 +14 +25 +60 +12 +20 +39 +60 +120
+200 +330
up to 3 +14 +10 +6 +4 0 -3 -6 -10 -25 -60 -8 -16 -28 -45 -120 -200 -330 -24 -20 -16 -14 -10 -5 0 0 0 0 +2 +6 +14 +20 +60
+140 + 270
Over 3 +27 +23 +20 +16 +9 +4 0 0 0 0 -4 -10 -20 -30 -70 -140 -270 -15 -11 -8 -4 +3 +6 +12 +18 +30 +75 +16 +28 +50 +78 +145
+215 +345 up to 6 +19 +15 +12 +8 +1 -4 -8 -12 -30 -75 -12 -22 -28 -60 -145 -215 -345 -27 -23 -20 -16 -9 -6 0 0 0 0 +4 +10 +20
+30 +70 +140 +270
Over 6 +32 +28 +24 +19 +10 +4.5 0 0 0 0 -5 -13 -25 -40 -80 -150 -280 -17 -13 -9 -4 +5 +7.5 +15 +22 +36 +90 +20 +35 +61 +98 +170
+240 +370
up to 10 +23 +19 +15 +10 +1 -4.5 -9 -15 -36 -90 -14 -28 -47 -76 -170 -240 -370 -32 -28 -24 -19 -10 -7.5 0 0 0 0 +5 +13 +25 +40 +80
+150 +280
Over 10
up to 14 +39 +34 +29 +23 +12 +5.5 0 0 0 0 -6 -16 -32 -50 -95 -150 -290 -21 -16 -11 -5 +6 +9 +18 +27 +43 +110 +24 +43 +75 +120 +205
+260 +400
Over 14 +28 +23 +18 +12 +1 -5.5 -11 -18 -43 -110 -17 -34 -59 -93 -205 -260 -400 -39 -34 -29 -23 -12 -9 0 0 0 0 +7 +16 +32 +50 +95
+150 +290
up to 18
Over 18
up to 24 +48 +41 +35 +28 +15 +6.5 0 0 0 0 -7 -20 -40 -65 -110 -160 -300 -27 -20 -14 -7 +6 +10.5 +21 +33 +52 +130 +28 +53 +92 +149 +240
+290 +430
Over 24 +35 +28 +22 +15 +2 -6.5 -13 -21 -52 -130 -20 -41 -73 -117 -240 -290 -430 -48 -41 -35 -28 -15 -10.5 0 0 0 0 +7 +20 +40 +65 +110
+160 +300
up to 30
Over 30 -120 -170 -310 +280

+330 +470
up to 40 +59 +50 +42 +33 +18 +8 0 0 0 0 -9 -25 -50 -80 -280 -330 -470 -34 -25 -17 -8 +7 +12.5 +25 +39 +62 +160 +34 +64 +112 +180 +120
+170 +310 N
O Over 40 +43 +34 +26 +17 +2 -8 -16 -25 -62 -160 -25 -50 -89 -142 -130 -180 -320 -59 -50 -42 -33 -18 -12.5 0 0 0 0 +9 +25 +50 +80 +290
+340 +480 M up to 50 -290 -340 -480
+130 +180 +320 I
N Over 50 +72 +60 -140 -190 -340 -42 -30 +330
+380 +530
A up to 65 +53 +41 +51 +39 +21 +9.5 0 0 0 0 -10 -30 -60 -100 -330 -380 -530 -72 -60 -21 -9 +9 +15 +30 +46 +74 +190 +40 +76 +134 +220 +140
+190 +340
L
Over 65 +78 +62 +32 +20 +2 -9.5 -19 -30 -74 -190 -29 -60 -106 -174 -150 -200 -360 -48 -32 -51 -39 -21 -15 0 0 0 0 +10 +30 +60 +100 +340
+390 +550
S up to 80 +59 +43 -340 -390 -550 -78 -62 +150
+200 +360
I
Z Over 80 +93 +73 -170 -220 -380 -58 -38 +390
+440 +600
E up to 100 +71 +51 +59 +45 +25 +11 0 0 0 0 -12 -36 -72 -120 -390 -440 -600 -93 -73 -24 -10 +10 +17.5 +35 +54 +87 +220 +47 +90 +159 +260 +170
+220 +380
R Over 100 +101 +76 +37 +23 +3 -11 -22 -35 -87 -220 -34 -71 -126 -207 -180 -240 -410 -66 -41 -59 -45 -25 -17.5 0 0 0 0 +12 +36 +72 +120 +400
+460 +630 A up to 120 +79 +54 -400 -460 -630 -101 -76
+180 +240 +410
N
G Over 120 +117 +88 -200 -260 -460 -77 -48 +450
+510 +710

E up to 140 +92 +63 -450 -510 -710 -117 -88 +200
+260 +460

mm Over 140 +125 +90 +68 +52 +28 +12.5 0 0 0 0 -14 -43 -85 -145 -210 -280 -520 -85 -50 -28 -12 +12 +20 +40 +63 +100 +250 +54 +106 +185 +305 +460
+530 +770
up to 160 +100 +65 +43 +27 +3 -12.5 -25 -40 -100 -250 -39 -83 -148 -245 -460 -530 -770 -125 -90 -68 -52 -28 -20 0 0 0 0 +14 +43 +85 +145 +210
+280 +520
Over 160 +133 +93 -230 -310 -580 -93 -53 +480
+560 +830
up to 180 +108 +68 -480 -560 -830 -133 -93 +230
+310 +580
Over 180 +151 +106 -240 -340 -660 -105 -60 +530
Mass production and interchangeable manufacture
• state the advantages and disadvantages of mass production
• outline the meaning of the term, interchangeability
• state the necessity for the limit system.
Mass production Maintenance is simpler because spares are easily

available. (Fig 2)
Mass production means production of a unit, component
or part in large numbers.
Advantages of mass production
Time for the manufacture of components is reduced

The cost of a piece is reduced
Spare parts can be made available quickly
Gauges are used to check the components
Even unskilled workers can be employed for checking Non-selective assembly provides interchangeability
between the components.
Measuring time is saved
In modern engineering production, i.e. mass production,
Disadvantages of mass production there is no room for selective assembly. However, insome
special circumstances, selective assembly is still justified.
Special purpose machines are necessary
Interchangeability
Jigs and fixtures are needed
Gauges are to be used, hence the initial expenditure will When components are mass-produced, unless they are
be high interchangeable, the purpose of mass production is not
fulfilled. By interchangeability, we mean that identical
Selective assembly components, manufactured by different personnel under
different environments, can be assembled and replaced
Figures 1&2 illustrate the difference between a selective
without any rectification during the assembly stage and
assembly and a non-selective assembly. It will be seen in
without affecting the functioning of the component when
Fig 1 that each nut fits only one bolt. Such an assembly
assembled.
is slow and costly, and maintenance is difficult because
spares must be individually manufactured. spares must Necessity of the limit system
be individually manufactured.
If components are to be interchangeable, they need to be
manufactured to the same identical size which is not
possible, when they are mass-produced. Hence, it
becomes necessary to permit the operator to deviate by a
small margin from the exact size which he is not able to
maintain for all the components. At the same time, the
deviated size should not affect the quality of the assembly.
This sort of dimensioning is known as limit dimensioning.
A system of limits is to be followed as a standard for the
limit dimensioning of components.
Non-selective assembly
Any nut fits any bolt of the same size and thread type.
Such an assembly is rapid, and costs are reduced.

Quality control
• state the features of quality control
• state the meaning of quality control
• sate the different factors of quality control
• state the recent trends in quality control
• state the different levels of inspection.
Quality control Product specification
The quality of a product is generally defined as its The details regarding the product in question are collected
usefulness towards the purpose for which it is from the probable consumers (users) by the staff of the
manufactured. In other words 'Fitness for use'. marketing and sales departments.
In olden days, the manufacture of a product was in batches These details should truly reflect the requirements and
ie., in smaller quantities, not exceeding say 10 or 100. aspirations of the users. Thus, the conformance of the
In this case, the components were made to fit each other real use with the product specification is the first step of
through an inspection process, where the good ones were quality control.
segregated from the bad.
Technical specification
With the advent of mass production, this method of The product specifications are scrutinized by various
inspection caused a lot of rejections and the experts from the production and product service
manufacturers started to use preventive inspection where departments. Based on the recommendations of these
in measures were taken to reduce the rejection to almost experts the technical specifications are prepared to very
zero. minute details.
Thus, one started hearing about the concept of `zero The correspondence between the product specification and
defects'. The aim of the inspection is to prevent rejection. the technical specification is the second quality step.
This new approach towards producing products fit for use, Manufacturing the product, including packing and
without the rejection losses and re–work called for the forwarding to the customer
imposition of controls at different stages of the manufacture
of a component. These controls ensured the required For the manufacture of the product the right type of raw
quality, and thus quality control became an important material, machinery and manpower should be involved so
activity in the industries. that the end product conforms to the technical
specifications. Moreover, the product thus produced should
It is thoroughly understood today that quality starts from reach the consumer without any damage.
the customer and ends with the customer. Thus, the This forms the third quality step.
customer has become a very important person in the minds
of the manufacturers of consumables and other products. Thus, quality control is the culmination of all these activities
So the quality of a product has to be built into the product required for defining, quantifying, effecting and measuring
at the following stages. (Fig 1) the quality of the product. The main objective of quality
control is to achieve fitness for use at the lowest cost.
This calls for an understanding of the following points.
- There is always an optimum quality level.
- All personnel in an enterprise are responsible for the
quality of a product.
- The quality must be controlled and built in at the
various stages planned. This requires well organised
cooperation between all the departments in the
enterprise.
- There is one quality level that strikes the optimum
level between the utility and cost of product, as shown
in Fig 2.
The two parameters, utility and cost in the graph, conform
to the following basic laws.
Utility increases with increase in quality but the trend is
decreasing beyond the optimum quality level. This is the
law of the decreasing marginal utility.
This is done by monitoring the quality in the different
steps and at different stages, and feed back this
information to the concerned functions.
This monitoring should be based on costs, and penetrate
down to processes and operations so that detailed
information on quality costs are obtained.
Quality costs are mostly classified as follows.
Quality costs
Inspection costs Rejection costs
Labour, equipment Internal External

and overhead for
Preventive Segregation Rejections Guarantee

The cost does also increase with increasing quality. The
increase is progressive. Inspection Re-work Service
This is the law of increasing marginal cost. Delay Distance
When the design is finalised and production starts, the Consequen- goodwill
cost of the product quality can be illustrated as in the tial costs, etc. loss, etc.
graph. (Fig.3) A well controlled and efficient production
requires less inspection effort and vice versa. It is the total Quality costs are often quite substantial and surveys of
cost of the production and the inspection/rejection that the European and American markets have found that
has to be kept at a minimum. It is hence important to aspect.
avoid sub-optimising ie., keeping one or the other The quality costs are collected and presented to the
parameter at a minimum. It is hence important to avoid concerned parties. This is the ground for improvement
this. From the graph it is also evident that too high or too and control. (Fig.4)
low a quality is uneconomical.
The optimum quality should be estimated from the total

cost. It must be possible to apply control of quality in all phases
of market use, design and production and a good quality
Total costs cannot be precisely computed, due to practical cost reporting system will indicate where the costs are
limitations in estimating and accounting, but it is obvious higher.
that the cost should include more than that of the quality
and inspection function. In fact, it should include all the When the weak quality spots (where failure costs are high)
functions. are located, all the concerned parties must work together
and find solutions for correcting and controlling the problem
If all the functions are influencing the optimum quality, with the drastic developments in technology, the user ie.
they are also responsible for the quality. the consumer is better placed today to demand reliability
The old concept of quality control was that the inspection of the product (ie. failure-free performance of the product
or quality department was responsible for the quality. This over a period of time). So the manufacturer has to widen
concept still persists to a considerable extent. the sphere of quality control activities to quality assurance
and reliability, due to the stiff competition amongst the
This concept is wrong and is emanating from the manufacturers.The concept 'Looks first and function
secondary duty of inspection. Namely, to sort out faulty foremost', is one way to stress the need for improving the
component or products and ensure an economical quality looks of a product. The importance of appearance of the
level after the inspection. This is however a postmortem product and its dependable function is today being stressed
activity and the primary duty of the inspection is to help and realized all over. Only then, can one compete in the
other functions to prevent mistakes. international market.
We may find in the near future that quality control has 2 The AQL
given way to the new concept namely Quality Engineering
3 When to inspect?
wherein, the emphasis would be on the usefulness of a
product, not only for the individuals but also for the After 10 minutes, you will be able to understand the
entire humanity. reliability of an inspector's findings and take more informed
decisions based on an inspection report.
The occurance of non–florification trading on nuclear
weapons is an apt example of such an understanding If you have not started doing professional quality control,
with regard to the quality of a product. you will need to understand these 3 concepts to make
sure the inspection plan meets your needs.
Quality control
1 Inspection levels
What is quality control?
Why use random sampling?
Quality control is a set of methods used by organizations
Shipments often represent thousands of products.
to achieve quality parameters or quality goals and
Checking 100% of the quality would be long and expensive.
continually improve the organization 's ability to ensure
A solution is to select samples at random and inspect
that a software product will meet quality goals.
them, instead of checking the whole lot.
Quality control process (Fig.5)
But how many samples to select? On the one hand.
Checking only a few pieces might prevent the inspector
from noticing quality issues; on the other hand, the
objective is to keep the inspection short by reducing the
number of samples to check.
The relevant standards purpose a standard severity, called
"normal level", which is designed to balance these two
imperatives in the most efficient manner.
Within this normal severity, there are three general levels:
I, II, and III. Level II is used for more than 90% of
The three class parameters that control software quality inspections. For example, for an order of 8.000 products,
are: only 200 samples are checked.
– Products Military Standard 105 was created by the US Department

of Defence to control their procurements more efficiently.
– Processes In 1994 they decided to relay on non-governmental
– Resources organizations to maintain this type of standard. The ANSI,
ISO, and other institutes have created their own standard,
The total quality control process consists of : but in essence they are similar. The major third -party QC
– Plan - It is the stage where the quality control processes firms use the same standards and the same statistical
are planned. tables.
– Do- Use a defined parameter to develop the quality. When to adopt a different level
– Check- Stage to verify of the quality of the parameters Suppose you source a product from a factory that often
are met. ships substandard quality. You know that the risk is higher
– Act- Take corrective action if needed and repeat the than average. How to increase the Discriminating power
work. of the inspection? You can opt for level III, and more
samples will be checked.
Quality control characteristics
Similarly, if a supplier has consistently delivered acceptable
– Process adopted to deliver a quality product to the products in the past and keeps its organization unchanged,
clients at best cost. you can choose level I. As fewer samples have to be
– Goal is to learn from other organizations so that quality checked, the inspection might take less time and be
would be better each time. cheaper.
– To avoid making errors by proper planning and The relevant standards give no indication about when to
execution with correct review process. switch inspection levels, so most importers rely on their
"gut feeling".
Quality control basic concepts The "special levels"
In this article I explain three fundamental concepts that Inspectors frequently have to perform some special tests
every buyer should be familiar with when it comes to quality on the products they are checking. In some cases the
inspections: tests can only be performed on very few samples, for two
1 Inspection levels reasons:
1 They might take a long time (e.g. doing a full function - Defects can be on the product itself, on the labeling or
test as per claims on the retail box). on the packaging.
2 They end up in product destruction. (E.g. unstitching a - If one sample presents several defects, only the most
jacket to check the lining fabric). severe one is counted.
For these situations only, the inspector can choose a How to read the AQL tables
"special level". The master tables included in the relevant standards are
So we have three "general" inspection levels, and four commonly called AQL tables. Let's take an example.
"special levels". For a given order quantity, each level gives You buy 8.000 widgets from a factory, and you choose
a different number of samples to check. Let's see how it inspection level II. In the table below (which is only valid
plays in two examples. for single sampling plans), you see that the corresponding
2 The AQL (acceptance quality limit) letter is L.
In part 1, we explained the different inspection levels that Now let's turn to the next table (which is only appropriate
can be used. Another basic concept rings familiar to many for normal-severity inspections). The letter L gives you the
importers, but is often not clearly understood: the AQL number of samples to draw at random: 200 pcs.
(Acceptance Quality Limit). And what about the AQL? Let's say you follow the usual
There is no such thing as zero defect practice of tolerating 0% of critical defects, 2.5% of major
defects, and 4.0% of minor defects. The maximum
First, as a buyer, you have to know what proportion of acceptable number of defects is 10 major and 14 minor.
defects is tolerated on your market. If you are in the aviation In other words, the inspection is failed if you find at least 1
business, any defective part might cause a disaster, so critical defect and /or at least 11 major defects and /or at
your tolerance will be very, very low. But you will have to least 15 minor defects.
accept a higher percentage of defects if you source
3 When to inspect?
consumer products that are assembled by hand in china
or in India. The first two parts focused on the different inspection levels
and on the AQL tables. So you Know how to set the number
An objective limit is necessary
of samples to check and how many defects have to be
So, how many defects are too many? It is up to you, as a accepted. With these setting and your detailed product
buyer, to make this decision. There are two reasons why specifications, a QC inspector can check your products
you should not leave this to the inspector's judgment: and reach a conclusion (passed or failed).
1 When it comes to giving instruction to an inspector, But importers face one more question when should the
you should never leave gray areas-as they might open products be inspected? This is an extremely important
the door to corruption. issue for buyers willing to secure their supply chain.
Spending a few hundreds of dollars to check and fix issues
2 Your supplier should have clear criteria for acceptability,
early can be an excellent investment; if might save you
or they will see rejections as unfair.
weeks of delay, shipments by air, and /or lower quality
The AQL is the proportion of defects allowed by the buyer. products that you have to accept and deliver to your own
It should be communicated to the supplier in advance. customers.
The three categories of defects Four types of inspections
Some defects are much worse than others. Three Let's picture the simplified model where one factory turns
categories are typically distinguished: raw materials into finished products. (If you also have to
- Critical defects might harm a user or cause a whole manage the quality of sub = suppliers' products, the same
shipment to be blocked by the customs. model can be applied to them)
- Major defects are not accepted by most consumers, Pre-production inspection

who decide not to buy the product. This type of inspection is necessary if you want to check
- Minor defects also represent a departure from the raw materials or components that will be used in
specifications, but some consumers would still buy production. Buying cheaper materials can increase a
the product. factory's margin considerably, so you should keep an eye
on this risk. It can also be used to monitor the processes
For most consumer products, critical defects are not followed by the operators.
allowed, and the AQL for major defects and minor defects
are 2.5% and 4.0% respectively. During production inspection
Some important remarks This inspection allows you to get a good idea of average
product quality, and to ask for corrections if problems are
- A professional inspector will notice defects and evaluate found. It can take place as soon as the first finished
their category by himself. But it is better if the buyer products get off the line, but these samples might not be
himself describes the most frequent defects and representative of the whole. So usually an inspection during
assigns categories to each one. production is done after 10-30% of the products are finished.
Final (pre-shipment) inspection
Inspecting the goods after they are made and packed is
the standard QC solution of most importers. The inspector
can really check every detail, including counting the total
quantity and confirming the packaging. Final inspections
are usually performed in a hurry, just before shipment. To
INSPECTION
avoid creating delays, inspectors can usually start after
RECORD
all products are finished and 80% + of the shipment quantity
is packed.
DATE BY ACCEPTED REJECTED
Loading supervision
In some cases, a buyer wants to make sure the factory
ships the right products, in the right quantity, and with the
right loading plan.
Records maintained in shop floor by a worker
Job card: Each and every job is accompanied by job
card in a industry. The job card is very important document
to be maintained by an operator. It include the following
details.
1 Document No
2 Date
3 Customer Name
4 Work order No
5 Operator Name
6 Time Record
ACCEPTED
7 Operation Name / Number
8 Quantity etc
Customer _______________________
Inspection record W.O No __________________________
The record is used for inspecting the workpiece by the
operator or quality inspector. No PCB __________________________
1 Date of Inspection Part No. __________________________

2 Name of the component
Inspector __________________________
3 Inspected by (Operator/ Inspector)
4 Quantity accepted/Rejected Commented _______________________
5 Rework details if any
Accepted / Rejected / Rework tag : After inspecting the
work piece, accepted tag is enclosed with sign and date if
the work pieced are accepted and rejected tag is enclosed
is the pieces are rejected. If there is any rework, rework
tag is enclosed. The rework tag has the details of rework
to be done.
INSPECTED
READY
TO USE
SIGNED BY ___________________
DATE ______________

Surface quality
• state the meaning of roughness value
• state the parameters on which surface quality depends
• state the method of measuring roughness
• define the symbols for surface roughness.
When components are produced either by machining or by

hand processes, the movement of the cutting tool leaves
certain lines or patterns on the work surface. This is known
as surface texture. These are, in fact, irregularities, caused
by the production process with regular or irregular spacing
which tend to form a pattern on the workpiece.
(Fig 1)
Examples
The components of surface texture In the case of slip gauges (Fig 3) the surface texture has
to be extremely fine with practically no waviness. This will
Roughness (Primary texture) help the slip gauges to adhere to each other firmly when
wrung together.
The irregularities in the surface texture result from the
inherent action of the production process. These will
include traverse feed marks and irregularities within them.
(Fig 2a)
Waviness (Figs 2b & 2c)
This is the component of the surface texture upon which

roughness is superimposed. Waviness may result from
machine or work deflections, vibrations, chatter, heat
treatment or warping strain.
The requirement of surface quality depends on the actual

use to which the component is put.

The cylinder bore of an engine (Fig 4) may require a certain ‘Ra’ Values
degree of roughness for assisting the lubrication needed for
The most commonly used method of expressing the
the movement of the piston.
surface texture quality numerically is by using Ra value.
This is also known as centre line average (CLA).
The graphical representation of Ra value is shown in
Figures 6 & 7. In Figure 6 a mean line is placed cutting
through the surface profile making the cavities below and
the material above equal.
The profile curve is then drawn along the average line so that
the profile below this is brought above.
For sliding surfaces the quality of surface texture is very
important. A new mean line (Fig 7) is then calculated for the curve
obtained after folding the bottom half of the original profile.
When two sliding surfaces are placed one over the other,
initially the contact will be only on the high spots. (Fig 5)
These high spots will wear away gradually. This wearing
away depends on the quality of the surface texture.
The distance between the two lines is the ‘Ra’ value of the
surface.
The ‘Ra’ value is expressed in terms of micrometre
(0.000001) or (m); this also can be indicated in the
corresponding roughness grade number, ranging from N1 to
Due to this reason it is important to indicate the surface N12.
quality of components to be manufactured. When only one ‘Ra’ value is specified, it represents the
The surface texture quality can be expressed and assessed maximum permissible value of surface roughness.
numerically.

Lay: Symbols for designating the direction of lay are shown and interpreted in table 1.
TABLE 1
Example showing Interpretation Direction of tool marks
__ Lay approximately parallel to the

__ line representing the surface to
which, the symbol is applied.
⊥ Lay approximately perpendicular

to the line representing the surface
to which the symbol is applied
X Lay angular in both direction to line

representing the surface to which
the symbol is applied.
M Lay multidirectional.
C Lay approximately circular relative to the

centre of the surface to which the symbol
is applied.
R Lay approximately radial relative to the

centre of the surface of which the symbol
is applied.
P Lay particulate, non-directional, or

protuberant.

Surface texture measuring instruments
• distinguish the features of mechanical and electronic surface indicators
• name the parts of a mechanical surface indicator
• brief the features of electronic surface indicators (taly-surf).
The use of surface finish standards which we have seen

earlier is only a method of comparing and determining the
quality of surface. The result of such measurement very
much depends on the sense of touch and cannot be used
when a higher degree of accuracy is needed.
The instruments used for measuring the surface texture
can be of a mechanical type or with electronic sensing
device.
Mechanical surface indicator There are different types of electronic surface measuring
devices; one type of such an instrument used in workshops
This instrument consists of the following features. (Fig 1) is the taly-surf.
Taly-surf (Electronic surface indicator): This is an
electronic instrument for measuring surface texture. This
instrument can be used for factory and laboratory use.
(Fig 3)
1 Measuring stylus
2 Skids
3 Indicator scale
4 Adjustment screw
The measuring head of this unit consists of a stylus (a)
The stylus is made of diamond, and its contact point will and a motor race (b) which controls the movement of the
have a light radius. instrument head across the surface. The movement of the
stylus is converted to electrical signals. These signals
When the stylus is slowly traversed across the test surface
are amplified in the surface analyser/amplifier (c) which
the stylus moves upward or downward depending on the
calculates the surface parameter and presents the result
profile of the surface. (Fig 2) This movement is amplified
on a digital or in the form of a diagram through a recorder
and transferred to the dial of the surface indicator.The
(d).
pointer movement indicates the surface irregularities.
When using a mechanical surface indicator, measurement
must be read as it is moved over the surface, and then a
profile curve is drawn manually to compute the mean value.

Machining symbols
• state the values of surface roughness
• state the indication of surface roughness.
Letter symbols for tolerances
Indication of surface roughness values.
S. No. Roughness value Roughness grade Roughness Manufacturing process

Ra in microns Number Symbol
1. 50 N12 Flame cutting, hacksaw cut, bandsaw

cut, shot blast etc.
2. 25.0 N11 Sand casting, planning, shaping

filling etc.
3. 6.3 N9 Milling, drilling, die casting, turning,

3.2 N8 forging, boring etc.
1.6 N7
4. 0.8 N6 Centreless grinding, cylindrical grinding,

0.4 N5 cold rolling, internal grinding, extrusion,
0.2 N4 surface grinding, broaching, hobbing
EDM, reaming etc.
5. 0.1 N3
0.05 N2 Super finishing, lapping honning etc.
0.025 N1
Surface symbol indication

1 The basic symbol consists of two legs of unequal length 3 If the material removal is not permitted, a circle is added
inclined at approximately 60°. to the basic symbol.
2 If the material removal by machining is required, a bar 4 If some special characteristics have to be indicated, a
is added to the basic symbol. line is added to the larger leg.

5 Indication of surface roughness
a. Surface roughness obtained by any production
method.
c. Indicating the sampling length.
b. Surface roughness obtained by removal of material

by matching.
d. Direction of lay, surface pattern by the production

method employed.
b. Surface roughness obtained by removal of material

by matching.
e. Indication of allowance in mm.
6 Indication of special surface roughness characteristics

a. Indicating the production method.
Surface texture
b. Indicating the surface treatment or coating. Unless

otherwise stated, the numerical value of the
roughness, applies to the surface roughness after
treatment of coating.

Lapping
• state the purpose of lapping
• state the features of a flat lapping plate
• state the use of charging a flat lapping plate
• state the method of charging a cast iron plate
• explain between wet lapping and dry lapping.
Lapping is a precision finishing operation carried out using The commonly used abrasives are:
fine abrasive materials.
– Silicon Carbide
Purpose: This process
– Aluminium Oxide
– improves geometrical accuracy
– Boron Carbide and
– refines surface finish
– Diamond
– assists in achieving a high degree of dimensional
accuracy Silicon carbide: This is an extremely hard abrasive. Its
grit is sharp and brittle. While lapping, the sharp cutting
– improve the quality of fit between the mating edges continuously break down exposing new cutting
components. edges. Due to this reason this is considered as very ideal
Lapping process: In the lapping process small amount of for lapping hardened steel and cast iron, particularly where
material are removed by rubbing the work against a lap heavy stock removal is required.
charged with a lapping compound. (Fig 1) Aluminium oxide: Aluminium oxide is sharp and tougher
than silicon carbide. Aluminium oxide is used in un-fused
and fused forms. Un-fused alumina (aluminium oxide)
removes stock effectively and is capable of obtaining high
quality finish.
Fused alumina is used for lapping soft steels and non-
ferrous metals.
Boron carbide: This is an expensive abrasive material
which is next to diamond in hardness. It has excellent
Lap materials and lapping compounds cutting properties. Because of the high cost, it is used only
in specialised application like dies and gauges.
The material used for making laps should be softer than the Diamond: This being the hardest of all materials, it is used
workpiece being lapped. This helps to charge the abrasives for lapping tungsten carbide. Rotary diamond laps are also
on the lap. If the lap is harder than the workpiece, the prepared for accurately finishing very small holes which
workpiece will get charged with the abrasives and cut the cannot be ground.
lap instead of the workpiece being lapped.
Lapping vehicles: In the preparation of lapping compounds
Laps are usually made of: the abrasive particles are suspended in vehicles. This
– close grained iron helps to prevent concentration of abrasives on the lapping
surfaces and regulates the cutting action and lubricates
– copper the surfaces.
– brass or lead The commonly used vehicles are
The best material used for making lap is cast iron, but this – water soluble cutting oils
cannot be used for all applications. – vegetable oil
When there is excessive lapping allowance, copper and – machine oils
brass laps are preferred as they can be charged more – petroleum jelly or grease
easily and cut more rapidly than cast iron.
– vehicles with oil or grease base used for lapping ferrous
Lead is an inexpensive form of lap commonly used for metals.
holes. Lead is cast to the required size on steel arbor.
These laps can be expanded when they are worn out. Metals like copper and its alloys and other non-ferrous
Charging the lap is much quicker. metals are lapped using soluble oil, bentomite etc.
Lapping abrasives: Abrasives of different types are used In addition to the vehicles used in making the lapping
for lapping. compound, solvents like water, kerosene, etc. are also
used at the time of lapping.
Abrasive of varying grain sizes from 50 to 800 Then place the workpiece on the plate and move along and
are used for lapping, depending on the surface across, covering the entire surface area of the plate. When
finish required on the component. carrying out fine lapping, the surface should be kept moist
with the help of kerosene.
The lapping compound consists of fine abrasive particles Wet and dry lapping : Lapping can be carried out either
suspended in a ‘vehicle’ such as oil, paraffin, grease etc. wet or dry.
The lapping compound which is introduced between the In wet lapping there is surplus oil and abrasives on the
workpiece and the lap chips away the material from the surface of the lap. As the workpiece, which is being lapped,
workpiece. Light pressure is applied when both are moved is moved on the lap, there is movement of the abrasive
against each other. The lapping can be carried out manually particles also.
or by machine. In dry method the lap is first charged by rubbing the
abrasives on the surface of the lap. The surplus oil and
Hand lapping of flat surfaces: Flat surfaces are hand- abrasives are then washed off. The abrasives embedded on
lapped using lapping plate made out of close grained cast the surface of the lap will only be remaining. The embedded
iron. (Fig.2) The surface of the plate should be in a true abrasives act like a fine oilstone when metal pins to be
plane for accurate results in lapping. lapped are moved over the surface with light pressure.
However, while lapping, the surface being lapped is kept
moistened with kerosene or petrol. Surfaces finished by
the dry method will have better finish and appearance.
Some prefer to do rough lapping by wet method and finish
by dry lapping.
Honing
Honing is a finishing process, in which a tool called hone

carries out a combined rotary and reciprocating motion
while the work piece does not perform any working motion.
Most honing is done on internal cylindrical surface, such as
The lapping plate generally used in tool rooms will have automobile cylindrical walls. The honing stones are held
narrow grooves cut on its surface both lengthwise and against the work piece with controlled light pressure. The
crosswise forming a series of squares. honing head is not guided externally but, instead, floats in
the hole, being guided by the work surface (Fig.3) It is
While lapping, the lapping compound collects in the desired that
serrations and rolls in and out as the work is moved.
1 Honing stones should not leave the work surface
Before commencing lapping of the component, the cast 2 Stroke length must cover the entire work length.
iron plate should be CHARGED with abrasive particles. In honing rotary and oscillatory motions are combined to
produce a cross hatched lay pattern as illustrated in Fig.3.
This is a process by which the abrasive particles are
embedded on to the surfaces of the laps which are
comparatively softer than the component being lapped.
For charging the cast iron lap, apply a thin coating of the
abrasive compound over the surface of the lapping plate.
Use a finished hard steel block and press the cutting

particles into the lap. While doing so, rubbing should be
kept to the minimum. When the entire surface of the
lapping plate is charged, the surface will have a uniform
gray appearance. If the surface is not fully charged, bright
spots will be visible here and there.
Excessive application of the abrasive compound

will result in the rolling action of the abrasive
between the work and the plate developing
inaccuracies.
The surface of the flat lap should be finished true by

scraping before charging. After charging the plate, wash off
all the loose abrasive using kerosene.

Honing tool Super abrasive honing stick with monolayer configuration,
where a layer of CBN grits are attached to stick by a
Lay pattern produced by combination of rotary and oscillatory galvanically deposited metal layer, is typically found in
motion. (Fig.4) single stroke honing application.
With the advent of precision brazing technique, efforts can

be made to manufacture honing stick with single layer
configuration with a brazed metal bond. Like brazed
grinding wheel such single layer brazed honing stick are
expected to provide controlled grit density, larger grit
protrusion leading to higher material removal rate and
longer life compared to what can be obtained with a
galvanically bonded counterpart.
The important parameters that affect material removal rate

(MRR) and surface roughness (R) are:
The honing stones are given a complex motion so as to 1 Unit pressure, P
prevent every single grit from repeating its path over the
work surface. 2 Peripheral honing speed, Vc
The critical process parameters are 3 Honing time, T
1 Rotation speed
2 Oscillation speed
3 Length and position of the stroke
4 Honing stick pressure
With conventional abrasive stick, several strokes are
necessary to obtain the desired finish on the work piece.
However, with introduction of high performance diamond
and CBN grits it is now possible to perform the honing
operation in just one complete stroke. Advent of precisely
engineered microcrystalline CBN grit has enhanced the
capability further. Honing stick with microcrystalline CBN
grit can maintain sharp cutting condition with consistent
results over long duration.

Importance of Technical term used in Industry

• state the meaning of different terms used in industry
• calculate the machine time in turning.
Engineering terminology Fillet (n) A rounded surface filling the internal angle
between two intersection surfaces. Also Rounds
Broach (v) to finish the inside of a hole to a shape other
Fit (n) The class of contact between two machined
than round, as in a keyway (n) The tool for the process,
surfaces, based upon their respective specified size
which has serrated edges and is pushed or pulled through
tolerances (Clearances, transitional, interference)
the hole to produce the required shape.
Fixture (n) A device used to hold a work piece while
Bushing (n) a smooth walled bearing (AKA a plain
manufacturing operations are performed upon that work
bearing). Also a tool guide in a jig or fixture.
piece.
Cam (n) A mechanical device consisting of an eccentric
Flange (See bushing example) (n) a projecting rim or
or multiply curved wheel mounted on a rotating shaft, used
edge for fastening, stiffening or positioning.
to produce variable or reciprocating motion in another
engaged for contacted part (Cam follower). Also Camshaft Gauge (n) A device used for determining the accuracy of
specified manufactured parts by direct comparison.
Casting (n) any object made by pouring molten metal into
a mold. Gear Hobbing (v) A special form of manufacturing that
cuts gear tooth geometrices. It is the major industrial
Chamfer (n) a flat surface made by cutting off the edge or
process for cutting involute form spur gears.
corner of a object (bevel) (v) the process of creating a
chamfer. Idler (n) A mechanism used to regulate the tension in belt
or chain. Or, a gear used between a driver and follower
Clevis (n) A U-shaped piece with holes into which a link is
gear to maintain the direction of rotation.
inserted and through which a pin or bolt is run. It is used
as a fastening device which allows rotational motion. Jig (n) A special device used to guide a cutting tool (drill
jig) or to hold material in the correct position for cutting or
Collar (n) A Cylindrical feature on a part fitted on a shaft
fitting together (as in welding or brazing)
used to prevent sliding (axial) movement.
Journal (n) The part of a shaft that rotates within a bearing
Collet (n) a cone-shaped sleeve used for holding circular
key (woodruff key shown) (n) A small block or wedge
or rod like pieces in a lathe or other machine.
inserted between a shaft and hub to prevent circumferential
Core (v) to form the hollow part of a casting, using a solid movement.
form placed in the mould (n) the solid form used in the
Keyseat (n) A slot or groove cut in a shaft to fit a key. A
coring process, often made of wood, sand, or metal. Mould
key rests in a keyseat.
with core is final cast manifold.
Keyway (n) A slot cut into a hub to fit a key. A key slides
Counter bore (n) a cylindrical flat-bottomed hole, which
in a keyway.
enlarges the diameter of an existing pilot hole. (v) The
process used to create that feature. Knurl (v) To roughen a turned surface, as in a handle or a
knob.
Countersink (n) a conical depression added to an existing
hole to accommodate and the conic head of a fastener Pinion (n) A plain gear, often the smallest gear in a gearset,
recessing it below the surface of a face. (v) The process often the driving gear, May be used in conjuction with a
used to create that feature. gear rack (rack and pinion, see below)
Coupling (n) A device used to connect two shafts together Planetary Gears (n) A gear set characterized by one or
at their ends for the purpose of transmitting power. May more planet gear (s) rotating around a sun gear. Epicyclic
be used to account for minor misalignment or for mitigating gearing systems include an outer ring gear (known as an
shock loads. planetary system)
Die (n) one of a pair of hardened metal plates or impressing Rack (w/pinion gear) (n)A toothed bar acting on (or acted
or forming desired shape. Also, a tool for cutting external upon ) by a gear ( pinion)
threads.
Ratchet (n) A space mechanical device used to permit
Face (v) to machine a flat surface perpendicular to the motion in one direction only.
axis of rotation of a piece.

shims (n) a thin strip of metal inserted between two Co -ordinate system: A series of intersecting planes, or
surfaces to adjust for fit. (v) The process of inserted shims planes and cylinders ( usually three) which form a reference
system.
Spline (n) A cylindrical pattern of keyways. May be
external (L) or Internal (R) CPU: Central processing unit. The controlling unit in a
digital computer.
Tap (v) To cut internal machine threads in a hole, (n) the
tool used to create that feature. Cutter diameter compensation: Provision in the control
system to modify the cutter offset by entering a numerical
Undercut (n) A cut having inward sloping sides, (v) to cut
correction to the cutting tool diameter.
leaving an overhanging edge.
Cutter offset: Position of reference point on the tool.
Definitions of technical terms- CNC SYSTEM
Cutting speed: The velocity of the cutting edge of the tool
relative to the work piece.
Absolute co - ordinates: The distance (or dimensions of
the current position from the origin (or zero point) of a Cycle: A sequence of operations which frequently repeated.
coordinate system (or measuring system) measured
Depth of cut: The amount of metal ( in mm or inch) removed
parallel to each axis of the system.
perpendicularly to the direction of feed in one pass of the
Address: A name (or label, or number) identifying a storage cutter over the work piece.
area in a control system or computer memory.
Digit: a character used in a numbering system.
Analog: The use of physical quantity (like voltage) whose
Downtime: Time during which equipment is out of action
amplitude represents that of another quantity (like distance)
because of faults.
APT: Automatically programmed tools.
Dwell: A pause of programmed duration, usually to ensure
ASCII: American standard code for information interchange. that a cutting action has time to be completed.
Auxiliary function: Another name for miscellanceous End-of-block mode: An agreed code which indicates the
function. completion of a block of input information on punched tape.
Axis: When associated with machine tools, an axis is a Feed: The movement of a cutting tool into a work piece.
direction in which a machine tool table or head can move.
Feed rate: The rate, in mm/min or in. /min, at which the
Backlash: The maximum movement at one end of a cutting tool is advanced into the work piece.
mechanical system (such as geartrain) which does not
Format: An agreed order in which the various types of
cause the other end to move.
words will appear within a block,
Base number: A base number (or radix) is an implied
Hardware: Equipment e.g., Machine tool, or Control, or
number used when expressing a value numerically in the
computer.
normal decimal system, the base is 10 and 87 is a short
way to representing 8x101+7x10o=87 in binary notation Incremental co-ordinates: The distance of current
1011 represents 1x23+0x22+1x21+1x20 = 8+2+1 = 11 in position from the preceding position, measured in terms
decimals of axial movements in the co-ordinate system.
Binary coded decimal number (BCD): The Interpolation: The process of supplying the positions of
representation of a number by groups of four binary digits a set of more closely spaced points between more widely
for each decimal digit in a number. spaced points such as change points.
Binary digits: The characters 0 or 1 used in the binary IPM: Inches per minute (in. /min).
system to express any value ( see Base number)
IPR: Inches per revolution (in. /rev) of a cutter or work
Bit: A binary digit or its representation. piece.
Block: A collection of words in some agreed form. Usually ISO: International Organization for Standardization.
on a control tape, and separated from succeeding blocks
Machine language or machine instruction: The
by an End of -Block code.
instructions and data for computers are based on patterns
BIS - British Standards institution. of bits.
Buffer: A temporary storage area where information is held Machine zero: The machine zero point is at the origin of
until it is moved into an operating area. the coordinate measuring system of the machine.
CCW: Counter clock wise. Manual data input (MDI): A means, on the control panel,
of inserting numerical information into the control system.
Characters: The set of letters, decimal digits, signs (such
as + - :% etc) Manuscript: Handwritten program.
Circular interpolation: A contour control system with Miscellaneous function: A control tape term for codes
circular interpolation cuts an arc of a circle from one block such as M03 used to control machine tool functions such
on a control tape. as 'rotate spindle clockwise'.
NC: Numerical control. Servomechanism: A closed-loop positioning-control
system.
Preparatory function word: A word near the beginning
of a control tape block which calls for a change in mode. Software: Programs, sequences of instructions, etc. Not
equipment (see Hardware).
Preset tools: The setting of tools in special holders away
from the machine tool. Spindle speed: the rotational speed in RPM of the spindle
or shaft which supplies the cutting power.
Program: A systematic arrangement of instructions or
information to suit a piece of equipment. Subroutine: A sequence of computer-programming
statements or instructions which perform an operation
RPM: Revolutions per minute (rev/min), a measure of
frequently required.
spindle speed.
Word: An agreed arrangement of characters and digits
Sequence number: The number allocated to a block or
(usually less than 10) which conveys one instruction, piece
group of blocks to identify them. Commonly takes a form
of information, or idea.
like N 278.
Documentations - 1
• describe work organisation
• name the aspects of organisation of work
• state the common technical terms used in industry.
Work organisation - Work teams

Work organisation is to arrange and distribute the work - Total productive maintenance
between the work teams in such a way that the best use - Total quality management
is made of the available labour, materials, tools and - Outsourcing/ contracting out
equipment.
Lean production
- to order the operations and activities of the work should
follow each other. An overall approach to work organisation that focuses on
elimination of any "waste" in the production / service
- to decide the various work teams. delivery process. It often includes the following elements:
- to decide the various work teams. "continuous improvement", "just-in-time production" and
work teams.
- to instruct and communicate correctly in order to avoid
misunderstandings. Continuous improvement
Organisation of work A process for continually increasing productivity and
efficiency, often relying on information provided by employee
The organisation of work includes many aspects, such as
involvement groups or teams. Generally involves
- Pace of work (speed of an assembly line, quotas). standardizing the work process and eliminating micro-
breaks or any "wasted" time spent not producing/ serving.
- Work load.
- Number of people performing a job (staffing levels). Just-in-time production
- Hours and days on the job.
Limiting or eliminating inventories, including work-in-progress
- Length and number of rest breaks and days away from inventories, using single piece production techniques often
work. linked with efforts to eliminate "waste" in the production
process, including any activity that does not add value to
- Layout of the work.
the product.
- Skill mix of those workers on the job.
Work teams
- Assignment of tasks and responsibilities and
- Training for the tasks being performed. Work teams operate within a production or service delivery
process, taking responsibility for completing whole
Some common terms technically used in industry are as
segments of work product. Another type of team meets
follows:
separately from the production process to "harvest" the
- Lean production knowledge of the workforce and generate develop and
- Continuous improvement implement ideas on how to improve quality, production and
efficiency.
- Just-in-time production
Total productive maintenance Outsourcing/ Contracting out
Designed to eliminate all nonstandard, non-planned Transfer of work formerly done by employees to outside
maintenance with the goal of eliminating unscheduled organisations. In many workplaces undergoing restructuring,
disruptions, simplifying (de-skilling) maintenance worker knowledge about the productive/ service process is
procedures and reducing the need for "just-in-case" gathered through "employee involvement" and then used
maintenance employees. by management to "lean out" and standardize the work
process, thereby reducing reliance on worker skill and
Total quality management creativity. This restructuring has resulted in job loss for
some underperformed, while increasing the work load and
This is aimed towards zero defect or elimination of poor work pace for those who remain on the job. The result of
quality in production. The quality concept of assuming the these changes in work organisation is that it is no longer
best quality from inception to implementation throughout just machines that are wearing out-it is the workers
the production process. themselves.
Different types of documentation as per industrial needs

• state the purpose of documentation
• list the different types of documentation
• explain the documents format - batch processing, BOM, cycle time, productivity report, manufacturing
inspection report.
Documentation Process chart
Documentation and records are used throughout the A process chart is a graphical representation of the activities
manufacturing process as well as supporting processes performed during manufacturing or servicing jobs. Graphical
(quality control) must meet the basic requirements. representation of the sequence of operations (workflow)
Documentation is a set of documents provided on paper, constituting a process, from raw materials to finished
or online, or on digital or analog media, such as audio product.
tape or CDs. Examples are user guides, white papers, Process charts are used for examining the process in detail
online help, quick reference guides. to identify areas of possible improvements.
The stages of recording the documents is to The different types of process charts they are
- prepare, review, update and approve documents. - Operation process chart
- identify changes and current revision status of - Flow process chart (man/ material/ equipment type)
documents. - Operator chart (also called two handed process chart)
- use of applicable documents available at points of use - Multiple activity chart
with the control documents of external origin - Simo chart
- identify and distribute relevant versions to be identifiable
and remain legible. Batch record forms
- prevent unintended use of obsolete documents and The documents used and prepared by the manufacturing
archiving. department provide step-by-step instructions for produc-
The different types of documentation as per industrial tion-related tasks and activities, besides including areas
needs includes on the batch record itself for documenting such tasks.
Batch production record is prepared for each batch should
- Processing charts include information on the production and control of each
- Bill of materials (BOM) batch. The batch production record should confirm that it
is the correct with standard operating procedure.
- Production cycle time format
These records should be numbered with a unique batch or
- Productivity reports
identification number and dated and signed when issued.
- Manufacturing stage inspection report
The batch number should be immediately recorded in data
- Job cards format processing system. The record should include date of
- Work activity log allocation, product identity and size of batch.
- Batch production record format Documentation of completion of each significant step in
- Estimation of work the batch production records (batch produciton and con-
trol records) should include :
- Maintenace log format
- Dates and when apporiate time. The batch processing record is signed with date
mentioning name of person responsible and their
- Major ewuipment used machinery and specified batch
designation. The remarks if any on the process should be
numbers of raw materiala, reprocessed materials used
during manufacturing. also mentioned then and there.
Bill of materials (BOM) format - 2
- Critical process parameters records.
- Trial products or sample (if reqiured). The list of parts involved in manufacturing of an assembly
arranged in order is given in this format.
- Signatures of staff for sequence of operation.
- Laboratory test result and line inspection notes. The format shown is as per bureau of Indian Standards
IS:11666-1985 as example for Engineering Component
- Achieved production aganist target.
drawings.
- Packaging and label (if any) details.
The BOM in the form of tabular columns has the
Batch processing record: (Sample format - 1) component marked with item number, and its name is
The format 1 used in documentation of batch processing given under description and number of is mentioned under
record has the description of the job, necessarily quantity, with reference drawing ie., sub assembly/part
mentioned with part number and name of the part. drawing number.
A predetermined batch quantity with batch number alloted
and identified with batch record number is documentation. The material designation as per code of practice or
The product reference is made with purchase order number. standards is mentioned, and any other specific notes are
given under remarks column.
The production process is descriptively written about the
sequence of operation to be carried out on the product. The BOM is placed on the manufacturing drawing
The manufacturer organization name, period of manufacture containing with assembly and parts in standard sheet sizes
preferably the year with starting date of manufacture and of engineering drawing.
end date of manufacturer and number of pages of document
according to batch quantity processed, and total number
of pages of document, inclusive of inserted pages and
manufacturing facilities is provided with.

BATCH PROCESSING RECORD - FORMAT - 1
Batch Processing Record
Description of job Batch no. :
Part no. : Batch quantity :
Name of part : Batch record no. :
Purchase order no. :
Description of process :
Manufacturing Organisation :
Period of manufacture (Year - Qtr): Start date of manufacture: End date of manufacture:
Number of pages according to batch: Inserted pages: Manufacturing facilities:
Total number of pages
1. Operator / Technician
Date Name and signature
2. Production in-charge:
3. Section manager
4. Plant in-charge:
5. Production in-charge:
Remarks (if any)

BILL OF MATERIAL (BOM) - FORMAT - 2
as per IS: 11666-1985
S.No Item No. Description Quantity Reference Material as Remark

dwg no. per standard
Cycle time Overall cycle time

Cycle time is the total time from the beginning to the end The complete time it takes to produce a single unit. This
of the process. Cycle time includes process time, during term is generally used when speaking of a single machine
which a raw material worked with to bring it closer to or process.
required form output, and delay time, during which the
Total cycle time
workpiece waiting for next operation.
This includes all machines, processes, and classes of
The time taken to perform one operation repeatedly cycle time through which a product must pass to become
measured from “Start to Start” the starting point of one a finished product. This is not lead time, but it does help
product’s processing in a specified machine or in determining it.
operationuntil the start of another similar product’s
Production cycle time (Format - 3)
processing in the same machine or process. Cycle time
is commonly categorized into same machine/process. This format 3 should contain mentioning the organization
name department / section name. The process which is
Machine cycle time being observed for analysing the cycle time is mentioned
with line in charge name and the date/time of the
The processing time of the machine working on a part.
operations, with operator name is indicated.
Auto cycle time The time observation on each operation, sequence noted
in the column, and lowest repeatable is also mentioned
The time a machine runs un-aided (automatically) without
for each operation. The times observation for machine
manual intervention.
cycle time is also noted, with any notes be recorded in
respective operations in sequence.

PRODUCTION CYCLE TIME - FORMAT 3
Organisation Name: Process: Line Incharge: Date/Time:
Department / Section :
Operator : Machine Notes

Cycle Time
Operator
Sequence Observed Times Lowest Repeatable
Productivity report Daily production report (Format 4)

Productivity report to measure and review the efficiency of The output of production is shown in the format, referring
a person, machine, factory, system, etc., in converting the job order no quantity, material and size, every process
inputs into useful outputs. Productivity report is computed involved, to produce a component, quality control,
by dividing average output per period by the total costs packing should contain the details of planned quantity and
incurred or resources (capital, energy, material, produced quantity is recorded in the document. This is
personnel) consumed in that period. the base details for arriving the productivity report.The
incurred cost is worked out considering infrastructure, raw
The base document daily production report which reveals materials and facilities.
the actual output against the target plan and on investment
cost incurred as mentioned above decides the cost
efficiency.

166
DAILY PRODUCTION REPORT - FORMAT- 4
Daily Production Report
Date: Department: Organisation Name:
Section:
Process - I Process-II Process-III Process-IV Quality Control Packing

Planned Completed Planned Completed Planned Completed Planned Completed Planned Completed Planned Completed
Job Order No.
Quantity
Material & Size
Job Order No.

Quantity
Material & Size
Job Order No.

Quantity
Material & Size
Job Order No.

Quantity
Material & Size

Job Order No.
Quantity
Material & Size
Signature of section Incharge

Manufacturing stage inspection report (Format 5) and date, job order number and date, process involved in
manufacture of product, the quality submitted for
The format 5 is to monitor the production in various stages
inspection. The accepted and rejected quality recorded
for which manufacturing stage inspection conducted for
with inspection record review date and the inspection
documentation to review the productivity. The format gives
person signature who conducted the stage inspection is
the details of product being inspected showing the details
recorded date wise for mentioned /specified period with
of customer reference by purchase order (PO) number
start and end dates.
Status: From Date ..../..../...... To Date .../.../......
Inspection conducted by
Inspection Record No.
MANUFACTURING STAGE INSPECTION REPORT - FORMAT - 5
Rejected
Accepted
Qty
Process
J.O Date
No.
Job Order
Date
P.O No. &
Organisation Name :
Customer
Code
Product ID/
Date

Documentations - 2
• state the purpose of job card and its format details
• explain work activity log format details
• state the details of batch production format.
Job card The details which have to be recorded about the product
line description showing the operations each into recording
A job card is a document showing the details of a job to be
of start time and total time of operation. The location time
performed in a production shop. It is used to authorize
recorded is to track if any delay/ reasons and necessary
and instruct the work team to take up the production work.
actions if taken with remarks.
Job card format - 1
If the product has to be completed with any of the further
Job card has the details of commencing the job, customer operations in sequence, this card will travel along with job
name, work order no, document number, reference number for next workstations for further operations if any to complete
and date. the requirement of job, and recorded till finishing of the
job.
JOB CARD - FORMAT-1
Doc No.
Job Card Rev No.
Date
Order Starting Date
Customer
Work Order No.
Details
S.No. Date Production Line Time (Minutes) Location Remarks

Description Start Time End Time Total Time Time

Work activity log format - 2 has to record every hour, activity description, equipment/
machinery/instrument used to perform the job.
This document is to record the activity/operations performed
by the operator from time to time (format) shows time
Any remarks may noted by the operator to complete this
duration as one hour (For whole day shift). The operator
record.
WORK ACTIVITY LOG - FORMAT-2
Organisation Name:
Department:
Section:
Employee Name:
Supervisor Name:
Date:
Start / Stop Operations Equipment / Machinery/ Remarks

performed Instruments used
8.00 to 9.00 a.m.
9.00 to 10.00 a.m.
10.00 to 11.00 a.m.
11.00 to 12.00 noon
12.00 to 1.00 p.m.
1.00 to 2.00 p.m.
2.00 to 3.00 p.m.
3.00 to 4.00 p.m.
4.00 to 5.00 p.m.
5.00 to 6.00 p.m.
Batch production record format - 3 This document is to be prepared under heading description
This document is for recording the details of production of job part number, batch number, name of the part. The
covering the processing steps with documented page processing steps number serially for each process with
number with deviation against each in short description. sequential operations in logical order with documented
page number. The description of deviation are noted against
each operations in sequence gives the detail of batch
production record for every part.

BATCH PRODUCTION RECORD - FORMAT-3
Batch Production Record in accordance with batch processing record
Manufacturing Organisation Name: _______________________
Description of job: ______________________
Name of part: __________________________
Batch No.: ____________________________
The following deviations have appeared (continued)
No. process Name of processing step Documented Short description

step page no. of deviation
1 Raw material preparation:

Operation 1: Descaling 1. _____________
Operation 2: Degreasing 2. _____________
Operation 3: Wire brushing 3. _____________
4. _____________
2 Sizing of material:
Operation 1: Shearing 1. _____________
Operation 2: Deburring 2. _____________
3. _____________
Estimation and maintenance records

• state the purpose of estimation
• explain the details of formats for estimation sheet
• explain the details of formats for maintenance log, history sheet of machinery and equipment and checklist
for preventive maintenance.
Estimation is the method of calculating the various Standard schedule of rates of the current year.
quantities and the expenditure to be incurred on a particular
job or process. Estimating is the process of preparing an approximation
of quantities which is a value used as input data and it is
In case the funds available are less than the estimated derived from the best information available.
cost the work is done in part or by reducing it or
specifications are altered, An estimate that turns out to be incorrect will be an
overestimate if the estimate exceeded the actual result,
The following essential details are required for preparing and an underestimate if the estimate fell short of the actual
an estimate. result.
Drawings like plan, elevation and sections of important A cost estimate contains approximate cost of a product
parts. process or operation. The cost estimate has a single total
value and it is inclusive of identifiable component
Detailed specifications about workmanship & properties values.
of materials, etc.

Part No:3
Part Name: Thumb Screw
Material:Fe 3 10
Stock S 12:45x30
Assembly: Dial gauge holder
Operation Operation Machine Estimated Rate / piece Instrument

No description time per hr
01 Job setting on Lathe 10 min Steel rule

four jaw chuck
02 Facing Lathe 5 min
03 Centre drilling Lathe 15 min
04 Turning 39.7
mm Lathe 5 min Vernier caliper
05 Step turning
Ø22 mm Lathe 5 min Vernier caliper
06 Form radius of
4mm Lathe 10 min Radius caliper
07 Space b/w,’div’
and ‘a’ hole Lathe 10 min
08 Cut a internal
thread use Lathe 20 min thread a plug
machine tap gauge
09 1 x 450
Champer Lathe 5 min
10 Reverse the hold

the job true it Lathe 7 min
11 Facing Lathe 10 min Vernier caliper
12 turn 39.7mm
and revolving Lathe 5 min Vernier caliper
centre support Lathe 10 min
13 clamp the
knurling tool Lathe 20 min
and knur the
surface
14 1 x 450 chamfer
of knur surface Lathe 15 min

Maintenance log - Format 5
This format is made with details of maintenance activities performed machinewise,
MAINTENANCE LOG - FORMAT - 5
Organisation Name :
Department:
Section:
Name of the machine:
S.No Date Nature of fault Details of rectification done Signature of in-charge
History sheet of machinery equipment - Format 6

The document recorded with historical data about the weight, cost, particulars of drive motor, spare parts details,
machinery and equipment, contains all details about belt specification, lubrication details, major repair/ overhauls
supplier address, order no., date of receipt, installed and done with dates recorded then and there for analysing the
placed, Date of commissioning and machine dimensions, functional and frequency of breakdown etc.,

MACHINERY AND EQUIPMENT RECORD FORMAT - 6
Organisation Name:
Department:
Section:
History sheet of machinery & Equipement
Description of equipment
Manufacturer’s address
Supplier’s address
Order No. and date
Date on which received
Date on which installed and place
Size : Length x Width x Height
Weight
Cost
Motor particular Watts/ H.P./ r.p.m: phase: Volts:
Bearings/ spares/ record
Belt specification
Lubrication details
Major repairs and overhauls

carried out with dates
Checklist for preventive maintenance inspection -

Format 7
The very essential document required to observe, the This format enables to program the frequency of
functional aspects of each parts, defects and the maintenance schedules so as to minimise frequent
remedial measures taken is recorded. breakdown of machinery/equipments.

PREVENTIVE MAINTENANCE RECORD - FORMAT 7
Organisation Name :
Department :
Section :
Name of the Machine :
Machine Number :
Model No & Make :
Check list for machine inspection
Inspect the following items and tick in the appropriate column and list the remedial measures for the defective
items.
Items to be checked Good working Satisfactory Defective Remedial measures
Level of the machine
Belt/chain and its tension
Bearing condition (Look, feel,

Listen noise)
Driving clutch and brake
Exposed gears
Working in all the speeds
Working in all feeds
Lubrication and its system
Carriage & its travel
Cross-slide & its movement
Compound slide & its travel
Tailstock’s parallel movement
Electrical controls
Safety guards
Inspected by :
Signature :
Name :
Date : Signature of in-charge

Terms used in part Drawings and Geometrical tolerances, and symbols
• state the meanings of various drawing terminology.
Glossary of drawing terminology Horizontal: Parallel to the plane of the horizon; flat and
even, level.
Abstraction: The reduction of an image or object to an
essential aspect of its form or concept. Idealized drawing: A rendering which achieves a
satisfactory resemblance to the subject while
Acute angle: An angle lesser than 90 degrees. simultaneously eliminating imperfections.
Ascending planes: Flat surfaces not parallel to the ground Kneaded eraser: A soft, malleable eraser that is used to
or floor planes whose vanishing points appear above the lighter values or as an aid in the creation of gradations.
horizontal line.
Layout: The placement of an image within a two -
Background: The most distance zone of space in a dimensional format.
three-dimensional illusion.
Life drawing: Drawing from live forms in order to gain
Concave: A shape that is hollow and curved, like the visual understanding of the movements, gestures, and
inside portion of a bowl. physical capabilities of live bodies as aesthetically pleasing
art forms.
Convex: A shape that curved outward, like the surface of
a sphere. Line: The pathway of a moving point as in the trail of a
scratch, a brush stroke, or the engraved deposition of
Content: The subject matter of a work of art, including its drawing material resulting from dragging a tool over a
emotional, intellectual, symbolic, the matic , and narrative receptive surface; visible by contrasts in value.
connotations, which together give the work its total
meaning. Line quality: The visual traits and /or expressive character
of lines.
Descending planes: Flat surfaces not parallel to the
ground or floor planes whose vanishing points fall below Modeling: The change from light to dark across a surface;
the horizon line. a technique for creating the illusion of form and/or space.
Descriptive drawing: Highly detailed renderings intended Multiple perspectives: Difference eye levels and
to articulately define what is seen. perspectives used in the same drawing.
Design: A working plan or an arrangement of parts, form, Oblique: A slanting line or plane that is not parallel to the
color etc. edges of the picture plane.
Drawing: The act by which an artist records what he or Obtuse angle: An angle greater than 90 degrees.
she sees or feels; The fine art of making a descriptive
visual expression by dragging a tool across a receptive Orthogonal line: In linear perspective, an oblique line
surface-usually a piece of fine-quality, toothed paper. that is drawn using a vanishing point.
Full range: A complete gradation of tonal values from the Parallel: Extending in the same direction at the same
lightest to the darkest values whether black and white or distance a part, so as never to meet.
in a color context.
Pattern: A repeated compositional element or regular
Geometric shape: Shape created by mathematical laws repetition of a design or single shape.
and measurements, such as a circle or a square.
Perpendicular: At right angles to a given plane or line
Ground plane: The flat, horizontal plane on which the exactly upright or vertical.
view stands that extends to the horizon.
Perspective: A mathematical method of representing
Horizon line: A line corresponding to the eye level of the forms as they recede in space and diminish in size using
viewer in linear perspective; Contains the vanishing points converging lines that meet a central vanishing point on the
in a one -point or two-point perspective drawing. horizon line.

Pictorial: Refers to a picture, not only its actual two- Texture: The surface character or tactile qualities
dimensional space but also its potential for three experienced either through the sense of touch or through
dimensional illusion. the imagination.
Picture plane: the actual flat surface, or opaque plane, Three-dimensional: Having height, width and depth;
on which drawing is produced. It also refers to the synonymous with form.
imaginary, transparent "windows of nature" that represents
the format of a drawing mentally super imposed over real- Three-dimensional space: the illusion of volume or
world subject matter. volumetric space.
Planer analysis: A structural description of a form in which Three-point perspective: A system for depicting three-
its complex curves are generalized into major plane zones. dimensional depth on a two dimensional surface. In
addition to lines relending to two points on the horizon,
Plane: A perfectly flat surface as a geometric plane, or lines parallel and vertical to the ground appear to converge
floor plane; to a third vanishing point located either above or below the
horizon line.
Profile: The shape of a head (or) face (i.e.) seen or drawn
from the side. Two -dimensional: Having height and width; synonymous
with shape.
Rectilinear shapes: Two-dimensional shapes that are
characterized by having four sides that meet one another Two dimensional space: Space that has height and width
at right angles; shapes based upon rectangle and squares. with little or no illusion of depth.
Render: To draw with an unusually high degree of detailed Two-point perspective: A form of linear perspective which
representation. the line receding into space converge at two vanishing
points on the horizon line(eye level), one to the left of the
Scale: Size and weight relationships between forms. object being drawn and one to the right.
Sketch: A drawing, or an act of drawing done quickly with Unit of measure: A portion of a complex shape or three-
minimal or no elaboration, but effectively captures the dimensional form that is used to measure all of the order
essential form in space, with basic light and shadow. elements within the shape or form-the head serves as a
good unit of measure for determining proportional
Tangent: Touching a curved surface at one point but not relationships within human figure.
intersecting it.
Working drawings: The studies artists make in
Taper: To decrease gradually in width or thickness. preparation for a final work of art.
Geometrical tolerancing
• define geometrical tolerance
• state the necessity of using geometrical tolerances
• list the recommended symbols for tolerancing under the three groups of form, attitude and location.
Form i.e. straightness, flatness, roundness, cylindricity To have an international system which will overcome the
and profile of a line and a surface usual language barrier. This is achieved by the use of
symbols which represent geometrical characteristics.
Attitude i.e. parallelism, squareness and angularity
General principles of geometrical tolerances
Location i.e. position, concentricity and symmetry
The geometrical tolerance consists of a frame which
Definition of geometrical tolerance contains a symbol, representing the geometrical tolerance
zone, in this instance 0.05 for the characteristic of
Geometrical tolerance is the maximum permissible overall
parallelism. The symbol for flatness is shown
variation of form or position of a feature.
accompanied by the tolerance zone figure of 0.02 in the
lower frame. (Fig 1)
Reason for using geometrical tolerance
Notice that from each of the frames a leader is drawn
This will help the operator to produce the components,
so that it is normal, i.e. at 90° to the relevant face and
particularly those parts which must fit together precisely.
ending with an arrow-head against the face.

Characteristic Symbol
Cylindricity
Profile of a line
Profile of a surface
The application of symbols is indicated in fig 3, where

(3a), (3b), (3c) & (3d) show the use of geometrical
tolerances controlling the straightness of a circular
section part. In (3a) and (3b) the leader lines from the
tolerance frame end in an arrow-head against the axis
applies to the full length of the part. The interpretation
at (3a) shows that for functional acceptance, the entire
main axis must lie between two parallel straight lines
0,1 apart in that plane. At (3b) the symbol for the diameter
® precedes the tolerance. This means that the entire
main axis must lie within a cylindrical tolerance zone 0.1
mm diameter.
Figures (3c) and (3d) show the same geometrical

Notice also that from the ‘parallelism’ frame, another tolerance, applied this time to the diameter dimension of
leader is drawn terminating in a blacked-in equilateral the smaller diameter of the part.
triangle on a projection drawn out from the base line.
The blacked-in triangle (about 4.5 mm high from base to This means that the geometrical tolerance applies over
apex) is the symbol used to represent a datum face or the length of the dimensional feature only.
line.
An alternate method of arranging the frames and symbols

is shown in Fig 2 where the datum is given a letter and a
frame of its own and an independent leader line ending
in the blacked-in triangle, inverted and drawn against
the actual component base line. The datum letter ‘A’ is
then added as an extra component in the geometrical
tolerance frame.
Recommended symbols for geometrical tolerancing

Geometrical tolerances are arranged into three groups.
They are tolerances of form, of attitude and of location.
Figure (3e) and figure (3f) deal with the geometrical
Tolerances of FORM are identified by the use of symbols tolerance for flatness of a surface, where the symbol for
for the following characteristics. flatness is followed by the tolerance figure of 0.05. This
figure indicates that the actual surface (as previously
Characteristic Symbol shown in Figure 1) must be between two parallel planes
0.05 apart. If a particular form of direction is prohibited,
Straightness then this is stated in a note form against the tolerance
frame. Eg. ‘Not concave’.
Flatness
Roundness

In Fig.6 the geometrical tolerance is applied to linear
dimensions controlling the profile. The rectangular ‘boxes’
around the 250 centre dimension and the 50 radius is the
method used to indicate theoretical dimensions i.e. the
dimensions relevant to perfect form.
The geometrical tolerance controlling roundness of a part

is shown in figures (3g), (3h) and (3j). The interpretation
for (3g) and (3h) is that the true form of the periphery of
the part at any cross-section perpendicular to the axis
must lie between two concentric circles whose radial
distance apart is 0.02 for (3g) and 0.03 for (3h).
For the sphere shown in (3j) the geometrical tolerance
applies to concentric circles with the radial distance apart
0.04 at the periphery at any section of maximum diameter.
The interpretation of the geometrical tolerance is that the

actual profile must be between two lines which touch a
succession of circles 0.2 dia. whose centre lies on the
The sphere controlling cylindricity is shown in Fig 4. Here theoretical profile.
the interpretation shows, that for acceptance, the surface
Tolerances of attitude are identified and indicated by the
of the part must be within two coaxial cylinders, whose
use of symbols for the following.
radial distance apart is 0.05.
Parallelism
Squareness
Fig.5 shows the method of applying a geometrical tolerance

to a curved surface. The symbol is followed by the tolerance Angularity
0.05 which means that the actual surface must lie between
two surfaces enveloping a succession of sphere 0.05 A typical application of tolerances for these three
diameter whose centre lies on the theoretical surface. characteristics is shown in figures 7, 8 and 9. Fig. (7a)
(7b) and (7c) show the application of tolerancing to control
‘parallelism’. (7a) shows that the axis of the upper hole
must lie between the two lines 0.08 apart which are parallel
with the datum axis, i.e., the axis of the lower hole, as
indicated by the leader ending in the blacked-in triangle.
In (7b) the method uses a separate datum letter ‘A’
which is added to the frame after the tolerance of 0.05
diameter. (Note the symbol Ø.) The requirement is that
the upper hole axis must lie within a cylindrical zone
0.05 diameter with its axis parallel with the axis of the
datum hole ‘A’. Fig (7c) shows a component whose upper

surface must be between two parallel planes 0.05
apart, parallel with the bottom datum surface. While
the overall tolerance zone is 0.05 as shown in the
upper section of the frame, the figures in the lower
section of the frame stipulate that over any length of 100
the parallelism tolerance is reduced to 0.02.
This shows that the right hand end face must lie between
two parallel planes 0.05 apart, which are perpendicular to
the datum axis. (8c)
Here the datum surface is indicated by a leader from the

frame. The requirement is that the right hand face must
lie within the two parallel planes, 0.05 apart, which are
perpendicular to the datum surface. (8d)
Examples of the application of the geometrical tolerance

for ‘squareness’ are shown in (8a) (8b) (8c) with (8a) (8b)
and (8c) using the separate box method for indicating the Geometrical tolerances for the control of ANGULARITY
datum. are shown in figures (9a) (9b) and (9c).
The interpretation is as follows. The figure (9a) shows that the requirement is the axis of
the hole must lie within the cylindrical tolerance zone 0.1
The axis of the vertical hole must lie between two parallel diameter, the axis of which must be included at the
lines, 0.05 apart, which are perpendicular to the common theoretical angle of 60° to the datum surface A.
datum axis ‘A’ of the two horizontal wholes. (8a)
In (9b) the requirement is that the right hand end face
The axis of the upper cylindrical portion must lie within must lie within the two parallel planes 0.08 apart which
a cylindrical tolerance zone of 0.01 diameter, the axis of are inclined at the theoretical angle of 75° to the datum
which is perpendicular to the datum surface ‘A’. (8b) axis A of the through hole.
Figure (10b) shows the hole with the same true positions,
but with the geometrical tolerances arranged to give greater
tolerance along the horizontal axis.The resulting
requirement is that the axis of the hole must lie within a
rectangular box whose sides are 0.03 and 0.06, and length
equal to the width of the component.
Figure (9c) shows a component whose upper angle

face, must lie between the two parallel planes 0.05
apart which are inclined at the theoretical angle of 35°
to the base, the datum surface. Notice that the theoretical
angle in each example is boxed.
In (10c) the two holes are shown with their true position
spaced at 45° on a 30mm pitch circle radius.The
geometrical tolerance shows that each actual hole centre
must lie within a cylindrical zone 0.08 diameter whose
axis lies at the true centre position. The tolerance cylinders
are disposed relative to the two datum features, namely
the axis of the smaller bore and the right hand end face.
Tolerances of location are identified and indicated by The datum letters are included in the tolerance frame.
the use of symbols for the following characteristics.
Position
Concentricity
Symmetry
Figures (10), (11), (12) show typical examples of these

characteristics and symbols. In Figure (10a) the hole centre
dimensions of 25 and 30 are boxed to show that these Examples of geometrical tolerance for ‘CONCENTRICITY’
are the theoretical dimensions. The geometrical tolerance are given in figures. (11a), (11b) and (11c). The
requires that the hole centre must lie within a cylindrical interpretations are as follows.
zone 0.05 diameter. The use of theoretical positions, also
known as ‘true positions’, implies that the axis of the
cylinder is square with the plane of the drawing.
In figure (11a) the axis of the smaller diameter must lie - (12a) the axis of the hole must lie between two
within the cylindrical zone 0.08 diameter which must parallel planes, 0.08 apart which are symmetrically
be coaxial with the datum axis i.e. the axis of datum disposed about the mean axial plane of datum width
diameter ‘A’. ‘A’ and ‘B’
In figure (11b) the axis of the two end portions must lie - (12b) the mean plane of the slot must be between
within a cylindrical tolerance zone 0.08 dia. two parallel planes, 0.05 apart symmetrically
disposed about the mean plane of the datum width
‘W’
Figure (11c) The axis of the large central portion must

lie within a cylindrical zone 0.1 diameter which is coaxial
with the mean axis of the datum diameters ‘A’ and ‘B’.
(Notice that to indicate the requirement of the mean axis
the datum letters are separated by a hyphen and enclosed
in the same compartment of the tolerance frame)
- (12c) the median planes of the two end slots must

be between two parallel planes, 0.06 apart.
The geometrical tolerance of ‘SYMMETRY’ follows in

figures (12a), (12b) and (12c) where the interpretations
are:

A detailed drawing which indicates geometrical tolerances. (Fig.13)

Geometric tolerance classes and types Geometrical tolerances are applied apart from dimensional
tolerances, where it is necessary to control more pre-
A geometrical tolerance is the maximum permissible overall
cisely the form or shape of some feature of the part be-
variation of from or position from that shown in the drawing.
cause of its functional requirements.
Class Type Symbol Reference entry
Form Straightnes Surface of revolution, axis,

straight edge
Flatness Plane surface (not datum plane)
Circularity Cylinder, cone, sphere
Cylindricity Cyclinder surface
Profile Line Edge
Surface Surface (not datum plane)
Orientation Angularity Plane, surface, axis
Parallelism Cyclinder, surface, axis
Perpendicularity Planar surface
Location Position Any
Concentricity Axis, surface of revolution
Symmetry Any
Run out Circular Cone, cylinder, sphere, plane
Total Cone, cylinder, sphere, plane

Turner - AdvancedTurning
Automatic lathe - types - parts, toolholders, theory of calculation
Objectives: At the end of this exercise you shall be able to
• differentiate between a centre lathe and a production lathe
• list and name the parts of a capstan lathe
• specify a capstan lathe
• state the constructional features of a capstan lathe.
Automatic lathes Single spindle automatic lathes

Lathes, which are capable of automatically perform- There are many types of single spindle automatic lathes
ing a preset cycle of operations by presenting the work in use. (Fig 1 ) The automatic screw machine is a
to the cutting tools and of ejecting the finished workpiece, popular type. In a single spindle automatic machine,
are known as automatic lathes. only one component at a time is machined and this
The various types of automatic lathes are: machine is used for a wide range of operations.
These operations vary from cutting small screw
- automatic turret lathes
threads to machining castings and forgings.
- single spindle automatic lathes
- multi–spindle automatic lathes.
These machines are usually similar to their standard

types with the addition of automatic features. The de-
gree to which a lathe is made automatic is determined
by the purpose for which it is to be used.
Modern automatic lathes are available with the following

features.
• Load the workpiece (manual).
• Start the machine (manual).
• Circulate the coolant (automatic).
• Perform all cutting operations (automatic).
• Change the speeds, feeds, and tools (automatic).
The control of feeds and speeds and the indexing of tools
• Gauge and inspect the finished workpiece (manual). may be done by cams, plug boards or the numerical
control system.
• Unload the workpiece (automatic).
Automatic screw machines
• Repeat the cycle without attention from the
operator (automatic). These machines are used to produce screws, bolts
and pins from bar stock. The cross slide, turret slide,
Automatic turret lathes and bar–feed mechanism are all operated automatically.
Multi-spindle automatic lathes
The automatic turret lathe is sometimes called an
automatic chucking machine. It is similar in principle to Multi-spindle automatic lathes represent an extremely
the standard turret lathe, and additionally, it is automatic fast method of producing work. The work may be bar–
in operation except for the insertion and removal of the fed or held in a chuck. The bars are fed into the spindles
work. which are located in a spindle carrier. The spindles
are positioned in a circular pattern in the carrier.
These lathes vary in size and range from heavy duty The carrier which is being operated by an indexing mech-
lathes for rapid and accurate production of components anism may accommodate 4, 6 or 8 spindles. The spin-
to lathes used to manufacture small items from barstock. dle rotates in the carrier and the carrier is indexed from
one tool station to the next tool station, according to the
The feeding of tools, indexing of turret, movement of sequence.
turret slides and cross-slides and change of speeds
and feeds are automatically controlled by cams or a The tooling set up for a six–spindle automatic lathe is
plug board system. shown in Fig 2.

Tools may be preset in their respective tool-holders or
presetting fixtures which are usually situated away from
the machine. Change over from the manufacture of one
type of component to another type is confined to
change of tape and replacement of the preset tools,
collets and the raw material for the new component.
This is done when the machine is numerically controlled.
Circular form tools (Fig 3)
The tools are mounted in a cam or gear-operated tool

slides, which operate at right angles and parallel to the
spindle.
The difference in operation between multi-spindle and other

automatic lathes is that in a multispindle machine the
rotating work is indexed from tool station to tool station
whilst in the others the tools themselves are indexed.
The spindle–carrier assembly is a strong and precisely

made unit. It consists of a spindle carrier, work spindle,
spindle stop and start, and the indexing mechanisms. In any type of automatic lathes, turning concave,
convex or any irregular shape on the component is
The nearly radial position of the cross slide directs all achieved using form tools. These form tools are of two
cutting thrusts towards the centre of the carrier. This types, straight and circular. The straight types are used
arrangement permits heavy feeds, and provides extra for wider surfaces and the circular types are used for
room for tooling without holder interference. narrower surfaces. Fig 4 illustrates forming operations
performed by straight and circular form tools.
The Index error is minimized by the tangential cutting
action. By using circular form tools many operations are
combined and performed, all in one stroke, by shaping
Tools and equipments
the circular form tools accordingly.
A wide range of tools are available for use on automats.
While using circular form tools, special attention is
The tool-holders used are interchangeable between
given for selecting the correct speeds and feeds. This is
machines of the same series and frequently between
due to the presence of a wider surface area coming
stations on the same machine.
in contact with the circular form tools during the ma-
Standard tool-holders and attachments are designed to chining.
cover most requirements, and when necessary, spe-
The cross feed ranges from 0.01 to 0.08mm per revolu-
cial holders are available to handle the less common
tion and the cutting speed is slightly less than that for
production processes.
longitudinal turning.
Use of cams in automatic lathes

Objectives: At the end of this exercise you shall be able to
• classify the cams used on automatic lathes
• state use of cams in automatic lathes.
Fully automatic or semi-automatic lathe machines which rotates at constant speed, controls the movements
are often controlled with the help of drum cams and of the tools. The turret head is indexed first and then
cam plates. The lathe tools necessary for production the tool carriage and/or tool post is moved towards the
are mounted in one or more supports ie. drum turret or workpiece at the correct feed rate.
horizontal turret head. The drum cam or cam plate,
Cams are used to actuate various slides in the auto- Fig 5 is the tool layout for the job shown in the worksheet
matic lathes. of Fig 4.
Cams may be classified according to their shapes Fig 6 is the cam layout for the job shown in Fig 4.
and mechanical designs into several distinct groups with
the subdivisions numbering a dozen or more.
For practical purposes, all cams can be divided into
three classes; radial or plate (Fig 1), cylindrical or barrel
(Fig 2) and pivot beam type (Fig 3) which is found
useful in fixture designs.
In fully automatic lathes (generally used for machin-

ing bar stock) the workpiece feeding, clamping and
cutting off are also governed by the cam control system.
A layout of a cam design worksheet is appended in Fig
4.
The various features considered at the time of preparing
cam design worksheets are sequence of operation,
speeds, feeds, depth of cuts, index of turret and other
slides (front, rear and top).

inportant SHEET Automatic screw machine Short stroke
Work spindle speeds rev/min. Cutting speed m/min.

R.H 4995 Turning 150
Fast R.H Drilling 5.25 dia. 82
Drilling 2.5 dia. 46
Distance between turret and chuck Sequence of operation Throw Feed Revs.of work spindle Hund-
Minimum Travel in mm mm for each over Correc reths
per opera- lapped ted
46 35 rev. tion open
Feed stock Dwell 26 26 4 1/2
Index turret (one 26 26 4 1/2

station)
Centre End of bar 3 0.15 20 29 5

Dwell To clean up 6 1
Index turret (one station) 26 26 4 1/2
Turn Φ 8 and drill Φ 5.25 14.25 0.125 114 117 20


Drill Φ 2.5 hole 6.5 0.07 93 93 16
Drop back To clear 9 1 1/2
Form (over lapped) 2.4 0.012 200 (204) (35)
0.005
Cone bottom of Φ 5.25 3.2 0.07 46 50 8 1/2
Dwell To Clean up 6 (1)

Ream Φ5.6 and cone 12.75 0.25 51 53 9
Index turret (over lapped) 26 26 (4 1/2)

Cut off Cross-slide(R) 1.5 0.05 30 32 5 1/2
Cut off Cross-slide(R) 0.5 0.07 7 3 1 1/2
Clear cut off tool 12 2

Totals before correction 92 1/2% 517 7 1/2
In an another type of single spindle automatic lathe the Whereas, when one cam is made to actuate one slide,
slides are operated by individual cams. Fig 7 show the the design part of it becomes easier. Only that particular
various tools slides. cam may be replaced in case a defect is noted in the
The cams used on such a machine are shown in figures 8 component. Moreover a set of cams designed for a
and 9. particular component may be useful for the manufacture
of components with the same shape and design, but
A single cam to control the various slide movements with slight dimensional variations.
is a complicated one for designing and manufacturing.
Differences between centre lathe and production lathe
Centre lathe Production lathe

(Capstan and turret lathe)
1 Single-way tool post holds only one tool. Four-way tool post accommodates different types
of tools in four ways.
2 At the end of every operation, the tool needs Pre-set tool can be indexed. It avoids tool setting time.
to be changed. It requires more operation time.
3 Not suitable for production jobs. Suitable for production jobs
4 Most suitable for tool room jobs. Most suitable for mass production jobs.
5 High skill is necessary to operate a centre A semi-skilled person can operate, pre-set turrent
lathe of a capstan or turret lathe
6 Combination cuts are employed Combination cuts can be given both on carriage
with difficulty. and turret head simultaneously.
7 By using a single point tool, various sizes of Tap and dies are used to form threads; sometimes
thread can be cut short lead screw is provided to cut threads with
chasers
8 Tailstock is provided to hold cutting tools Turret is provided to hold six or more tools
like drills and support the job with centres.
9 There is no separate bed over the There is an auxiliary bed provided for production
main bed for the tool movement (capstan) for the auxiliary slide.
10 Job cannot be fed continuously after Job can be fed by a bar -feed attachment
completion of operation.
11 Time taken is more for producing a Time taken is less for producing a workpiece
workpiece.
12 The cost of machine is low. The cost of machine is high.
13 Trips and stops are not provided for Trips and stops are provided for rapid stopping and
stopping the tool slides. starting
14 Generally chuck work and in between Generally bar works can be carried out.
centre work can be carried out.
15 The manufacturing cost of components is more. The manufacturing cost of components is compara-
tively lower.
Tool-holding devices the shaft is rotated by hand. On some of the more
elaborate turret lathes the stop shaft for the turret faces
The wide variety of work performed in a capstan lathe in
has six sides with stops, and is automatically rotated to
mass production necessitated designing of different types
synchronize with the turret.
of tools and tool-holders for holding the tools for typical
operations. The tool-holders may be mounted on turret A similar principle is adopted in respect of the cross -
faces or on crossslide tool post, and may be used for slide stops on most machines. A rotating bar is mounted
holding tools for bar and chuck work. Certain tool- holders on the side of the cross-slide and carries four adjustable
are used for holding tools for both bar and chuck work stops at each end. Hand rotation of the shaft is used to
while box tools are particularly adopted in bar-work. In the bring the stop at each end and to position for any particular
capstan or turret lathe practice, the whole assembly of tool. To prevent swarfs from getting in the unit, it is generally
the holder and its tool is designated according to the type provided with a cover.
of the holder. Thus a slide tool holder with the tool mounted
Cutting speed
in it is called a 'Slide tool' and a knee tool-holder with the
tool fitted into it is called a 'Knee tool'. Special tool-holders Similar to a centre lathe, the cutting speed in a capstan
are also sometimes designed for special purposes. The or turret lathe is the rate at which any point on the work
most important and widely used tool-holders are listed passes over the tool, and this is expressed in metres per
below. minute.
– Straight cutter-holder Feed
– Plain or adjustable angle cutter-holder It is the amount the tool moves per revolution of the work.
This is expressed in mm per revolution.
– Roller steady turning tool-holder.
Depth of cut
– Recessing tool-holder.
It is the perpendicular distance measured between a
– Knee turning tool-holder.
machined and an un-machined surface.
– Stop and centre drill-holder.
Bar-feeding mechanism
– Combination tool-holder.
The capstan and turret lathes while working on bar work
Stops and trips require some mechanism for bar-feeding. The long bars
which protrude out of the headstock spindle require to be
One of the features enabling the capstan and turret lathes
fed through the spindle up to the bar-stop after the first
to produce quantities of similar parts is the system of
piece is completed and the collet chuck is opened. In
stops and trips for controlling the movements of the cutting
simple cases, the bar may be pushed by hand. But this
tools.
process unnecessarily increases the total operational
The stops for controlling the travel of the saddle, and of time, because the spindle and the long
the turret slide of a turret lathe, are carried on a shaft
Principal parts of capstan and turret lathes
suspended on brackets from the front of the machine bed.
An illustration of this, as applied to the saddle on a small The capstan lathe has essentially the same parts as the
capstan lathe, is shown in Fig.1, where the stop shaft is engine lathe except that the turret complex mechanism
at the bottom of the illustration. incorporated in it makes it suitable for mass production
work. The different parts of a capstan lathe are shown in
Figs 1a,b and c.
1 Headstock
2 Cross-slide tool post
3 Hexagonal turret
4 Saddle for auxiliary slide
5 Auxiliary slide
6 Lathe bed
7 Feed rod
8 Saddle for crossslide
9 Feed stop rod for turret
Provision is made for four stops round the shaft so that
10 Hand wheel for turret slide.
the travel of four tools may be controlled at any particular
time. It is arranged that the stop first trips out the feed
and then serves as a dead stop for the small handoperated
movement necessary to complete the travel. For bringing
each stop in position, when all the four are being used,
Generally an all-geared headstock is used for rapid change
of the spindle speeds. This should be selected prior to
an operation by changing the lever or pressing the
speed-changing button. The spindle is hollow and the bar-
stock should be passed through it.
On the right side of the capstan lathe there is a hexagonal

turret head mounted on a vertical spindle. The turret face
has a bored hole on the centre which receives lengthy
tools like drills, reamers, holders for tools and split bushes.
A star wheel is provided in front of the machine which

operates manually for the to and fro motion of the turret
head assembly. Power feed is also provided for the turret
head with suitable feed rate. The turret head is fully
retracted, and at the end of its travel a turret indexing
mechanism is automatically operated for the next position
of the tool. Each movement of the tool will be controlled
by adjustable stops. Each stop is set for correct travel of
the tool movement, which will stop further movement of
the tool.
The type of the cross-slide depends upon the size of the

machine. The slide is positioned in between the headstock
and turret head over the saddle. If it has two tool posts,
one is at the front and the other is at the rear end of the
slide. The front tool post is moving inward to bring the
cutting tool into operation. The rear tool post is moving
inward when the front tool post is moving outward. The
rear tool post actually does the ending operation like parting
off, with or without chamfering. All the lateral movements
of the saddle and the cross - slide will be controlled by
trips and stoppers for correct movement of the tools in
operation.
The feed-rod controls the motion for the carriage in the

same way as in an engine lathe.
A capstan lathe is specified by providing the following
features The stop-rod is mounted below the bed in between the
gearbox housing and feed-rod housing. It has four splines
- The maximum diameter of rod that can be passed over the periphery to accommodate the stoppers in
through the headstock spindle. measuring positions with respect to the related turning
- The swing diameter of the work that can be rotated operations for the saddle movements.
over the lathe bedways.
bar must come to a dead stop before any adjustment can
- The minimum and maximum spindle speeds. be made. Thus in each case unnecessary long time is
- Number of feeds available to the carriage and turret wasted in stopping, setting and starting the machines.
saddle. Various types of bar-feeding mechanism have, therefore,
been designed which push the bar forward immediately
- The capacity of the motor. (H.P. of the machine)
after the collet releases the work without stopping the
machine, and thereby enable the setting time to be re-
The capstan lathe: construction
duced to the minimum.
A capstan lathe consists of a lathe bed, headstock,
turret head or slide, saddle, carriage, cross-slide, tool Working principle of the bar feeding mechanism
posts and feed rod. (Fig 2)
The lathe bed of a capstan lathe is quite similar in The bar 6 is passed through the bar-chuck 3, through
construction to that of a centre lathe, the only difference
the spindle of the machine and then through the collect
is in the ways of the bed. The bed ways are provided flat
chuck. The bar-chuck 3 rotates in the sliding bracket body
instead of in a combination (Vee and Flat) to receive 2 which is mounted on a long slide bar. The bar chuck 3
heavy loads during multiple cutting. grips the bar centrally by two set screws 5 and rotates
with the bar in the sliding bracket body 2. One end of the
chain 8 is connected to the pin 9 fitted on the sliding bracket
10 and the other end supports the weight 4, the chain
running over to fixed pullys 7 and 11 mounted on the slide
bar. The weight 4 constantly exerts an end thrust on the
bar-chuck while it revolves on the sliding bracket and forces
the bar through the spindle, the moment the collet chuck
is released. Thus bar-feeding may be accomplished
without stopping the machine.
Turret heads
• state what is a turret head
• list the types of turrets
• state the constructional and functional features of a turret head.
The turret head
The turret head is also known as a tool head. The turret

is a six sided (hexagonal) block mostly and it is carried
on the bed of the machine for accommodating and
bringing forward the tools. Each of the faces of the hexagon
is accurately machined, square to the axis of the lathe
and has four tapped holes to accommodate the clamping
bolts of the tool-holders or attachments. At the centre
of each face is a through hole into which the shanks
of the tool-holders may be accommodated and clamped.
A pad bolt is often employed for the purpose of clamping.
(Fig 1)
Smaller types of capstan lathes have the turrets not

hexagonal but circular. They have six holes for
accommodating the tools. During the cycle of operation
it is necessary to bring each tool into position for its
work by indexing and locating the turret to the
successive position.
On the turret lathe, the turret head is supported on a

free bearing. The turret can be pulled round easily by
hand when the clamping arrangement has been released.
The turret is located in each of the six correct positions

by some hand-operated plunger. The machine operator
releases the clamp and locates the plunger before
indexing the turret manually.
On the capstan lathe, means are provided whereby the

turret is automatically indexed to its next position, when
it reaches the extreme end of its withdrawal movement
from the previous operation.

Types of turret heads number corresponds to the number of the turrets'
tool position is indexed through a gear transmission
Turret heads are classified according to the axis of rotation simultaneously with the turret. The stops limit the travel
which may be horizontal, vertical or inclined. of the turret relative to the saddle (A). The stops are
adjusted when the machine is set up for operation.
Turret lathes with turret heads of vertical and inclined
axis are provided with cross-slides whereas those with In the capstan lathe turret head stops are fitted in the
horizontal axis turrets have no cross-slides since the cross saddle. The overhang increases as the turret moves
feed of the tool is effected by the turret slide itself. towards the workpiece held in the headstock. This
overhang limits the strength and consequently the
Constructional features of a turret head with vertical capacity of the machine. In the turret lathe the overhang
axis (Fig 2) is constant, permitting a heavier work load. Slide stops
in this type are fitted in the lathe bed. (Fig 3)
In each machine the sliding movement of the turret

head is made by operating a handwheel. This turns the
pinion which mashes with the rack in the bed.
Movement of the turret head back from the headstock
automatically indexes the turret.
This is movable along the bed-ways. The turret head can

be indexed by hand or automatically on the withdrawal of
the turret slide. As this takes place, the fork (1) along
with the cam (5) turns relative to the fixed stop (2). The
cam lifts the turret (9) through rollers (6). The flanges
(7 and 8) of the claw clutch, which serve to lock the
turret, come out of engagement.
As the fork turns further, the ratchet gearing (3) indexes

the turret into the next position.The lock pins (11) prevent
the turret from overrun, performing a preliminary locking
function. When the slide is advanced the fork (1) turns in
the opposite direction, the cam (5) lowers the rollers (6)
with turret (9) and flanges (7) and (8) of the claw clutch
come back into engagement, finally locking the turret in
position. The locking force is adjusted with the nut (10).
The stopper roller (12) with adjustable stops, whose
Roller box turning tools

• state the purpose of roller box turning tool
• list the types of roller box turning tools
• state the constructional features of each type
• state the functional features of the each type.
Roller box turning tools
Plain turning operations may be performed on capstan Turning operations carried out from the hexagon turret
and turret lathes by feeding the tool provide rigid support to the tool for making heavy cuts.
- from the hexagonal turret Tools used in the turret are of special design and are referred
to as box turning tools. Box turning tools are of two
- by the indexing tool post on crossslide
types.
- by feeding tools from both.
- `V' steady turning tools
- Roller steady turning tools
`V' Steady tool–holder (Fig 1)
These holders are for turning brass and for making light
cuts on other free cutting materials. A short length of the
workpiece is hand–machined to the required diameter
and the steady is adjusted to this surface.
The cutting tool is set slightly ahead of the Vee

steady. These tools may have single or multiple tool In the tangential type the workpiece is supported by
blocks. two rollers running on the diameter being cut (following
rollers). The tool can be retracted at the end of the cut
A hardened adjustable Vee steady is positioned such by pulling the handle. By this, scoring of the workpiece
that it just touches the workpiece. surface turned is avoided. Fine adjustment of the cutting
tool is achieved by the use of the micrometer dial. The
The shank of the steady is mounted in an extension chips flow clear off the tool-holder ensuring that swarf
arm in the turret. does not become clogged around the work area. (Fig 3)
Where good surface finish is needed on the turned

portion, it is preferable to have the cutting tool in
advance to the Vee steady, and where concentricity is
of prime importance, the cutting tool may be set behind
the Vee steady.
The roller steady tool-holders (Fig 2)
These holders are used for most turning operations. Each

holder has a limited size capacity. A short length of
the work is machined to the correct diameter. The
rollers and tool are set on this diameter. The cutting action
forces the workpiece against the rollers, producing a
high burnished finish on the work. The cutting tool is
set in advance of the rollers for most turning operations.
This set up produces a good surface finish. Some
steadies are available with rollers set ahead of the cutting
tool.
The roller steady tool-holders are of two types.
• The tangential type (Fig 3)
• The ending type (Fig 4)

In the ending type shown in figure 4 with leading or Figure 5 shows the geometry of a roller box showing
forward rollers, the workpiece is supported by two rollers forces on the tool and the rollers.
on a previously cut diameter. Leading rollers ensure
that the diameter being turned is concentric to the
previously turned diameter on which the rollers run.
Figure 6 shows the roller steady tool-holder adjustments.

The forces F1, F2 and R1 are also illustrated.
The leading rollers may not produce the same standard

of surface finish.
When using the ending type of roller steady tool-holder,

the cutting is taking place on the end of the workpiece.
This is made possible by the use of the leading rollers.
(Fig 4)
Turret lathes
• specify a turret lathe
• name the various attachments & accessories used on turret lathes
• distinguish between horizontal and vertical types of turret lathes.
Specification of a turret lathe Turret : Pentagon, hexagon or octagon type.
A turret lathe is specified by giving the Tool-holders

- maximum diameter of a rod that can be held Straight cutter holder
- maximum spindle hole diameter Plain or adjustable angle cutter holder
Multiple cutter holder
- maximum swing over the bed
Offset cutter holder
- number of spindle speeds Combination tool-holder or multiple turning head
Slide tool-holder
- number of feeds (carriage) cross-slide and longitudinal
Knee tool-holder
- number of feeds (turret carriage) Drill holder
Boring bar holder or extension holder
- power required for machine motor and coolant motors.
Reamer holder
Accessories / attachments Knurling tool-holder
Recessing tool-holder
Work-holding accessories Form tool-holder
- straight
Self centering chuck, independent chuck, combination
- circular
chuck, air operated chuck, push-out type collet chuck,
Tap-holder
draw in type collet chuck, dead length type collet chuck.
Die-holder
Balanced tool-holder (box tool)
- V-steady box tool-holder
- roller box tool-holder
Bar ending tool-holder
Attachments
Taper turning attachment

Thread cutting attachment
Horizontal turret lathes are classified as:

- ram type turret lathes
- saddle type turret lathes
- chucking machine.
Saddle type turret lathes (Fig 1a)
The hexagonal turret is mounted directly on a saddle and

the whole unit moves back and forth on the bed ways to
apply feed. This type of turret lathe is heavier in construction
and is particularly adopted for larger diameter bar works
and chuck works. The machine can accommodate longer
workpieces. Vertical turret lathes
A vertical turret lathe is a machine with a vertical turret
Ram type turret lathes (Fig 1b) head and a horizontal work table. Most of the operations
performed on a regular turret lathe are also done on this
The ram type turret lathe carries the hexagonal turret on a type of machine. It is preferred for large and heavy work.
ram or a short slide. The ram slides longitudinally on a
saddle positioned and clamped on lathe bedways. This The principal parts of a vertical turret lathe are the
type of machine is lighter in construction and is suitable
for machining bars of smaller diameters. The tools are - base
mounted on the square turret and the six faces of the - column
hexagonal turret. The feeding movement is obtained when - rail
the ram moves from the left to the right. When the ram is
- table
moved backward the turret indexes automatically and
the tool mounted on the next face comes into operation. - saddle and turret head
- side head
Chucking machine
Many attachments are used on vertical turret lathes.
The chucking machines are used to machine castings
and forgings that must be held in chucks or fixtures. This
type of machine handles a large variety of work which is
basically the same as that done on standard turret lathes
equipped for chuck work.
Dead stops and trips on capstan and turret lathes

• state the necessity of stops and trips
• list the types of stops and trips
• state the constructional and functional features of stops and trips
• types of stop and trip arrangements.
Stop and trips suspended on brackets from the front of the machine bed.
It is arranged that the stop first trips out the feed, and then
Stops and trips are meant for controlling the movement of
serves as dead stop for the small handoperated
the cutting tool on the crossslide and on the hexagonal
movement necessary to complete the travel. For bringing
turret. They serve the purpose of providing dimensional
each stop into position, when several of them are being
accuracy on identical components produced in large
used, the shaft is rotated by a hand wheel provided. On
quantities. They minimize delays for measuring and
some of the most elaborate turret lathes the stops for
gauging. The stops for controlling the travel of the saddle
saddle movement, which are four in number are provided on
and of the turret of a turret lathe are carried on a shaft
a shaft below the headstock. (Fig 1) The stop shaft for
the turret has six stops which are automatically rotated
to synchronize with the turret. (Fig 2)
The cross-slide is also provided with a shaft with stops

to control the depth of cuts of each tool on the Dead stops
cross-slide tool post. (Fig 3) A dead stop terminates the tool travel at a point where
a workpiece diameter or depth is correct to the drawing
specification. (Fig 6)
Finger stops
A finger stop is positioned radially on the hand wheel and
is aligned with a mark on the graduated scales when
the relevant dimension on the workpiece is down to size.
There may be three or four finger stops, each aligned
to a different mark on the graduated scale. (Fig 4)
Feed trips
A feed trip switches off the power feed to the tool when
the workpiece is almost to size. When the trip device
touches the stop, it trips the power feed. A further
manual movement of the slide, through a previously
determined distance will bring the slide to the dead stop
as shown. (Fig 5)
Indexing a stop-bar or roll
A `stop-bar' is indexed to the position in conjunction with
the relevant tool. This may be carried out manually by
indexing the bar to present a letter, a record being made
of which letter goes with each tool.In the case of a turret,the
stop-bar will be indexed automatically with the turret and,
therefore, each stop is always presented for the same
turret station. (Fig 7)
Collets used on capstan and turret lathes

• list the collets used for bar work on the capstan and turret lathes
• state the constructional and functional features of each type of collet.
The collet chuck
Collets provide a means of holding cold-drawn bar

materials or previously machined parts to undergo a
second operation. They maintain an accurate alignment
of the component to be machined with the rotating spindle
axis of the lathe.
The working principle of the collet chuck is illustrated in
Fig 1.
The workpiece does not move when this type of collet

is operated; and, therefore, an accurate length of work-
piece can be maintained.
Draw back type (Fig 3)
The common constructional features of collets have already

been dealt with in the previous exercises.
Types of collets
Dead length type (Fig 2)

This is also referred to as draw in collet. This collet is Their range of adjustment is much greater than with solid
usually screwed to a draw bar or tube which draws the collets, usually about 1.5 mm. The collet pads are usually
collet into the sleeve causing it to grip the bar. A keyway not suitable for gripping short workpieces. These pads are
located in the body of the collet accommodates the key available in sets of three or four pieces. The pads are
in the sleeve preventing rotation of the collet, which available to accommodate hexagonal bars also. When
ultimately prevents the collet getting unscrewed from hexagonal bars are held, the bar must be rotated after
the draw bar during operation. This type of collet is not inserting so as to get the corners properly engaged.
suitable for accurate length workpiece as it tends to (Fig 6)
pull the workpiece away from the bar-stop when closing.
Pushout type (Fig 4)
When this type of collet is closed by pushing against
the taper of the accommodating sleeve, it tends the bar
also to be pushed along with the collet against the bar-
stop. Unless the turret hand wheel is held by pressing in
the anticlockwise direction, the component length may
show variations.
Master collet with interchangeable liners (Fig 5) Sometimes the collet pads are provided with spring
spacers to keep the collet pads apart when the chuck is
opened making the workpiece loading easier. (Fig 7)
The master piece is of collet shape. This has a tapered

bore into which liners or pads, mostly three in number,
can be fitted. When the pads are fitted to the internal taper
of the master piece, the inner bore that results by the
assembly of the pads accommodates the bar. The
masterpiece controls the grip. The pads are assembled Points to be remembered during selecting a solid
to the master piece by means of stop screws. collet
The collet pads are used in most of the larger sizes of The above type of collets accommodates only one
bar work. size of bar for which they are manufactured. If the bar
diameter differs by even 0.1 mm from the nominal size,
the operation of the collet will not be proper and the
accuracy of the collet will be lost.
Production : Turner (NSQF Level-5) : RT for Ex No. 4.6.154 - 4.6.156
Clean and deburr the workpiece and form a good chamfer If the bar moves under pressure, open the chuck and
on the end face of the bar which enters the collet. readjust the knurled cap.
Check that the collet just fits on the workpiece without Feed for correct adjustment on a manually operated chuck,
forcing. by feeling for resistance when closing the chuck. (Fig 9)
A round bar having a scaly unmachined If long heavy bars are to be held, put the machine in
outer surface must never be held in a collet motion and check that the bar does not move in the collet
chuck. when accelerated up to the cutting speed.
Checking the collet tension When soft materials and thin walled tubes are to be
Index the bar-stop into position and apply force to the bar held, check that no excessive damage has been caused
using the star wheel of the turret slide. (Fig 8) by the grip of the collet to the surface of the soft bar or
the diameter of the thin tube.
Turret lathes
Comparison between turret and capstan lathes
Turret lathe Capstan lathe
1 The turret is mounted on the saddle which slides The turret is mounted on an auxiliary slide which slides
directly on the bed. on the saddle.
2 The construction provides utmost rigidity to the tool The auxiliary bed feeds the tools into the work. The
support as the entire cutting load is taken up by the overhanging of the auxiliary bed from the stationary
lathe bed directly. saddle presents a non-rigid construction which is
subjected to bending, deflection or vibration under heavy
cutting loads.
3 The turret lathe can operate under severe cutting The capstan lathe can be operated under light cutting
conditions, accommodating heavier workpieces with conditions, accommodating workpieces with high cutting
high cutting speeds, feeds and depth of cuts. speeds, feeds and less depth of cuts.
4 The turret lathes are capable of turning bars up to 200 The capstan lathes are capable of turning bars up to a
mm in diameter. maximum of 60 mm diameter only.
5 Larger and heavier works can be done on turret lathes. Smaller and lighter bar work can be done on a capstan
lathe.
6 In the turret lathe, the hand feeding is a laborious On a capstan lathe, the hexagonal turret can be moved
process due to the movement of the entire saddle back and forth rapidly without having to move the entire
unit. saddle unit.
Copyright @ NIMI
Production : Turner (NSQF Not to: RT
Level-5) beforRepublished
Ex No. 4.6.154 - 4.6.156 199
The constructional features of a turret lathe Types of turret lathes
A turret lathe consists of a bed, an all-geared headstock, Turret lathes can be classified into two main groups
and a crossslide on which a four-way tool post is mounted
- Horizontal type turret lathe.
to hold four different, single point tools. A tool post fitted
at the rear of the cross-slide holds a parting tool in - Vertical type turret lathe.
an inverted position. The tool post mounted on the
cross-slide is indexed by hand. In a turret lathe there is Horizontal type turret lathes
no tailstock but in its place a hexagonal turret is mounted They are lathes which perform all the operations in a
on a saddle which is sliding on the bed. The six faces of horizontal position with the help of a cross-slide tool post
the turret can hold six different tools. The turret may be and turret head. These operations include turning, drilling,
indexed automatically or manually and each tool may be boring, reaming, thread cutting, necking, chamfering and
brought in line with the lathe axis in a regular sequence. cutting off.
The workpieces are held in collets or on chucks.
The longitudinal movements of the turret and cross-feed Vertical turret lathes
movement of the crossslide are controlled by adjustable
These are lathes with a vertical turret head and a horizontal
stops. These stops enable different tools set at different
work table. All the operations performed on a regular turret
positions to move by a predetermined amount for
lathe can be done on this type of machine also. It is
performing different operations on repetitive workpieces
preferred for large and heavy workpieces.
without measuring the length (or) diameter of the machined
surfaces in each case.
Parts of a horizontal turret lathe. (Fig 1)
These special characteristics of the turret lathe enable it
to perform a series of operations such as turning, drilling,
boring, reaming, thread cutting, necking, chamfering,
cutting off and many other operations in a regular
sequence to produce a large number of identical pieces
in a minimum time.

Types of tool - holders in capstan and turret
• state the different types of tool-holders and their uses.
The following are the different types of tool-holders. Roller steady turning tool - holder (Fig 2)
Single cutter turner tool-holder
Roller steady turning tool-holder
Multiple cutter turner tool-holder
Combination end face and turner tool-holder
Quickacting slide tool-holder
Centre drilling tool-holder and bar-stop
Adjustable knee tool
Die head
Clutch type tap and die-holder
Floating tool-holder
Combination facing and spotting drill-holder
Taper shankdrill socket-holder Roller steady turning tool-holder is used mainly for turning
external diameters while a fairly good finish is needed on
Drill chuck (drill-holder)
the component. The roller steady supports the job when
Combination stock stop and centre-holder a lengthier job is to be turned.
Flanged tool-holder
Recessing and boring tool-holders (Fig 3)
Knee turning tool-holder
Recessing and boring tool-holder for boring
Recessing tool-holder.
Uses of the common tool holders used on turret lathes
Knee turning tool-holder (Fig 1)
A knee turning tool is used while the job is held rigidly

in a chuck or fixture. It is used for machining components
by combined operations. The rigidity of this tool-holder
can be increased by using the overhead support bar
protruding from the headstock.
Recessing and boring tool-holders are used in combination

for internal recessing and boring.
Bar-stop and centre drill tool-holder (Fig 4)
A bar-stop is used for setting the bar stock protruding

to the required length to a preset position from the chuck.
A centre drill tool-holder is used for centre drilling where
drilling is to be done in a job.
Copyright @ NIMI
Ex No. 4.6.154 - 4.6.156 201
Floating reamer-holder (Fig 5) Combination facing and start drilling holder (Fig 6)
Where reaming is to be done in a turret lathe, a floating Combination facing and start drilling holder is used to face
reamer-holder is used to ream a drilled hole. The floating the end of the job and to provide a small hole for short
holder facilitates by aligning itself with the axis of the drilled depth ready for a drilling operation.
hole without causing much load on the reamer.
Knee turning - holder and combination tool - holder

• state the constructional features of a knee turning tool-holder and a combination tool-holder.
Knee turning tool-holder (Figs 1a and 1b)
Combination tool-holder (Figs 2a and 2b)
Work which is held in a chuck or in a turning fixture is

fairly rigid, and needs no additional support while machining
takes place. If the tool-holder mounted on the turret head
is meant for combined operations, like turning and forming,
the tool-holder must also be rigid and well supported. It
is also essential that some arrangement should be provided
to take up the heavy load which comes on the turret head.
Such combination of operations is usually carried out with
a knee tool-holder. The rigidity of this type of tool-holder
can be increased by using the overhead support bar
protruding from the headstock. This engages the guide
bush on the tool-holder and maintains the alignment of
the turret and the spindle axis, preventing deflection of the
turret by the cutting force applied.
A boring bar can also be fitted so that a hole can be
machined at the same time as the external surface is
being machined. The chuck or fixture should be fitted with
a guide bush to pilot the end of the boring bar, and again
maintain the geometry of the tool by reducing tool
deflections.
ie. by two combination tool-holders, one in the machine
and the other out for tool maintenance. When the tools
have been reground they are preset in position and the
complete tool-holder is changed. Presetting of boring tools
is facilitated by the use of a boring bar cutter micrometer.
(Fig 3)
The knee turning tool-holder has provision for only one

turning tool, and it has a greater range of adjustment.
But the adjustment for positioning the turning tool head
in the combination type tool-holder is merely that of a tool
overhang in the tool post.
A further development of the knee tool-holder is the

combination tool-holder which can be fitted with two turning
tools and a boring bar. Thus simultaneous machining
operations are possible. By increasing the number of tools
in the boring bar, multi diameter bores can be machined
at the same time.
Such set ups involve more complex and time consuming

tool setting and are only economic where the time saved
in machining outweigh the setting time. The machine down
time for setting can be reduced by the use of pre-set tooling,
Methods of producing external threads on capstan lathes

• state various methods of producing external threads on capstan lathes
• state the construction and function of a self-opening die head
• state the types of self-opening die heads
• list and name the parts of a die insert.
External threads are generally manufactured In addition to dies/chasers for standard threads, many
- by using a single point tool with self opening die heads dies/chasers for special threads are also available.
- by thread rolling heads. The die head is fed to the work by the operator who then
Self-opening die heads (Fig 1) allows it to feed itself along the work, and follows up
with the turret. The turret stop is set slightly short to the
thread length. When the die head movement is stopped
by the turret stop, the front portion of the die head continues
to feed forward under the self-feeding action until it is
pulled clear of the detent pin.
Long accurate threads need a positive method of feeding
the die head over the work. On capstan lathes this is
achieved with a hexagon turret, leadon attachment. If the
machine is equipped with a crossslide and the thread
chasing attachment, the crossslide is linked to the
hexagon turret to provide positive lead.
Advantages when using a self-opening die head

The direction of workpiece rotation does not have to be
Self-opening die heads are most commonly used in the reversed.
thread manufacturing process. They are made in a wide
range of sizes for producing threads up to about 100 mm A roughing and finishing arrangement enables two cuts to
diameter. be made.
Copyright @ NIMI
Ex No. 4.6.154 - 4.6.156 203
An adjusting screw permits variations to be made from Thread rolling heads (Fig 4)
the standard size, or enables several cuts to be made on
Thread rolling is a modern method of producing threads
coarse threads.
on turret lathes and automatic machines. They produce
threads with excellent grain flow, and the pitch, the form
The cutting stresses maintain the die in the correct
and the accuracy of the threads are made to close
position, preventing errors caused by die tilt or movement.
tolerances.
The two types of die heads in use are the radial die
heads and the tangential die heads.
Radial die head (Fig 2)

This die head uses radial cutting chasers. Adjustment
can be made to the thread cutting size and also for
roughing and finishing cuts to be made on the workpiece.
The dies (Fig 5)

The markings on the die piece indicate the
- die type
- thread diameter
- die number
- thread relieved on the leading side
- slots to locate the die in the die head.
Tangential die head (Fig 3)
These die heads use chasers of tangential type. These
chasers can be sharpened quite often. This gives them
a long life.

Accessories for capstan and turret lathe
• state the use of the knurling tool-holder
• state the use of the multiple-cutter holder
• state the use of the drill-holder
• state the use of the boring bar-holder
• state the use of the reamer-holder.
Knurling tool-holder (Fig 1) Multiple-cutter holder (Fig 4)
The knurling can also be performed by the tooling from The multiple-cutter holder accommodates more than one
the turret head. The knurling tool-holder shown in Fig 1 is tool. The one shown in Fig 4 enables turning of two different
mounted on the turret head. The position of the knurls diameters simultaneously. Turning and boring tools or
can be adjusted with the screw to accommodate different turning and facing tools can also be set in the holder
diameters of the work. Different patterns of knurled surfaces to perform multiple operations simultaneously.
are obtained by tilting the knurls.(Figs 2 and 3)
Drill holder (Fig 5)
The twist drills having morse taper shanks are usually

held in a socket which is parallel outside and tapered
inside. These sockets are inserted in the bracket of a
flange tool-holder and clamped to it by set screws. Straight
shank drills are mounted on Jacob's drill chuck, which in
turn is held by the flanged tool-holder and socket.
Boring bar-holder (Fig 6)

This holder is also called an extension holder or a flanged
tool-holder. These holders are intended for holding drills,
reamers, boring bars, etc.
Copyright @ NIMI
Ex No. 4.6.154 - 4.6.156 205
Reamer-holder
The standard practice of holding reamers in a capstan/
turret lathe is in some form of floating holder which permits
some amount of end movement of the reamer to align
itself with the work.
Fault analysis production turning

• list the common faults and state their causes and effects
• state the remedies for avoiding repetition of the faults.
Common faults
Figure Cause Remedy
Chatter (Fig 1) Collet not gripping the bar Ensure collet tension is correct
Lateral grooves and The workpiece insecurely supported Hold the workpiece rigidly
ridges formed on the Play in the spindle bearings or tool Inform the supervisor, maintenance section
workpiece giving a slideways
moulted appearance.
Spindle speed too high Reduce the spindle speed
Incorrect feed rate Adjust the feed rate suitably
Incorrect tool height Check the centre height of the tool and set
to correct height.
Incorrect tool geometry or a worn out Regrind the tool to the specification
tool bit.
Play in the tool slideways Inform the supervisor
Incorrect or insufficient flow of cutting oil
Change or adjust the flow of cutting oil
Overhang of the tool in the tool-holder too Set the tool back in the tool-holder with a
great minimum overhang.
Tool loose in the tool-holder Clamp the tool rigidly
Play in the spindle bearings Inform the supervisor, maintenance section.
Poor surface texture Incorrect tool geometry or worn out tool Regrind the tool bit to specification.
(Fig.2) bit
The cutting tool marks Insufficient coolant.
widely spaced and / or torn Increase the coolant supply.
surface of the workpiece. Tool point too keen.
Hone small radius on to the tool point unless
a sharp corner is specified.
Incorrect spindle speed, feed rate, Check each against the specification and
material or tool material. adjust according to the requirement.

Figure Cause Remedy
Eccentricity (Fig.3) Dirty collect and collet sleeve Remove, clean and lubricate the collect sleeve.
Worn out collect. Replace the collect.
Breakage of tool (Fig 4) Tool overhang too great. Reset the tool with a minimum overhang.
Tool set below centre. Reset the tool to the centre height.
The part-off too is too far from the collet. Reset the tool as near as possible to the collet.
Incorrect spindle speed and feed rate. Set the speeds and feed to those
recommended.
Bar feed defective (Fig 5) Loose or dirty collet. Reset the collet tension and clean, if necessary.
Insufficient feed cord weight. Increase the feed cord weight.
Jammed feed cord. Examine the feed cord line and the pulleys.
Bell-mouthed hold (Fig.6) Chipped centering tool. Regrind or replace the centering tool.
The centering tool or the drill misaligned. Reset the centering tool or drill centrally.
Pip leftout after parting Worn out part-off tool, or incorrect tool Regrind the part-off tool to the specification.
off (Fig 7) geometry.
Centre height of tool too high or too low. Reset the centre height of the tool.
Copyright @ NIMI
Ex No. 4.6.154 - 4.6.156 207
Methods of producing internal threads on capstan / turret lathes
• state various methods of producing internal threads
• state construction details of a collapsible tap
• state the functional features of a collapsible tap.
Internal threads are cut using 2 types of tools

– Single point thread cutting tool
– Solid tap
Internal threading by using a single point thread

cutting tool (Fig 1)
This precaution will prevent distortion of the thread.

Excessive forward drive pressure will also distort the
thread.
Forward motion of the tap should be stopped first before
it reaches the end of the hole being threaded. When using
the hexagon turret this distance is set with the turret stop.
When the stop is reached by the advancing turret, the
automatic release operates, releasing the tap and allowing
it to revolve with the workpiece.
Threading with a single point tool is usually carried out on Reverse the headstock spindle rotation to drive the tap
large workpieces or when special threads are required. back out of the threaded hole.
The tool may be mounted either on the hexagon turret or Collapsible tap (Fig 3)
on the square turret fitted to the cross-slide. A threading
drive accessory is fitted to the lathe, which enables the
tool to be fed along the work at the appropriate rate for
the desired pitch.Several cuts are normally made, each
slightly deeper than the previous cut, until the thread depth
appropriate to the selected pitch is obtained. The threading
tool is normally held in a bar mounted in a slide tool-holder.
Solid taps
Solid taps are used for small diameter threads. They are
usually spiral fluted.
The tap is fitted to the hexagon turret in a special tap-
holder. The holder is designed to release the tap
automatically at the end of the cut, permitting the tap to
rotate along with the workpiece. (Fig 2)
The procedure for cutting the thread is as follows
The collapsible tap is a mechanism in which thread cutting
Move the turret to the workpiece. chaser inserts, normally six in number, are positioned in
Start the tap in the hole by exerting pressure on the turret the slots provided in the head. These inserts are brought
drive hand wheel. to the cutting position by pulling the lever provided. At the
end of the threading operation, the tap collapses. The
Keep slight forward pressure on the turret drive to prevent tap may then be drawn directly out of the work without
the tap from pulling the turret along as the thread reversing the rotation of the headstock spindle. This
cutting operation progresses. reduces the production time. This facility is applicable
only for cutting threads in holes of larger diameter due to This attachment is used on capstan lathes.
the presence of collapsible mechanism. For cutting
A thread lead (lead screw) of the required pitch is fitted to
threads in successive pieces, the lever is again brought
the turret drive. The turret is moved by the action of the
to the engaging position so that the thread cutting inserts
half nut engaging the lead screw. (Fig 4)
are brought back from the collapsed or released state
to the cutting position. The thread lead attachment includes a release mechanism
which is operated by the turret stops. The length of the
Threading attachment
thread cut may be set automatically by adjusting the
position of the turret stops.
To produce accurately pitched threads, when using a single
point thread cutting tool, the tool must be advanced into Thread chasing attachment (Fig 5)
the work at a rate determined by the thread pitch. The
This attachment is used on the turret lathes to drive the
technique for producing correct rate differs in the following
saddle at the required rate for the threading operation.
two set ups anyone of which may be provided in the
capstan or turret lathe. A threaded sleeve is fitted on the feed shaft and a meshing
threaded collar is fixed to the saddle. The collar draws
A thread lead attachment is used most commonly to
the saddle along the threaded sleeve.
drive the turret of the capstan lathe and a thread chasing
attachment is used to drive the saddle of the turret lathe. The pitch of the thread on the sleeve determines the pitch
of the thread cut on the workpiece.
Threading lead attachment (Fig 4)
Copyright @ NIMI
Ex No. 4.6.154 - 4.6.156 209

Turner 4 TH Sem TT

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TURNER

SECTOR: Production & Manufacturing

DIRECTORATE GENERAL OF TRAINING

Copyright© 2018 National Instructional Media Institute, Chennai

All rights reserved.

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New Delhi - 110 001

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MEDIA DEVELOPMENT COMMITTEE MEMBERS

Shri. Natarajan _ Training Officer

Shri. Dayala moorthy _ Assistant Training officer

Shri. M. Sampath _ Training Officer (Retd)

Shri. R. Purushottaman _ Assistant Director (Retd)

Shri. T. Janakiram _ Assistant Director Rtd

Shri. R. Sekaran _ JTO Rtd

Shri. K. Srinivasa Rao _ Joint Director,

Shri. N. Ashfaq Ahmed _ Assitant Manager,

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Module 1 Introduction to CNC 25 Hrs

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Lesson No. Title of the Lesson Page No.

Module 1: Introduction to CNC

Module 2: CNC Turning

4.2.116 -117 Preparation of part programming 30

4.2.119 Types of offsets 48

4.2.120 Tool path study of machining operation (Straight turning) 52

Module 3: Tool setting and Data Input

4.3.123-124 Cutting tool materials for Turning 68

4.3.126 Describe tooling system for turning 77

Module 4: Programme and Simulation

4.4.132 Preparation of Part programming as per drawing 87

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Module 5: CNC Turning Operations

4.5.139 Programming on CNC Tapping 101

Module 6 : Advance Turning

On completion of this book you shall be able to

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Fourth Semester Duration: Six Month

Week Ref. Learning Professional Skills Professional Knowledge

79 111. Personal and CNC machine CNC technology basics:

Programming – sequence, formats,

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89-91 -do- 139. Geometry Wear Correction. - Describe Tapping on CNC

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94-95 -do- 150.Manufacturing& Interchangeability meaning,

151. Prepare different types Importance of Technical English

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CNC Technology basics

- Less paper work Higher metal removal rate through

- Better utilisation of machines. - Multi spindle

- Reduced tooling - Multi turrets etc.

- Reduced operator skill Higher quality is achieved

A Keeping idle time as minimum - CNC Turn mill centre

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4 Copyright @ NIMI Not to be Republished

1 No. of controlled axis 2

3 Maximum swing over bed 320 mm

4 Maximum machining length 245 mm

6 Spindle taper hole ∅52 mm

7 Maximum bar dia ∅38 mm

8 Spindle head type A2 - 5