EE6503PE2018

MAILAM ENGINEERING COLLEGE-EEE-EE6503-POWER ELECTRONICS
1
POWER ELECTRONICS-EE6503 - UNIT-I

TWO MARKS –PART-A
1. Why IGBT is very popular nowadays? MAY/JUNE-2012
Specify the basic features of IGBT (Nov/Dec 2016)
What are the advantages of IGBTs ? Nov/Dec-17
 Lower gate requirements

 Lower switching losses
 Smaller snubber circuit requirements
2. What are the different methods to turn on the Thyristor? APR/MAY-2011
 Forward voltage triggering
 Gate triggering
 dv/dt triggering
 Temperature triggering
 Light triggering
3. What is the difference between power diode and signal diode?
SL.No Power diode Signal diode
Constructed with n-layer, called drift region

1. Drift region is not present.
between p+ layer and n+ layer.
The voltage, current and power ratings are

2. Lower
higher.
Operates at higher switching

3. Power diodes operate at high speeds.
speed.
4. IGBT is a voltage controlled device. Why?

Because the controlling parameter is gate-emitter voltage.
5. Power MOSFET is a voltage controlled device. Why?
Because the output (drain) current can be controlled by gate-source voltage.
6. Power BJT is a current controlled device. Why?
Because the output (collector) current can be controlled by base current.
7. What are the different types of power MOSFET?
 N-channel MOSFET
 P-channel MOSFET
8. How can a Thyristor turned off?

A Thyristor can be turned off by making the current flowing through it to zero.
9. Define latching current. NOV/DEC-2012, MAY/JUNE-14, NOV/DEC-2015; MAY/JUNE-16.
The latching current is defined as the minimum value of anode current which it must attain
during turn on process to maintain conduction when gate signal is removed.
2
10. Define holding current. MAY/JUNE-14, NOV/DEC-2015, MAY/JUNE-16
The holding current is defined as the minimum value of anode current below which it must
fall to for turning off the Thyristor.
11. What is a snubber circuit? (OR)What is the use of snubber circuit? MAY/JUNE-13,
NOV/DEC-13, NOV/DEC-16
It consists of a series combination of a resistor and a capacitor in parallel with the Thyristor.
It is mainly used for dv / dt protection.
12. What losses occur in a Thyristor during working conditions?
 Forward conduction losses
 Loss due to leakage current during forward and reverse blocking.
 Switching losses at turn-on and turn-off.
 Gate triggering loss.
13. Define hard-driving or over-driving.

When gate current is several times higher than the minimum gate current required, a thyristor
is said to be hard-fired or over-driven. Hard-firing of a thyristor reduces its turn-on time and
enhances its di/dt capability.
14. Define circuit turn off time.
It is defined as the time during which a reverse voltage is applied across the thyristor during
its commutation process.
15. Why circuit turn off time should be greater than the thyristor turn-off time?
Circuit turn off time should be greater than the thyristor turn-off time for reliable turn-off,
otherwise the device may turn-on at an undesired instant, a process called commutation
failure.
16. What is the turn-off time for converter grade SCRs and inverter grade SCRs?
Turn-off time for converter grade SCRs is 50 – 100 ms turn-off time for converter grade
SCRs and inverter grade SCRs and for inverter grade SCRs is 3 – 50 ms.
17. What are the advantages of GTO over SCR? (APR/MAY-2017) / (NOV/DEC-2009,2015)
 Elimination of commutation of commutating components in forced commutation,

resulting in reduction in cost, weight and volume.
 Reduction in acoustic noise and electromagnetic noise due to elimination of commutation

chokes.
 Faster turn-off, permitting high switching frequencies.
 Improved efficiency of the converters.

18. What are the drawbacks of GTO? NOV/DEC-2012
Under surge conditions, a GTO goes into deeper saturation due to regenerative action. On the
other hand, a bipolar transistor tends to come out of saturation.A GTO has low gain during
3
turn-off, typically 6, and requires a relatively high negative current pulse to turn off. It has
higher on-state voltage than that of SCRs. The on-state voltage of typical 550A, 1200V GTO
is typically 3.4V.
19. What is pinch off voltage?MAY/JUNE-2012

Pinch off voltage is defined as minimum ground to source voltage for which drain current
will become zero. If we apply this voltage between drain and source then at this potential
drain current starts saturating.
20. List the various forced commutation techniques used to turn off SCR. Nov/Dec-13
 Self Commutation
 Resonant Pulse Commutation
 Complementary Commutation
 Impulse Commutation
 External Pulse Commutation.
21. What are the limitations of high frequency operation of a power electronics devices?
MAY/JUNE-2013
 Switching losses will be high
 Very expensive
22. Compare power MOSFET and BJT? MAY/JUNE-2014
S.NO. BJT MOSFET
1. This is bipolar device This is majority carrier device
2. Controlled by base Controlled by gate
3. Current controlled device Voltage controlled device
4. Negative temperature co-effiecent Positive temperature co-effiecent
5. Parelleling of BJT is difficult Parelleling of MOSFET is simple
6. Losses are low Losses are higher than BJT
7. Drive circuit is complex Drive circuit is simple
Switching frequency is lower than Switching frequency is high

8.
MOSFET
BJT are suitable for high power MOSFET are suitable for low power
9.
applications applications
BJT are available with higher MOSFET have less voltage and current
10.
voltage and current ratings ratings
4
23. Distinguish between SCR and TRIAC. NOV / DEC-2014
S.NO. SCR TRIAC
The SCR is unidirectional device The TRIAC conducts in both the

1.
directions hence bilateral device
The terminals are called anode- The terminals are called MT1 and MT2
2.
cathode due to unilateral property with gate
The gate current can be only in For both the directions of gate current,
3.
direction to turn-ON SCR TRIAC conducts
The symbol of SCR The symbol of

4.
TRIAC
The characteristics are lying in first The characteristics are lying in first and
5. quadrant only, hence are non- third quadrant only and are symmetrical
symmetrical
Only one mode of operation is Operation in four different mode is

6.
possible possible
7. The realiability is more The realiability is less
8. Avialable in large ratings Not avialable in large ratings
Unijuntion Transistor (UJT) is used The DIAC is used for triggering

9.
for trigerring
The application are phase control, The application are phase control, light
10.
protection of power supply, etc dimmer, motor control, etc
11. Suitable for AC to AC power control Suitable for AC to DC power control
24. What is meant by current commutation of SCR? NOV / DEC-2014,April/May-18

In this process, a current pulse is made to flow in the reverse direction through the
conducting thyristor and when the net thyristor current becomes zero, it is turned off.
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25. Draw TRIAC characteristic. APRIL/MAY-2015.
26. Draw switching times characteristic of BJT. APRIL/MAY-2015.
27. Draw the two transistor model of SCR? MAY/JUNE-2016
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28. What is meant by commutation of SCR and list its types? (Apr / May 2017)
Commutation is defined as the process of turning off a thyristor which is conducting.
Two main types of commutation are
1. Natural Commutation
2. Forced Commutation
a. Self Commutation
b. Impulse Commutation
c. Resonant pulse Commutation
d. Complementary Commutation
e. External pulse Commutation
f. Load side Commutation
g. Line side Commutation
29.Why Triac not popular compared to SCR?Justify. Nov/Dec-17
Commutation of Triac in inductive load is difficult when compared to SCR. Hence it is not
popular.
30.Mention the advantages of RC triggering over R triggering.April/May-18
R-Firing circuits is simple but suffer from limited firing circuits. Firing angle is limited
between 0o to 90o. In actual practice firing angle can be varied between 3 o to 90o. Limitation
of the firing angle range of R-Firing circuit is eliminated by introducing a capacitor and a
diode. Thus R-C firing circuits can increase the firing angle limitation range. Theoretically
firing angle can be varied from 0o to 180o.
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PART-B
1. EXPLAIN THE CONSTRUCTION, VI & SWITCHING CHARACTERISTICS OF

BI-POLAR JUNCTION TRANSISTOR. NOV/DEC-2009
A Bi-Polar Junction Transistor is a 3 layer, 3 terminals device. The 3 terminals are base,
emitter and collector. It has 2 junctions’ collector-base junction (CB) and emitter-base
junction (EB). Transistors are of 2 types, NPN and PNP transistors.
The different configurations are common base, common collector and common emitter.
Common emitter configuration is generally used in switching applications.
Fig1.1: NPN Transistor Fig1.2: Input Characteristic
Fig:1.3 Output / Collector Characteristics

Transistors can be operated in 3 regions i.e., cut-off, active and saturation.
In the cut-of region transistor is OFF, both junctions (EB and CB) are reverse biased. In the
cut-off state the transistor acts as an open switch between the collector and emitter.
In the active region, transistor acts as an amplifier (CB junction is reverse biased and EB
junction is forward biased),
In saturation region the transistor acts as a closed switch and both the junctions CB and EB
are forward biased.
SWITCHING CHARACTERISTICS
An important application of transistor is in switching circuits. When transistor is used as a
switch it is operated either in cut-off state or in saturation state. When the transistor is driven
into the cut-off state it operates in the non-conducting state. When the transistor is operated in
saturation state it is in the conduction state.
8
Thus the non-conduction state is operation in the cut-off region while the conducting state is
operation in the saturation region.
Fig: Switching Transistor in CE Configuration
As the base voltage VB rises from 0 to VB, the base current rises to IB, but the collector
current does not rise immediately. Collector current will begin to increase only when the base
emitter junction is forward biased and VBE > 0.6V. The collector current IC will gradually
increase towards saturation level I C  sat  . The time required for the collector current to rise to
10% of its final value is called delay time td . The time taken by the collector current to rise
from 10% to 90% of its final value is called rise time tr . Turn on times is sum of td and tr .
ton  td  tr
The turn-on time depends on
 Transistor junction capacitances which prevent the transistors voltages from changing
instantaneously.
 Time required for emitter current to diffuse across the base region into the collector
region once the base emitter junction is forward biased. The turn on time ton ranges
from 10 to 300 ns. Base current is normally more than the minimum required
saturating the transistor. As a result excess minority carrier charge is stored in the
base region.
When the input voltage is reversed from VB1 to VB 2 the base current also abruptly changes
but the collector current remains constant for a short time interval tS called the storage time.
The reverse base current helps to discharge the minority charge carries in the base region and
to remove the excess stored charge form the base region. Once the excess stored charge is
removed the baser region the base current begins to fall towards zero. The fall-time t f is the
time taken for the collector current to fall from 90% to 10% of I C  sat  . The turn off time toff
is the sum of storage time and the fall time. toff  ts  t f
9
Fig: Switching Times of Bipolar Junction Transistor
2. Explain the construction, operation & static characteristics of triac? NOV/DEC-2015.

MAY/JUNE-2016
A TRIAC is a three terminal bi-directional switching thyristor device. It can conduct in both
directions when it is triggered into the conduction state. The TRIAC is equivalent to two
SCRs connected in anti-parallel with a common gate. Figure below shows the triac structure.
It consists of three terminals viz., MT2 , MT1 and gate G.
Fig.2.1 TRIAC Structure Fig.2.2 Triac Symbol
The gate terminal G is near the MT1 terminal. Figure above shows the triac symbol. MT1 is
the reference terminal to obtain the characteristics of the triac. A triac can be operated in four
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different modes depending upon the polarity of the voltage on the terminal MT2 with respect
to MT1 and based on the gate current polarity.
The characteristics of a TRIAC are similar to that of an SCR, both in blocking and
conducting states. A SCR can conduct in only one direction whereas triac can conduct in both
directions.
3. TRIGGERING MODES OF TRIAC

(OR)
EXPLAIN WHY TRIAC IS RARELY OPERATED IN I QUADRANT WITH –VE
GATE CURRENT AND IN III QUADRANT WITH +VE GATE
CURRENT.MAY/JUNE-2012,16,NOV/DEC-2015,17
MODE 1 : MT2 positive, Positive gate current ( I  mode of operation)
When MT2 and gate current are positive with respect to MT1, the gate current flows through
P2-N2 junction as shown in figure below. The junction P1-N1 and P2-N2 are forward biased
but junction N1-P2 is reverse biased. When sufficient number of charge carriers are injected
in P2 layer by the gate current the junction N1-P2 breakdown and triac starts conducting
through P1N1P2N2 layers. Once triac starts conducting the current increases and its V-I
characteristics is similar to that of thyristor. Triac in this mode operates in the first-quadrant.
MT2 (+)
P1
N1
P2
Ig
N2
MT1 ()
G
V
(+)
Ig
MODE 2 : MT2 positive, Negative gate current ( I  mode of operation)

MT2 (+)
P1
Initial Final
N1
conduction conduction
P2
N3 N2
MT1 ()
G
V
Ig
11
When MT2 is positive and gate G is negative with respect to MT1 the gate current flows
through P2-N3 junction as shown in figure above. The junction P1-N1 and P2-N3 are
forward biased but junction N1-P2 is reverse biased. Hence, the triac initially starts
conducting through P1N1P2N3 layers. As a result the potential of layer between P2-N3 rises
towards the potential of MT2. Thus, a potential gradient exists across the layer P2 with left
hand region at a higher potential than the right hand region. This results in a current flow in
P2 layer from left to right, forward biasing the P2N2 junction. Now the right hand portion P1-
N1 - P2-N2 starts conducting. The device operates in first quadrant. When compared to Mode
1, triac with MT2 positive and negative gate current is less sensitive and therefore requires
higher gate current for triggering.
MODE 3 : MT2 negative, Positive gate current ( III  mode of operation)
When MT2 is negative and gate is positive with respect to MT1 junction P2N2 is forward
biased and junction P1-N1 is reverse biased. N2 layer injects electrons into P2 layer as shown
by arrows in figure below. This causes an increase in current flow through junction P 2-N1.
Resulting in breakdown of reverse biased junction N1-P1. Now the device conducts through
layers P2N1P1N4 and the current starts increasing, which is limited by an external load.
MT 2 ()
N4
P1
N1
P2
N2
G MT1 (+)
(+)
Ig
The device operates in third quadrant in this mode. Triac in this mode is less sensitive and
requires higher gate current for triggering.
MODE 4 : MT2 negative, Negative gate current ( III  mode of operation)

MT 2 ()
N4
P1
N1
P2
N3
G MT1 (+)
(+)
Ig
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In this mode both MT2 and gate G are negative with respect to MT1, the gate current flows
through P2N3 junction as shown in figure above. Layer N3 injects electrons as shown by
arrows into P2 layer. This results in increase in current flow across P1N1 and the device will
turn ON due to increased current in layer N1. The current flows through layers P2N1P1N4.
Triac is more sensitive in this mode compared to turn ON with positive gate current. (Mode
3).
Triac sensitivity is greatest in the first quadrant when turned ON with positive gate current
and also in third quadrant when turned ON with negative gate current. when MT2 is positive
with respect to MT1 it is recommended to turn on the triac by a positive gate current. When
MT2 is negative with respect to MT1 it is recommended to turn on the triac by negative gate
current. Therefore Mode 1 and Mode 4 are the preferred modes of operation of a triac
( I  mode and III  mode of operation are normally used).
TRIAC CHARACTERISTICS
Figure below shows the circuit to obtain the characteristics of a triac. To obtain the
characteristics in the third quadrant the supply to gate and between MT2 and MT1 are
reversed.
RL I
- +
A
MT2
Rg + +
+ -G
A MT1 V Vs
-
+ -
Vgg
-
Figure below shows the V-I Characteristics of a triac. Triac is a bidirectional switching
device. Hence its characteristics are identical in the first and third quadrant. When gate
current is increased the break over voltage decreases.
VB01, VB01
MT2(+) - Breakover voltages
G(+) Ig2 > Ig21
 Ig2
I Ig1
VB02
V
V VB01
MT2()
G()
Fig.3.6: Triac Characteristic
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Triac is widely used to control the speed of single phase induction motors. It is also used in
domestic lamp dimmers and heat control circuits, and full wave AC voltage controllers.
4. EXPLAIN THE CONSTRUCTION & OPERATION OF POWER MOSFET?

NOV/DEC 2016
Power MOSFET is a metal oxide semiconductor field effect transistor. It is a voltage
controlled device requiring a small input gate voltage. It has high input impedance. MOSFET
is operated in two states viz., ON STATE and OFF STATE. Switching speed of MOSFET is
very high. Switching time is of the order of nanoseconds.
MOSFETs are of two types
 Depletion MOSFETs
 Enhancement MOSFETs.
MOSFET is a three terminal device. The three terminals are gate (G), drain (D) and source
(S).
DEPLETION MOSFET
Depletion type MOSFET can be either a n-channel or p-channel depletion type MOSFET.
A depletion type n-channel MOSFET consists of a p-type silicon substrate with two highly
doped n+ silicon for low resistance connections. A n-channel is diffused between drain and
source. Figure below shows a n-channel depletion type MOSFET. Gate is isolated from the
channel by a thin silicon dioxide layer.
Metal
+
D n D
p-type
G n substrate G
S n
+ S
Channel
Oxide
Structure Symbol
Fig.4.1 : n-channel depletion type MOSFET

Gate to source voltage (VGS) can be either positive or negative. If VGS is negative, electrons
present in the n-channel are repelled leaving positive ions. This creates a depletion.
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+
Metal
D p
D
n-type
G p substrate G
S p
+ S
Channel
Oxide
Structure Symbol
Fig.4.2 : P-channel depletion type MOSFET

Figure above shows a p-channel depletion type MOSFET. A P-channel depletion type
MOSFET consists of a n-type substrate into which highly doped p-regions and a P-channel
are diffused. The two P+ regions act as drain and source P-channel operation is same except
that the polarities of voltages are opposite to that of n-channel.
ENHANCEMENT MOSFET
Enhancement type MOSFET has no physical channel. Enhancement type MOSFET can be
either a n-channel or p-channel enhancement type MOSFET.
Metal
+
D n D
p-type
G
substrate G
S n
+ S
Oxide
Structure Symbol
Fig.4.3: n-channel enhancement type MOSFET

Figure above shows a n-channel enhancement type MOSFET. The P-substrate extends upto
the silicon dioxide layer. The two highly doped n regions act as drain and source.
When gate is positive (VGS) free electrons are attracted from P-substrate and they collect
near the oxide layer. When gate to source voltage, VGS becomes greater than or equal to a
value called threshold voltage (VT). Sufficient numbers of electrons are accumulated to form
a virtual n-channel and current flows from drain to source.
Figure below shows a p-channel enhancement type of MOSFET. The n-substrate extends
upto the silicon dioxide layer. The two highly doped P regions act as drain and source. For p-
channel the polarities of voltages are opposite to that of n-channel.
15
+
Metal
D p
D
n-type
G
substrate G
S
+
p S
Oxide
Structure Symbol
Fig.4.4 : P-channel enhancement type MOSFET.

5. DISCUSS THE STATIC CHARACTERISTICS OF MOSFET. NOV/DEC-2014,17
,APRIL/MAY-2015
Depletion MOSFET
Figure below shows n-channel depletion type MOSFET with gate positive with respect to
source. I D , VDS and VGS are drain current, drain source voltage and gate-source voltage. A
plot of variation of I D with VDS for a given value of VGS gives the Drain characteristics or
Output characteristics.
D ID
G
VDS
+ +
VGS S
 
Fig:5.1 n-channel Depletion MOSFET

N-channel Depletion type MOSFET
VGS & VDS are positive. I D is positive for n channel MOSFET . VGS is negative for depletion
mode. VGS is positive for enhancement mode.
Figure below shows the drain characteristic. MOSFET can be operated in three regions
 Cut-off region,
 Saturation region (pinch-off region) and
 Linear region.
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In the linear region I D varies linearly with VDS . i.e., increases with increase in VDS . Power
MOSFETs are operated in the linear region for switching actions. In saturation region I D
almost remains constant for any increase in VDS .
Fig.5.2: Drain Characteristic
Figure below shows the transfer characteristic. Transfer characteristic gives the variation of
I D with VGS for a given value of VDS . I DSS is the drain current with shorted gate. As curve
extends on both sides VGS can be negative as well as positive.
IDSS
ID
VGS(OFF) VGS
Fig.5.3: Transfer characteristic
Enhancement MOSFET
D ID
G
VDS
+ +
VGS S
 
Fig 5.4: n-channel Enhancement MOSFET
17
VGS is positive for a n-channel enhancement MOSFET. VDS & I D are also positive for n
channel enhancement MOSFET
Figure above shows circuit to obtain characteristic of n channel enhancement type MOSFET.
Figure below shows the drain characteristic. Drain characteristic gives the variation of I D
with VDS for a given value of VGS .
ID
VT VGS
VT  VGS TH   Gate Source Threshold Voltage
Fig.: Transfer Characteristic
Figure below shows the transfer characteristic which gives the variation of I D with VGS for a
given value of VDS .
Linear Saturation
region region
VGS3
ID VGS2
VGS1
VDS
VGS 3  VGS 2  VGS 1
Fig.5.6 : Drain Characteristic
MOSFET PARAMETERS
The parameters of MOSFET can be obtained from the graph as follows.
I D
Mutual Transconductance g m  .
VGS VDS  Constant
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VDS
Output or Drain Resistance Rds  .
I D VGS  Constant
Amplification factor   Rds x g m
Power MOSFETs are generally of enhancement type. Power MOSFETs are used in
switched mode power supplies.
Power MOSFET’s are used in high speed power converters and are available at a
relatively low power rating in the range of 1000V, 50A at a frequency range of several tens of
KHz  f max  100 KHz  .
6. EXPLAIN THE SWITCHING CHARACTERISTICS OF POWER MOSFET.

MAY/JUNE-2014,NOV/DEC-2014,17
Power MOSFETs are often used as switching devices. The switching characteristic of a
power MOSFET depends on the capacitances between gate to source CGS , gate to drain CGD
and drain to source CGS . It also depends on the impedance of the gate drive circuit. During
turn-on there is a turn-on delay td  on  , which is the time required for the input capacitance CGS
to charge to threshold voltage level VT . During the rise time tr , CGS charges to full gate
voltage VGSP and the device operate in the linear region (ON state). During rise time tr drain
current I D rises from zero to full on state current I D .
 Total turn-on time, ton  td  on  tr
MOSFET can be turned off by discharging capacitance CGS . td  off  is the turn-off delay time
required for input capacitance CGS to discharge from V1 to VGSP . Fall time t f is the time
required for input capacitance to discharge from VGSP to threshold voltage VT . During fall
time t f drain current falls from I D to zero. Figure below shows the switching waveforms of
power MOSFET.
VG
V1
V1
VGSP
VT
tr
td(on) td(off) tf
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7. EXPLAIN THE CONSTRUCTION, OPERATION & STATIC CHARACTERISTICS

OF INSULATED GATE BIPOLAR TRANSISTOR(IGBT).NOV/DEC-
2012,17,NOV/DEC-2014,APRIL/MAY-2015 (OR)
DESCRIBE THE BASIC STRUCTURE OF IGBT AND EXPLAIN ITS WORKING.

NOV/DEC-2013
IGBT is a voltage controlled device. It has high input impedance like a MOSFET and
low on-state conduction losses like a BJT.
Figure below shows the basic silicon cross-section of an IGBT. Its construction is
same as power MOSFET except that n+ layer at the drain in a power MOSFET is replaced by
P+ substrate called collector.
Collector
 C
p

n Bufferlayer

n epi G
p
 
n n E
Gate Gate
Emitter
Structure Symbol
Fig.7.1: Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor

IGBT has three terminals gate (G), collector (C) and emitter (E). With collector and gate
voltage positive with respect to emitter the device is in forward blocking mode. When gate to
emitter voltage becomes greater than the threshold voltage of IGBT, a n-channel is formed in
the P-region. Now device is in forward conducting state. In this state p  substrate injects
holes into the epitaxial n  layer. Increase in collector to emitter voltage will result in increase
of injected hole concentration and finally a forward current is established.
CHARACTERISTIC OF IGBT
Figure below shows circuit diagram to obtain the characteristic of an IGBT. An output
characteristic is a plot of collector current I C versus collector to emitter voltage VCE for given
values of gate to emitter voltage VGE .
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IC
RC
RS G VCC
VCE
VG RGE VGE
E
Fig.7.2: Circuit Diagram to Obtain Characteristics

IC
VGE4
VGE3 VGE4>VGE3>VGE2>VGE1
VGE2
VGE1
VCE
Fig.7.3: Output Characteristics
A plot of collector current I C versus gate-emitter voltage VGE for a given value of VCE gives
the transfer characteristic. Figure below shows the transfer characteristic.
Note
Controlling parameter is the gate-emitter voltage VGE in IGBT. If VGE is less than the
threshold voltage VT then IGBT is in OFF state. If VGE is greater than the threshold voltage
VT then the IGBT is in ON state.
IGBTs are used in medium power applications such as ac and dc motor drives, power
supplies and solid state relays.
IC
VGE
VT
Fig.7.4: Transfer Characteristic
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8. DRAW AND EXPLAIN SWITCHING CHARACTERISTIC OF IGBT NOV/DEC-

2012,17,APR/MAY-2011, NOV/DEC-2009, NOV/DEC-2013, NOV/DEC-2014 ,APRIL/MAY-
2015.
Figure below shows the switching characteristic of an IGBT. Turn-on time consists of
delay time td  on  and rise time tr .
VGE
VGET
t
tr tf
td(on) td(off)
VCE
t(on) = td(on)+tr
0.9 VCE t(off) = td(off)+tf
0.1 VCE
t
IC
0.9 ICE
0.1 ICE
t
td(off) tf
Fig.8.1: Switching Characteristics
The turn on delay time is the time required by the leakage current I CE to rise to 0.1 I C , where
I C is the final value of collector current. Rise time is the time required for collector current to
rise from 0.1 I C to its final value I C . After turn-on collector-emitter voltage VCE will be very
small during the steady state conduction of the device.
The turn-off time consists of delay off time td  off  and fall time t f . Off time delay is the time
during which collector current falls from I C to 0.9 I C and VGE falls to threshold voltage VGET .
During the fall time t f the collector current falls from 0.90 I C to 0.1 I C . During the turn-off
time interval collector-emitter voltage rises to its final value VCE .
IGBT’s are voltage controlled power transistor. They are faster than BJT’s, but still not quite
as fast as MOSFET’s. the IGBT’s offer for superior drive and output characteristics when
compared to BJT’s. IGBT’s are suitable for high voltage, high current and frequencies upto
20KHz. IGBT’s are available upto 1400V, 600A and 1200V, 1000A.
22
IGBT APPLICATIONS
Medium power applications like DC and AC motor drives, medium power supplies, solid
state relays and contractors, general purpose inverters, UPS, welder equipments, servo
controls, robotics, cutting tools, induction heating.
TYPICAL RATINGS OF IGBT

Voltage rating = 1400V. Current rating = 600A. Maximum operating frequency = 20KHz.
Switching time  2.3 s  tON  tOFF  . ON state resistance = 600m = 60 x10 3  .
POWER MOSFET RATINGS

Voltage rating = 500V. Current rating = 50A. Maximum operating frequency = 100KHz.
Switching time  0.6 s to 1 s  tON  tOFF  . ON state resistance RDON  = 0.4m to 0.6m .
tf Turn off fall time = 350nsec.
tOFF  td OFF   t f  700n sec (maximum)
trr Reverse recovery time 250nsec.
Qrr Reverse recovery charge = 2.97c (typical).
9. EXPLAIN THE CONSTRUCTION & OPERATION OF THYRISTORS. APR/MAY-

2017
A thyristor is the most important type of power semiconductor devices. They are extensively
used in power electronic circuits. They are operated as bi-stable switches from non-
conducting to conducting state.
A thyristor is a four layer, semiconductor of p-n-p-n structure with three p-n junctions. It has
three terminals, the anode, cathode and the gate.
The word thyristor is coined from thyratron and transistor. It was invented in the year 1957 at
Bell Labs. The Different types of Thyristors are
 Silicon Controlled Rectifier (SCR).

 TRIAC
 DIAC
 Gate Turn Off Thyristor (GTO)
SILICON CONTROLLED RECTIFIER (SCR)
23
The SCR is a four layer three terminal device with junctions J1 , J 2 , J 3 as shown. The
construction of SCR shows that the gate terminal is kept nearer the cathode. The approximate
thickness of each layer and doping densities are as indicated in the figure. In terms of their
lateral dimensions Thyristors are the largest semiconductor devices made. A complete silicon
wafer as large as ten centimeter in diameter may be used to make a single high power
thyristor.
Gate Cathode
+
n
19
10 cm
-3 +
n
19
10 cm
-3
 10m

J3 - 17 -3
p 10 cm 30-100m

J2
–
n 10
13
-5 x 10
14
cm
-3 50-1000m
J1
p
+
10
17
cm
-3
 30-50m
19 -3
p 10 cm
Anode
Fig.: Structure of a generic thyristor
QUALITATIVE ANALYSIS
When the anode is made positive with respect the cathode junctions J1 & J 3 are forward
biased and junction J 2 is reverse biased. With anode to cathode voltage VAK being small,
only leakage current flows through the device. The SCR is then said to be in the forward
blocking state. If VAK is further increased to a large value, the reverse biased junction J 2 will
breakdown due to avalanche effect resulting in a large current through the device. The
voltage at which this phenomenon occurs is called the forward breakdown voltage VBO . Since
the other junctions J1 & J 3 are already forward biased, there will be free movement of
carriers across all three junctions resulting in a large forward anode current. Once the SCR is
switched on, the voltage drop across it is very small, typically 1 to 1.5V. The anode current is
limited only by the external impedance present in the circuit.
24
Fig.: Simplified model of a thyristor
Although an SCR can be turned on by increasing the forward voltage beyond VBO , in
practice, the forward voltage is maintained well below VBO and the SCR is turned on by
applying a positive voltage between gate and cathode. With the application of positive gate
voltage, the leakage current through the junction J 2 is increased. This is because the resulting
gate current consists mainly of electron flow from cathode to gate. Since the bottom end layer
is heavily doped as compared to the p-layer, due to the applied voltage, some of these
electrons reach junction J 2 and add to the minority carrier concentration in the p-layer. This
raises the reverse leakage current and results in breakdown of junction J 2 even though the
applied forward voltage is less than the breakdown voltage VBO . With increase in gate current
breakdown occurs earlier.
10. DRAW AND EXPLAIN THE V-I CHARACTERISTICS OF THYRISTOR(SCR).(OR)
DISCUSS THE DIFFERENT MODES OF OPERATION OF THYRISTOR WITH

THE HELP OF ITS STATIC V-I CHARACTERISTICS.MAY/JUNE-2012,NOV/DEC-
2009, MAY/JUNE-2014
RL
VAA K
VGG
Fig10.1. Circuit
25
Fig:10.2 V-I Characteristics

A typical V-I characteristics of a thyristor is shown above. In the reverse direction the
thyristor appears similar to a reverse biased diode which conducts very little current until
avalanche breakdown occurs. In the forward direction the thyristor has two stable states or
modes of operation that are connected together by an unstable mode that appears as a
negative resistance on the V-I characteristics. The low current high voltage region is the
forward blocking state or the off state and the low voltage high current mode is the on state.
For the forward blocking state the quantity of interest is the forward blocking voltage VBO
which is defined for zero gate current. If a positive gate current is applied to a thyristor then
the transition or break over to the on state will occur at smaller values of anode to cathode
voltage as shown. Although not indicated the gate current does not have to be a dc current but
instead can be a pulse of current having some minimum time duration. This ability to switch
the thyristor by means of a current pulse is the reason for wide spread applications of the
device.
However once the thyristor is in the on state the gate cannot be used to turn the device off.
The only way to turn off the thyristor is for the external circuit to force the current through
the device to be less than the holding current for a minimum specified time period.
26
Fig.10.3: Effects on gate current on forward blocking voltage
HOLDING CURRENT I H
After an SCR has been switched to the on state a certain minimum value of anode current is
required to maintain the thyristor in this low impedance state. If the anode current is reduced
below the critical holding current value, the thyristor cannot maintain the current through it
and reverts to its off state usually I  is associated with turn off the device.
LATCHING CURRENT I L
After the SCR has switched on, there is a minimum current required to sustain conduction.
This current is called the latching current. I L associated with turn on and is usually greater
than holding current.
11. EXPLAIN THE OPERATION OF SCR USING TWO TRANSISTOR ANALOGY.

MAY/JUNE-2014 MAY/JUNE-2016
The general transistor equations are,
I C   I B  1    I CBO
I C   I E  I CBO
I E  IC  I B
I B  I E 1     I CBO
The SCR can be considered to be made up of two transistors as shown in above figure.
Considering PNP transistor of the equivalent circuit,
I E 1  I A , I C  I C1 ,  1 , I CBO  I CBO1 , I B  I B1
 I B1  I A 1  1   I CBO1    1
Considering NPN transistor of the equivalent circuit,
27
I C  I C2 , I B  I B2 , I E2  I K  I A  I G
I C2   2 I k  I CBO2
I C2   2  I A  I G   I CBO2     2
From the equivalent circuit, we see that
 I C2  I B1
 2 I g  I CBO1  I CBO 2
 IA 
1  1   2 
Two transistors analog is valid only till SCR reaches ON state
Case 1: When I g  0 ,
ICBO1  ICBO2
IA 
1  1   2 
The gain 1 of transistor T1 varies with its emitter current I E  I A . Similarly varies with
I E  I A  I g  I K . In this case, with I g  0 ,  2 varies only with I A . Initially when the applied
forward voltage is small, 1   2   1 .
If however the reverse leakage current is increased by increasing the applied forward voltage,
the gains of the transistor increase, resulting in 1   2   1 .
From the equation, it is seen that when 1   2   1 , the anode current I A tends towards  .
This explains the increase in anode current for the break over voltage VB 0 .
Case 2: With gate current I g applied.
When sufficient gate drive is applied, we see that I B2  I g is established. This in turn results in
a current through transistor T2 , this increases  2 of T2 . But with the existence
of IC2   2 I 2   2 I g , a current through T, is established. Therefore,
IC1  1I B1  12 I B2  1 2 I g . This current in turn is connected to the base of T2 . Thus the
base drive of T2 is increased which in turn increases the base drive of T1 , therefore
regenerative feedback or positive feedback is established between the two transistors. This
causes 1   2  to tend to unity therefore the anode current begins to grow towards a large
value. This regeneration continues even if I g is removed this characteristic of SCR makes it
suitable for pulse triggering; SCR is also called a Lathing Device.
28
12. DRAW AND EXPLAIN SWITCHING CHARACTERISTICS (DYNAMIC

CHARACTERISTICS) OF SCR (Thyristor). APR/MAY-2017, NOV/DEC-16, NOV/DEC-
13 (OR)
SKETCH THE DYNAMIC CHARACTERISTICS OF A THYRISTOR DURING ITS

TURN-ON AND TURN-OFF PROCESS.DISCUSS BRIEFLY THE NATURE OF
THESE CURVES.MAY/JUNE-13.
(OR)
DISCUSS DIFFERENT TURN–ON METHODS OF SCR WITH ITS TURN-ON

CHARACTERISTICS. NOV/DEC-14
DIFFERENT METHODS TO TURN ON THE SCR

a. Forward voltage triggering
b. Gate triggering
c. dv/dt triggering
d. Temperature triggering
e. Light triggering
THYRISTOR TURN-ON CHARACTERISTICS

When the SCR is turned on with the application of the gate signal, the SCR does not conduct
fully at the instant of application of the gate trigger pulse. In the beginning, there is no
appreciable increase in the SCR anode current, which is because, only a small portion of the
silicon pellet in the immediate vicinity of the gate electrode starts conducting. The duration
between 90% of the peak gate trigger pulse and the instant the forward voltage has fallen to
90% of its initial value is called the gate controlled / trigger delay time t gd . It is also defined
as the duration between 90% of the gate trigger pulse and the instant at which the anode
current rises to 10% of its peak value. t gd is usually in the range of 1sec.
Fig.12.1: Turn-on characteristics
29
Once t gd has lapsed, the current starts rising towards the peak value. The period during which
the anode current rises from 10% to 90% of its peak value is called the rise time. It is also
defined as the time for which the anode voltage falls from 90% to 10% of its peak value. The
summation of t gd and tr gives the turn on time ton of the thyristor.
TURN OFF CHARACTERISTICS

V AK
tC
tq
IA
di
Commutation
Anode current dt
begins to
decrease Recovery Recombination
t1 t2 t3 t4 t5
tq=device off time

trr tgr
tc =circuit off time
tq
tc
When an SCR is turned on by the gate signal, the gate loses control over the device
and the device can be brought back to the blocking state only by reducing the forward current
to a level below that of the holding current. In AC circuits, however, the current goes through
a natural zero value and the device will automatically switch off. But in DC circuits, where
no neutral zero value of current exists, the forward current is reduced by applying a reverse
voltage across anode and cathode and thus forcing the current through the SCR to zero.
As in the case of diodes, the SCR has a reverse recovery time trr which is due to charge
storage in the junctions of the SCR. These excess carriers take some time for recombination
resulting in the gate recovery time or reverse recombination time t gr . Thus, the turn-off time
tq is the sum of the durations for which reverse recovery current flows after the application of
reverse voltage and the time required for the recombination of all excess carriers present. At
the end of the turn off time, a depletion layer develops across J 2 and the junction can now
withstand the forward voltage. The turn off time is dependent on the anode current, the
magnitude of reverse V g applied ad the magnitude and rate of application of the forward
voltage. The turn off time for converte grade SCR’s is 50 to 100sec and that for inverter
grade SCR’s is 10 to 20sec.
To ensure that SCR has successfully turned off , it is required that the circuit off time tc be
greater than SCR turn off time tq .
THYRISTOR TURN ON
30
 Thermal Turn on: If the temperature of the thyristor is high, there will be an increase
in charge carriers which would increase the leakage current. This would cause an
increase in 1 &  2 and the thyristor may turn on. This type of turn on many cause
thermal run away and is usually avoided.
 Light: If light be allowed to fall on the junctions of a thyristor, charge carrier
concentration would increase which may turn on the SCR.
 LASCR: Light activated SCRs are turned on by allowing light to strike the silicon
wafer.
 High Voltage Triggering: This is triggering without application of gate voltage with
only application of a large voltage across the anode-cathode such that it is greater than
the forward breakdown voltage VBO . This type of turn on is destructive and should be
avoided.
 Gate Triggering: Gate triggering is the method practically employed to turn-on the
thyristor. Gate triggering will be discussed in detail later.
dv
 Triggering: Under transient conditions, the capacitances of the p-n junction will
dt
influence the characteristics of a thyristor. If the thyristor is in the blocking state, a
rapidly rising voltage applied across the device would cause a high current to flow
through the device resulting in turn-on. If i j2 is the current throught the junction j2 and
C j2 is the junction capacitance and V j2 is the voltage across j2 , then
 
dq2 d C j dVJ 2 dC j2
ij 2   C j Vj  2  V j2
dt dt 2 2
dt dt
dv
From the above equation, we see that if is large, 1 j2 will be large. A high value of
dt
dv
charging current may damage the thyristor and the device must be protected against high .
dt
dv
The manufacturers specify the allowable .
dt
31
THYRISTOR RATINGS
First Subscript Second Subscript Third Subscript
D  off state W  working M  Peak Value
T  ON state R  Repetitive
F  Forward S Surge or non-repetitive
R  Reverse
VOLTAGE RATINGS
VDWM : This specifies the peak off state working forward voltage of the device. This specifies
the maximum forward off state voltage which the thyristor can withstand during its working.
VDRM : This is the peak repetitive off state forward voltage that the thyristor can block
repeatedly in the forward direction (transient).
VDSM : This is the peak off state surge / non-repetitive forward voltage that will occur across
the thyristor.
VRWM : This the peak reverse working voltage that the thyristor can withstand in the reverse
direction.
VRRM : It is the peak repetitive reverse voltage. It is defined as the maximum permissible
instantaneous value of repetitive applied reverse voltage that the thyristor can block in
reverse direction.
VRSM : Peak surge reverse voltage. This rating occurs for transient conditions for a specified
time duration.
VT : On state voltage drop and is dependent on junction temperature.
VTM : Peak on state voltage. This is specified for a particular anode current and junction
temperature.
dv
rating: This is the maximum rate of rise of anode voltage that the SCR has to withstand
dt
dv
and which will not trigger the device without gate signal (refer triggering).
dt
CURRENT RATING
32
ITaverage : This is the on state average current which is specified at a particular temperature.
ITRMS : This is the on-state RMS current.
Latching current, I L : After the SCR has switched on, there is a minimum current required to
sustain conduction. This current is called the latching current. I L associated with turn on and
is usually greater than holding current
Holding current, I H : After an SCR has been switched to the on state a certain minimum
value of anode current is required to maintain the thyristor in this low impedance state. If the
anode current is reduced below the critical holding current value, the thyristor cannot
maintain the current through it and reverts to its off state usually I  is associated with turn off
the device.
di
rating: This is a non repetitive rate of rise of on-state current. This maximum value of rate
dt
of rise of current is which the thyristor can withstand without destruction. When thyristor is
switched on, conduction starts at a place near the gate. This small area of conduction spreads
di
rapidly and if rate of rise of anode current is large compared to the spreading velocity of
dt
carriers, local hotspots will be formed near the gate due to high current density. This causes
the junction temperature to rise above the safe limit and the SCR may be damaged
di
permanently. The rating is specified in A  sec .
dt
GATE SPECIFICATIONS
I GT : This is the required gate current to trigger the SCR. This is usually specified as a DC
value.
VGT : This is the specified value of gate voltage to turn on the SCR (dc value).
VGD : This is the value of gate voltage, to switch from off state to on state. A value below this
will keep the SCR in off state.
QRR : Amount of charge carriers which have to be recovered during the turn off process.
Rthjc : Thermal resistance between junction and outer case of the device.
33
13. DISCUSS VARIOUS GATE TRIGGERING METHODS OF SCR (OR) Describe

Driver circuit for MOSFET and IGBT. APR/MAY-2017, NOV/DEC-16, MAY/JUNE-
2012.
The different methods of gate triggering are the following
 R-triggering.
 RC triggering.
 UJT triggering.
RESISTANCE TRIGGERING
A simple resistance triggering circuit is as shown. The resistor R1 limits the current through
the gate of the SCR. R2 is the variable resistance added to the circuit to achieve control over
the triggering angle of SCR. Resistor ‘R’ is a stabilizing resistor. The diode D is required to
ensure that no negative voltage reaches the gate of the SCR .
Fig.13.1: Resistance firing circuit
Fig.13.2: Resistance firing of an SCR in half wave circuit with dc load
(a) No triggering of SCR (b)  = 900 (c)  < 900
Design
34
Vm
With R2  0 , we need to ensure that  I gm , where I gm is the maximum or peak gate
R1
Vm
current of the SCR. Therefore R1  .
I gm
Also with R2  0 , we need to ensure that the voltage drop across resistor ‘R’ does not exceed
V gm , the maximum gate voltage
Vm R
Vgm 
R1  R
 Vgm R1  Vgm R  Vm R
 Vgm R1  R Vm  Vgm 
Vgm R1
R
Vm  Vgm
OPERATION
Case 1: Vgp  Vgt
Vgp , the peak gate voltage is less then Vgt since R2 is very large. Therefore, current ‘I’ flowing
through the gate is very small. SCR will not turn on and therefore the load voltage is zero and
vscr is equal to Vs . This is because we are using only a resistive network. Therefore, output
will be in phase with input.
Case 2: Vgp  Vgt , R2  optimum value.
When R2 is set to an optimum value such that Vgp  Vgt , we see that the SCR is triggered at
90 0 (since Vgp reaches its peak at 90 0 only). The waveforms shows that the load voltage is
zero till 90 0 and the voltage across the SCR is the same as input voltage till it is triggered at
90 0 .
Case 3: Vgp  Vgt , R2  small value.
The triggering value Vgt is reached much earlier than 90 0 . Hence the SCR turns on earlier
than VS reaches its peak value. The waveforms as shown with respect to Vs  Vm sin  t .
At t   ,VS  Vgt ,Vm  Vgp Q Vgt  Vgp sin  
 Vgt 
  sin 1 
 V 
Therefore
 gp 
35
Vm R
But Vgp 
R1  R2  R
Vgt  R1  R2  R  
Therefore   sin 1  
 Vm R 
Since Vgt , R1 , R are constants  R2
RESISTANCE CAPACITANCE TRIGGERING

RC HALF WAVE
Capacitor ‘C’ in the circuit is connected to shift the phase of the gate voltage. D1 is used to
prevent negative voltage from reaching the gate cathode of SCR.
In the negative half cycle, the capacitor charges to the peak negative voltage of the supply
 Vm  through the diode D2 . The capacitor maintains this voltage across it, till the supply
voltage crosses zero. As the supply becomes positive, the capacitor charges through resistor
‘R’ from initial voltage of Vm , to a positive value.
When the capacitor voltage is equal to the gate trigger voltage of the SCR, the SCR is fired
and the capacitor voltage is clamped to a small positive value.
Fig.13.3: RC half-wave trigger circuit
36
Fig.13.4: Waveforms for RC half-wave trigger circuit
(a) High value of R (b) Low value of R
Case 1: R  Large.
When the resistor ‘R’ is large, the time taken for the capacitance to charge from Vm to Vgt is
large, resulting in larger firing angle and lower load voltage.
Case 2: R  Small
When ‘R’ is set to a smaller value, the capacitor charges at a faster rate towards Vgt resulting
in early triggering of SCR and hence VL is more. When the SCR triggers, the voltage drop
across it falls to 1 – 1.5V. This in turn lowers, the voltage across R & C. Low voltage across
the SCR during conduction period keeps the capacitor discharge during the positive half
cycle.
DESIGN EQUATION
From the circuit VC  Vgt  Vd1 . Considering the source voltage and the gate circuit, we can
write vs  I gt R  VC . SCR fires when vs  I gt R  VC that is vS  I g R  Vgt  Vd1 . Therefore
vs  Vgt  Vd 1
R . The RC time constant for zero output voltage that is maximum firing angle
I gt
T 
for power frequencies is empirically gives as RC  1.3   .
2
RC FULL WAVE
A simple circuit giving full wave output is shown in figure below. In this circuit the initial
voltage from which the capacitor ‘C’ charges is essentially zero. The capacitor ‘C’ is reset to
this voltage by the clamping action of the thyristor gate. For this reason the charging time
constant RC must be chosen longer than for half wave RC circuit in order to delay the
triggering. The RC value is empirically
37
50T vs  Vgt
chosen as RC  . Also R  .
2 I gt
Fig:13.5 RC full-wave trigger circuit
Fig:13.6 Wave-forms for RC full-wave trigger circuit
(a) High value of R (b) Low value of R

PROBLEM
1. Design a suitable RC triggering circuit for a thyristorised network operation on a
220V, 50Hz supply. The specifications of SCR are Vgt min  5V , I gt max  30mA .
vs  Vgt  VD
R  7143.3
Ig
Therefore RC  0.013
R  7.143k
C  1.8199  F
UNI-JUNCTION TRANSISTOR (UJT) triggering circuit.April/May-18

38
B2 B2
Eta-point +
B2
RB2
Eta-point
RB2
p-type
E
E A A VBB
E +
RB1
n-type RB1
Ve Ie VBB
- -
B1 B1 B1
(a) (b) (c)
Fig.13.7: (a) Basic structure of UJT (b) Symbolic representation (c) Equivalent circuit
UJT is an n-type silicon bar in which p-type emitter is embedded. It has three terminals
base1, base2 and emitter ‘E’. Between B1 and B2 UJT behaves like ordinary resistor and the
internal resistances are given as RB1 and RB 2 with emitter open RB B  RB1  RB 2 . Usually the
p-region is heavily doped and n-region is lightly doped. The equivalent circuit of UJT is as
shown. When VBB is applied across B1 and B2 , we find that potential at A is
VBB RB1  RB1 

VAB1   VBB   
RB1  RB 2  RB1  RB 2 
 is intrinsic stand off ratio of UJT and ranges between 0.51 and 0.82. Resistor RB 2 is
between 5 to 10K.
OPERATION
When voltage VBB is applied between emitter ‘E’ with base 1 B1 as reference and the emitter
voltage VE is less than VD  VBE  the UJT does not conduct. VD  VBB  is designated as VP
which is the value of voltage required to turn on the UJT. Once VE is equal to
VP  VBE  VD , then UJT is forward biased and it conducts.
The peak point is the point at which peak current I P flows and the peak voltage VP is across
the UJT. After peak point the current increases but voltage across device drops, this is due to
the fact that emitter starts to inject holes into the lower doped n-region. Since p-region is
heavily doped compared to n-region. Also holes have a longer life time, therefore number of
carriers in the base region increases rapidly. Thus potential at ‘A’ falls but current I E
increases rapidly. RB1 acts as a decreasing resistance.
The negative resistance region of UJT is between peak point and valley point. After valley
point, the device acts as a normal diode since the base region is saturated and RB1 does not
decrease again.
39
Negative Resistance
Region
Ve
Cutoff Saturation
region region
VBB
R load line
Vp
Peak Point
Valley Point
Vv
0 Ip Iv Ie
Fig.13.8: V-I Characteristics of UJT
UJT RELAXATION OSCILLATOR

UJT is highly efficient switch. The switching times is in the range of nanoseconds. Since UJT
exhibits negative resistance characteristics it can be used as relaxation oscillator. The circuit
diagram is as shown with R1 and R2 being small compared to RB1 and RB 2 of UJT.
Fig.13.9: UJT oscillator (a) Connection diagram and (b) Voltage waveforms
OPERATION
When VBB is applied, capacitor ‘C’ begins to charge through resistor ‘R’ exponentially
towards VBB . During this charging emitter circuit of UJT is an open circuit. The rate of
charging is  1  RC . When this capacitor voltage which is nothing but emitter voltage VE
reaches the peak point VP  VBB  VD , the emitter base junction is forward biased and UJT
turns on. Capacitor ‘C’ rapidly discharges through load resistance R1 with time
constant  2  R1C  2 = 1  . When emitter voltage decreases to valley point Vv , UJT turns off.
Once again the capacitor will charge towards VBB and the cycle continues. The rate of
charging of the capacitor will be determined by the resistor R in the circuit. If R is small the
capacitor charges faster towards VBB and thus reaches VP faster and the SCR is triggered at a
40
smaller firing angle. If R is large the capacitor takes a longer time to charge towards VP the
firing angle is delayed. The waveform for both cases is as shown below.
EXPRESSION FOR PERIOD OF OSCILLATION ‘T’

The period of oscillation of the UJT can be derived based on the voltage across the capacitor.
Here we assume that the period of charging of the capacitor is lot larger than than the
discharging time.
Using initial and final value theorem for voltage across a capacitor, we get
VC  V final  Vinitial  V final  e

t
RC
t  T ,VC  VP ,Vinitial  VV ,V final  VBB
Therefore VP  VBB  VV  VBB  eT / RC
 V V 
 T  RC log e  BB V 
 VBB  VP 
If
VV  VBB ,
 VBB 
T  RC ln  
 VBB  VP 
 
 1 
 RC ln  
1  VP 
 VBB 
But VP  VBB  VD
If VD = VBB VP  VBB
 1 
Therefore T  RC ln  
1   
DESIGN OF UJT OSCILLATOR

Resistor ‘R’ is limited to a value between 3 kilo ohms and 3 mega ohms. The upper limit on
‘R’ is set by the requirement that the load line formed by ‘R’ and VBB intersects the device
characteristics to the right of the peak point but to the left of valley point. If the load line fails
41
to pass to the right of the peak point the UJT will not turn on, this condition will be satisfied
V  VP
if VBB  I P R  VP , therefore R  BB .
IP
At the valley point I E  IV and VE  VV , so the condition for the lower limit on ‘R’ to ensure
VBB  VV
turn-off is VBB  IV R  VV , therefore R  .
IV
The recommended range of supply voltage is from 10 to 35V. the width of the triggering
pulse t g  RB1C .
In general RB1 is limited to a value of 100 ohm and RB 2 has a value of 100 ohm or greater and
10 4
can be approximately determined as RB 2  .
VBB
dv
14. EXPLAIN THE OPERATION OF PROTECTION (OR) Describe Snubber circuit
dt
for MOSFET and IGBT. APR/MAY-2017, NOV/DEC-16, MAY/JUNE-2012, APR/MAY-
2011
(OR)
SNUBBER CIRCUIT FOR AN SCR SHOULD PRIMARILY CONSISTS OF

CAPACITOR ONLY.BUT IN PRACTICE A RESISTOR IS USED IN SERIES WITH
THE CAPACITOR.WHY?-DISCUSS. MAY/JUNE-2013.
(OR)
BRIEFLY EXPLAIN ABOUT THE POWER MOSFET PROTECTION CIRCUITS.
MAY/JUNE-2014
dv
The across the thyristor is limited by using snubber circuit as shown in figure (a) below.
dt
If switch S1 is closed at t  0 , the rate of rise of voltage across the thyristor is limited by the
capacitor CS . When thyristor T1 is turned on, the discharge current of the capacitor is limited
by the resistor RS as shown in figure (b) below.
Fig. (a)
42
Fig. (b)
Fig. (c)
The voltage across the thyristor will rise exponentially as shown by fig (c) above.
From fig. (b) above, circuit we have (for SCR off)
1
VS  i  t  RS  i  t  dt  Vc  0  for t 0 .
C
VS  t  s
Therefore i t   e , where  s  RS CS
RS
Also VT  t   VS  i  t  RS
VS  t  s
VT  t   VS  e RS
RS
t
 t

Therefore VT  t   VS  VS e s
 VS 1  e  s 
 
At t = 0, VT  0   0
At t   s , VT  s   0.632VS
dv VT  s   VT  0  0.632VS
Therefore  
dt s RS CS
43
VS
And RS  .
ITD
ITD is the discharge current of the capacitor.
dv
It is possible to use more than one resistor for and discharging as shown in the
dt
dv
figure (d) below. The is limited by R1 and CS . R1  R2 limits the discharging current
dt
VS
such that ITD 
R1  R2
Fig. (d)
The load can form a series circuit with the snubber network as shown in figure (e) below.
The damping ratio of this second order system consisting RLC network is given as,
 RS  R CS
  , where LS is stray inductance and L, R is load inductance
0 2 LS  L
and resistance respectively.
To limit the peak overshoot applied across the thyristor, the damping ratio should be in the
range of 0.5 to 1. If the load inductance is high, RS can be high and CS can be small to retain
the desired value of damping ratio. A high value of RS will reduce discharge current and a
low value of CS reduces snubber loss. The damping ratio is calculated for a particular circuit
RS and CS can be found.
Fig. (e)
44
di
15. WRITE SHORT NOTE ON OPERATION OF PROTECTION
dt
di
Practical devices must be protected against high . As an example let us consider the
dt
circuit shown above, under steady state operation Dm conducts when thyristor T1 is off. If
di
T1 is fired when Dm is still conducting can be very high and limited only by the stray
dt
di
inductance of the circuit. In practice the is limited by adding a series inductor LS as
dt
di VS
shown in the circuit above. Then the forward  .
dt LS
PROBLEM
1. A UJT is used to trigger the thyristor whose minimum gate triggering voltage is 6.2V,
The UJT ratings are:   0.66 , I p  0.5mA , I v  3mA , RB1  RB 2  5k  , leakage
current = 3.2mA, V p  14v and Vv  1V . Oscillator frequency is 2kHz and capacitor C
= 0.04F. Design the complete circuit.
Solution
 1 
T  RC C ln  
1   
Here,
1 1
T  , since f  2kHz and putting other values,
f 2 103
1  1 
 RC  0.04  10 6 ln    11.6k 
2  10 3
 1  0.66 
The peak voltage is given as, Vp  VBB  VD
45
Let VD  0.8 , then putting other values,
14  0.66VBB  0.8
VBB  20V
The value of R2 is given by
0.7  RB 2  RB1 
R2 
VBB
0.7  5 103 
R2 
0.66  20
 R2  265
Value of R1 can be calculated by the equation
VBB  Ileakage  R1  R2  RB1  RB 2 
20  3.2 103  R1  265  5000 
R1  985
The value of Rc max  is given by equation
VBB  Vp
Rc max  
Ip
20  14
Rc max  
0.5 103
Rc max   12k 
Similarly the value of Rc min  is given by equation
VBB  Vv
Rc min  
Iv
20  1
Rc min  
3 103
Rc min   6.33k 
46
2. Design the UJT triggering circuit for SCR. Given VBB  20V ,   0.6 , I p  10 A ,
Vv  2V , I v  10mA . The frequency of oscillation is 100Hz. The triggering pulse
width should be 50  s .
Solution
1 1
The frequency f = 100Hz, Therefore T  
f 100
 1 
From equation T  Rc C ln  
 1  
Putting values in above equation,
1  1 
 Rc C ln  
100  1  0.6 
 RcC  0.0109135
Let us select C  1 F . Then Rc will be,
0.0109135
Rc min  
1106
Rc min   10.91k  .
The peak voltage is given as,
Vp  VBB  VD
Let VD  0.8 and putting other values,
Vp  0.6  20  0.8  12.8V
The minimum value of Rc can be calculated from
VBB  Vv
Rc min  
Iv
20  2
Rc min    1.8k 
10  10 3
Value of R2 can be calculated from
47
10 4
R2 
VBB
104
R2   833.33
0.6  20
Here the pulse width is give, that is 50s.
Hence, value of R1 will be,
 2  R1C
The width  2  50 sec and C  1 F , hence above equation becomes,
50 106  R1 1106
 R1  50
Thus we obtained the values of components in UJT triggering circuit as,
R1  50 , R2  833.33 , Rc  10.91k  , C  1 F .
GATE TURN-OFF THYRISTORS
A gate-turn-off thyristor (GTO) like an SCR can be turned on by applying a positive gate
signal. However, it can be turned off by a negative gate signal. A GTO is a latching device
and can be built with current and voltage ratings similar to those of an SCR. A GTO is turned
on by applying a short positive pulse and turned off by a short negative pulse to its gate. The
GTOs have advantages over SCRs.
Elimination of commutating components in forced commutation, resulting in reduction in

cost, weight, and volume.
48
Reduction in acoustic and electro-magnetic noise due to the elimination of commutation

chokes.
Faster turn-off permitting high switching frequencies and
Improved efficiency of converters.
In low power applications GTOs have the following advantages over bipolar transistors.
A higher blocking voltage capability.
A high ratio of peak controllable current to average current.
A high ratio of surge peak current to average current, typically 10:1.
A high on-state gain (anode current/gate current), typically 600; and
A pulsed gate signal of short duration.
Under surge conditions, a GTO goes into deeper saturation due to regenerative action. On the
other hand, a bipolar transistor tends to come out of saturation.
A GTO has low gain during turn-off, typically 6, and requires a relatively high negative
current pulse to turn off. It has higher on-state voltage than that of SCRs. The on-state voltage
of typical 550A, 1200V GTO is typically 3.4V.
Controllable peak on-state current ITGQ is the peak value of on-state current which can be
turned off by gate control. The off state voltage is reapplied immediately after turn-off and
the reapplied dv dt is only limited by the snubber capacitance. Once a GTO is turned off, the
load current I L , which is diverted through and charges the snubber capacitor, determines the
reapplied dv dt .
dv I L

dt Cs
Where Cs is the snubber capacitance
49
SWITCHING CHARACTERISTICS OF GTO:
Where,tq=Turn off time

ts=storage time
tf=fall time
tt=tail time
During storage time ts, the negative gate current rises to a particular value and prepares the
GTO for turning off by flushing out the stored carriers. After ts, anode current begins to fall
rapidly and anode voltage starts rising.
As shown in the fig (b) the anode current falls to a certain value and then abruptly changes its
rate of fall. This interval during which anode current falls rapidly is the fall time tf and is of
order 1μsec
At the time t= ts+tf, there is a spike in voltage due to abrupt change in anode current. After tf ,
anode current ia and anode voltage va keep moving towards their turn off values for a time tt
called tail time.
NOTE:
 For V-I Characteristics and Turn ON Switching Characteristics of GTO refer
SCR Characteristics
 Turn ON Switching Characteristics of GTO is same as SCR Turn ON
Characteristics, But TURN OFF Characteristics will be differ
THYRISTOR COMMUTATION TECHNIQUES
50
16. DISCUSS ANY TWO TYPES OF COMMUTATION CIRCUITS USED FOR SCR IN
DETAILS.NOV/DEC-2012, APR/MAY-2011,MAY/JUNE-13
In practice it becomes necessary to turn off a conducting thyristor. (Often thyristors

are used as switches to turn on and off power to the load). The process of turning off a
conducting thyristor is called commutation. The principle involved is that either the anode
should be made negative with respect to cathode (voltage commutation) or the anode current
should be reduced below the holding current value (current commutation).
The reverse voltage must be maintained for a time at least equal to the turn-off time of
SCR otherwise a reapplication of a positive voltage will cause the thyristor to conduct even
without a gate signal. On similar lines the anode current should be held at a value less than
the holding current at least for a time equal to turn-off time otherwise the SCR will start
conducting if the current in the circuit increases beyond the holding current level even
without a gate signal. Commutation circuits have been developed to hasten the turn-off
process of Thyristors. The study of commutation techniques helps in understanding the
transient phenomena under switching conditions.
The reverse voltage or the small anode current condition must be maintained for a
time at least equal to the TURN OFF time of SCR; Otherwise the SCR may again start
conducting. The techniques to turn off a SCR can be broadly classified as
 Natural Commutation
 Forced Commutation.
NATURAL COMMUTATION (CLASS F)

This type of commutation takes place when supply voltage is AC, because a negative
voltage will appear across the SCR in the negative half cycle of the supply voltage and the
SCR turns off by itself. Hence no special circuits are required to turn off the SCR. That is the
reason that this type of commutation is called Natural or Line Commutation. Figure 1.1
shows the circuit where natural commutation takes place and figure 1.2 shows the related
waveforms. tc is the time offered by the circuit within which the SCR should turn off
completely. Thus tc should be greater than tq , the turn off time of the SCR. Otherwise, the
SCR will become forward biased before it has turned off completely and will start conducting
even without a gate signal.
T
+
vs ~  R  vo
Fig. 1.1: Circuit for Natural Commutation
51
Fig. 1.2: Natural Commutation – Waveforms of Supply and Load Voltages (Resistive
Load)
This type of commutation is applied in ac voltage controllers, phase controlled
rectifiers and cyclo converters.
FORCED COMMUTATION
When supply is DC, natural commutation is not possible because the polarity of the
supply remains unchanged. Hence special methods must be used to reduce the SCR current
below the holding value or to apply a negative voltage across the SCR for a time interval
greater than the turn off time of the SCR. This technique is called FORCED
COMMUTATION and is applied in all circuits where the supply voltage is DC - namely,
Choppers (fixed DC to variable DC), inverters (DC to AC). Forced commutation techniques
are as follows:
 Self Commutation
 Resonant Pulse Commutation
 Complementary Commutation
 Impulse Commutation
 External Pulse Commutation.
 Load Side Commutation.
 Line Side Commutation.
52
SELF COMMUTATION OR LOAD COMMUTATION OR CLASS A

COMMUTATION: (COMMUTATION BY RESONATING THE LOAD)
In this type of commutation the current through the SCR is reduced below the holding
current value by resonating the load. i.e., the load circuit is so designed that even though the
supply voltage is positive, an oscillating current tends to flow and when the current through
the SCR reaches zero, the device turns off. This is done by including an inductance and a
capacitor in series with the load and keeping the circuit under-damped. Figure 1.3 shows the
circuit.
This type of commutation is used in Series Inverter Circuit.
T L Vc(0)
i R + -
Load C
Fig. 1.3: Circuit for Self Commutation
C
V
L Current i
t
0 /2 
2V
Capacitor voltage
V
t
Gate pulse
t
t
V
Voltage across SCR
Fig. 1.5: Self Commutation – Wave forms of Current and Capacitors Voltage
53
RESONANT PULSE COMMUTATION (CLASS B COMMUTATION)

The circuit for resonant pulse commutation is shown in figure 1.12.
L
T
i
a
b C
IL
V
Load
FWD
Fig. 1.12: Circuit for Resonant Pulse Commutation

This is a type of commutation in which a LC series circuit is connected across the
SCR. Since the commutation circuit has negligible resistance it is always under-damped i.e.,
the current in LC circuit tends to oscillate whenever the SCR is on.
Initially the SCR is off and the capacitor is charged to V volts with plate ‘a’ being
positive. Referring to figure 1.13 at t  t1 the SCR is turned ON by giving a gate pulse. A
current I L flows through the load and this is assumed to be constant. At the same time SCR
short circuits the LC combination which starts oscillating. A current ‘i’ starts flowing in the
direction shown in figure. As ‘i’ reaches its maximum value, the capacitor voltage reduces to
zero and then the polarity of the capacitor voltage reverses ‘b’ becomes positive). When ‘i’
falls to zero this reverse voltage becomes maximum, and then direction of ‘i’ reverses i.e.,
through SCR the load current I L and ‘i’ flow in opposite direction. When the instantaneous
value of ‘i’ becomes equal to I L , the SCR current becomes zero and the SCR turns off. Now
the capacitor starts charging and its voltage reaches the supply voltage with plate a being
positive.
Gate pulse
of SCR
t
t1 
V
Capacitor voltage
vab
t
tC
Ip i
t

IL 
t
ISCR
Voltage across
SCR
t
Fig. 1.13: Resonant Pulse Commutation – Various Waveforms
54
ALTERNATE CIRCUIT FOR RESONANT PULSE COMMUTATION

The working of the circuit can be explained as follows. The capacitor C is assumed to
be charged to VC  0  with polarity as shown, T1 is conducting and the load current I L is a
constant. To turn off T1 , T2 is triggered. L, C, T1 and T2 forms a resonant circuit. A resonant
current ic  t  flows in the direction shown, i.e., in a direction opposite to that of load current
IL .
C
ic  t  = I p sin  t (refer to the previous circuit description). Where I p  VC  0  &
L
and the capacitor voltage is given by
1
vc  t   iC  t .dt
C
1 C
vc  t    VC  0  sin  t.dt .
C L
vc  t   VC  0  cos  t
T1 iC(t) IL
C L iC(t) T2
ab
 +
VC(0) L
V T3 O
A
FWD D
Fig. 1.16: Resonant Pulse Commutation – An Alternate Circuit
When ic  t  becomes equal to I L (the load current), the current through T1 becomes
zero and T1 turns off. This happens at time t1 such that
t1
I L  I p sin
LC
C
I p  VC  0 
L
55
 I L
t1  LC sin 1  L 
 VC  0  C 
and the corresponding capacitor voltage is
vc  t1   V1  VC  0  cos t1
Once the thyristor T1 turns off, the capacitor starts charging towards the supply
voltage through T2 and load. As the capacitor charges through the load capacitor current is
same as load current I L , which is constant. When the capacitor voltage reaches V, the supply
voltage, the FWD starts conducting and the energy stored in L charges C to a still higher
voltage. The triggering of T3 reverses the polarity of the capacitor voltage and the circuit is
ready for another triggering of T1 . The waveforms are shown in figure 1.17.
EXPRESSION FOR tc
Assuming a constant load current I L which charges the capacitor
CV1
tc  seconds
IL
Normally V1  VC  0 
For reliable commutation tc should be greater than tq , the turn off time of SCR T1 . It is
to be noted that tc depends upon I L and becomes smaller for higher values of load current.
Current iC(t)
V
Capacitor
voltage vab
t
t1
V1
tC
VC(0)
Fig. 1.17: Resonant Pulse Commutation – Alternate Circuit – Various Waveforms

56
RESONANT PULSE COMMUTATION WITH ACCELERATING DIODE

D2
iC(t)
T1 IL
C L iC(t) T2
- +
VC(0)
L
T3 O
V A
FWD D
Fig. 1.17(a)
iC
IL
0 t
VC
0 t
t1 t2
V1
VC(O) tC
Fig. 1.17(b)
A diode D2 is connected as shown in the figure 1.17(a) to accelerate the discharging

of the capacitor ‘C’. When thyristor T2 is fired a resonant current iC  t  flows through the
capacitor and thyristor T1 . At time t  t1 , the capacitor current iC  t  equals the load current I L
and hence current through T1 is reduced to zero resulting in turning off of T1 . Now the
capacitor current iC  t  continues to flow through the diode D2 until it reduces to load current
level I L at time t2 . Thus the presence of D2 has accelerated the discharge of capacitor ‘C’.
Now the capacitor gets charged through the load and the charging current is constant. Once
capacitor is fully charged T2 turns off by itself. But once current of thyristor T1 reduces to
zero the reverse voltage appearing across T1 is the forward voltage drop of D2 which is very
57
small. This makes the thyristor recovery process very slow and it becomes necessary to
provide longer reverse bias time.
From figure 1.17(b)
t2   LC  t1
VC  t2   VC  O  cos t2
Circuit turn-off time tC  t2  t1
17. DISCUSS THE WORKING OF A COMPLEMENTARY COMMUTATION (CLASS

C COMMUTATION, PARALLEL CAPACITOR COMMUTATION)CIRCUIT OF
SCR WITH A NEAT CIRCUIT DIAGRAM AND WAVEFORMS.NOV/DEC-13
In complementary commutation the current can be transferred between two loads.

Two SCRs are used and firing of one SCR turns off the other. The circuit is shown in figure
1.21.
IL
R1 R2
a b iC
V
C
T1 T2
Fig. 1.21: Complementary Commutation

The working of the circuit can be explained as follows.
Initially both T1 and T2 are off; Now, T1 is fired. Load current I L flows through R1 . At
the same time, the capacitor C gets charged to V volts through R2 and T1 (‘b’ becomes
positive with respect to ‘a’). When the capacitor gets fully charged, the capacitor current
ic becomes zero.
To turn off T1 , T2 is fired; the voltage across C comes across T1 and reverse biases it,
hence T1 turns off. At the same time, the load current flows through R2 and T2 . The capacitor
‘C’ charges towards V through R1 and T2 and is finally charged to V volts with ‘a’ plate
positive. When the capacitor is fully charged, the capacitor current becomes zero. To turn off
T2 , T1 is triggered, the capacitor voltage (with ‘a’ positive) comes across T2 and T2 turns off.
The related waveforms are shown in figure
58
Gate pulse Gate pulse

of T1 of T2
t
p
V
IL 2V
V
Current through R1 R1
R1
t
Current through T 1 2V
R2
V
R1
t
2V Current through T2
R1
V
R2
t
V
Voltage across
capacitor v ab
t
-V
tC tC
Voltage across T1
t
tC
IMPULSE COMMUTATION (CLASS D COMMUTATION)

The circuit for impulse commutation is as shown in figure 1.25.
T1 IL

T3 VC(O) C
+
L
L T2 O
V A
FWD D
Fig. 1.25: Circuit for Impulse Commutation

The working of the circuit can be explained as follows. It is assumed that initially the
capacitor C is charged to a voltage VC  O  with polarity as shown. Let the thyristor T1 be
conducting and carry a load current I L . If the thyristor T1 is to be turned off, T2 is fired. The
capacitor voltage comes across T1 , T1 is reverse biased and it turns off. Now the capacitor
starts charging through T2 and the load. The capacitor voltage reaches V with top plate being
positive. By this time the capacitor charging current (current through T2 ) would have reduced
59
to zero and T2 automatically turns off. Now T1 and T2 are both off. Before firing T1 again, the
capacitor voltage should be reversed. This is done by turning on T3 , C discharges through T3
and L and the capacitor voltage reverses. The waveforms are shown in figure
Gate pulse Gate pulse Gate pulse
of T2 of T3 of T1
t
VS
Capacitor
voltage
VC
tC
Voltage across T1
t
VC
Fig. 1.26: Impulse Commutation – Waveforms of Capacitor Voltage, Voltage across T1 .
An alternative circuit for impulse commutation is shown in figure 1.27.
i
T1 +
IT 1 VC(O) C
_
T2
D
V
L
IL
RL
Fig. 1.27: Impulse Commutation – An Alternate Circuit

The working of the circuit can be explained as follows:
Initially let the voltage across the capacitor be VC  O  with the top plate positive.
Now T1 is triggered. Load current flows through T1 and load. At the same time, C discharges
60
through T1 , L and D (the current is ‘i’) and the voltage across C reverses i.e., the bottom plate
becomes positive. The diode D ensures that the bottom plate of the capacitor remains
positive.
To turn off T1 , T2 is triggered; the voltage across the capacitor comes across T1 . T1 is
reverse biased and it turns off (voltage commutation). The capacitor now starts charging
through T2 and load. When it charges to V volts (with the top plate positive), the current
through T2 becomes zero and T2 automatically turns off.
The related waveforms are shown in figure 1.28.
Gate pulse Gate pulse

of T1 of T2
t
VC
Capacitor
voltage
t
V
tC
This is due to i
IT 1
IL
Current through SCR V
RL
t
2V
RL
IL
Load current
V Voltage across T1
tC
Fig. 1.28: Impulse Commutation – (Alternate Circuit) – Various Waveforms
61
EXTERNAL PULSE COMMUTATION (CLASS E COMMUTATION)

T1 T2 L T3
+
VS RL 2VAUX C VAUX

Fig. 1.34: External Pulse Commutation

In this type of commutation an additional source is required to turn-off the conducting
thyristor. Figure 1.34 shows a circuit for external pulse commutation. VS is the main voltage
source and VAUX is the auxiliary supply. Assume thyristor T1 is conducting and load RL is
connected across supply VS . When thyristor T3 is turned ON at t  0 , VAUX , T3 , L and C from
an oscillatory circuit. Assuming capacitor is initially uncharged, capacitor C is now charged
to a voltage 2VAUX with upper plate positive at t   LC . When current through T3 falls to
zero, T3 gets commutated. To turn-off the main thyristor T1 , thyristor T2 is turned ON. Then
T1 is subjected to a reverse voltage equal to VS  2VAUX . This results in thyristor T1 being
turned-off. Once T1 is off capacitor ‘C’ discharges through the load RL
LOAD SIDE COMMUTATION

In load side commutation the discharging and recharging of capacitor takes place
through the load. Hence to test the commutation circuit the load has to be connected.
Examples of load side commutation are Resonant Pulse Commutation and Impulse
Commutation.
LINE SIDE COMMUTATION

In this type of commutation the discharging and recharging of capacitor takes place
through the supply.
L T1
+ IL
T3 +
_C L
FWD O
VS A
Lr D
T2
Fig.: 1.35 Line Side Commutation Circuit
62
Figure 1.35 shows line side commutation circuit. Thyristor T2 is fired to

charge the capacitor ‘C’. When ‘C’ charges to a voltage of 2V, T2 is self commutated. To
reverse the voltage of capacitor to -2V, thyristor T3 is fired and T3 commutates by itself.
Assuming that T1 is conducting and carries a load current I L thyristor T2 is fired to turn off
T1 . The turning ON of T2 will result in forward biasing the diode (FWD) and applying a
reverse voltage of 2V across T1 . This turns off T1 , thus the discharging and recharging of
capacitor is done through the supply and the commutation circuit can be tested without load.
18. EXPLAIN THE OPERATION OF POWER DIODE

 Power diodes are made of silicon p-n junction with two terminals, anode and
cathode.
 P-N junction is formed by alloying, diffusion and epitaxial growth.
 Modern techniques in diffusion and epitaxial processes permit desired device
characteristics.
The diodes have the following advantages
 High mechanical and thermal reliability

 High peak inverse voltage
 Low reverse current
 Low forward voltage drop
 High efficiency
 Compactness
STATIC or V-I CHARACTERISTICS OF POWER DIODES
 Diode is forward biased when anode is made positive with respect to the cathode. Diode
conducts fully when the diode voltage is more than the cut-in voltage (0.7 V for Si).
Conducting diode will have a small voltage drop across it.
 Diode is reverse biased when cathode is made positive with respect to anode. When
reverse biased, a small reverse current known as leakage current flows. This leakage
current increases with increase in magnitude of reverse voltage until avalanche voltage is
reached (breakdown voltage).
Fig: V-I characteristics of DIODE
63
*During forward bias period: forward voltage applied, excess charges stored at P-N
junction, voltage dropped in the device
*During minority carrier storage period: excess charges stored at PN junction
 At high frequency and high current, the dynamic characteristics plays an

important role because it increases power loss and gives rise to large voltage
spikes which may damage the device if proper protection is not given to the
device.
DYNAMIC or SWITCHING CHARACTERISTICS OF POWER SWITCHING
DIODES
Vi
V
+ + - VF
I
Vi RL
0 t
t1
-VR (b)
pn-pn0
at
junction
0 t (C)
VF
IF  I0
RL
0 t
VR (d)
IR 
RL
0 t
t1 t2
Forward Minority Transition
bias carrier interval, t t
storage, ts
(e)
-VR
Fig: Storage & Transition Times during the Diode Switching (a) Simple diode circuit,
(b)Input waveform applied to the diode circuit in (a), (c) The excess-carrier density at the
junction, (d) the diode current, (e) the diode voltage.
64
REVERSE RECOVERY CHARACTERISTIC
The reverse recovery time:

 Minority carriers take some time to recombine with opposite charges and to be
neutralized. This time is called the reverse recovery time
Reverse recovery charge QRR :
 It is the amount of charge carriers that flow across the diode in the reverse direction
due to the change of state from forward conduction to reverse blocking condition.
1 1  1 1
QRR   I RR t1  I RR t2   I RR t RR  QRR  I RR t RR
2 2  2 2
POWER DIODES TYPES

Power diodes can be classified as
 General purpose diodes.
 High speed (fast recovery) diodes.
 Schottky diode.
19. DESIGN THE DRIVER CIRCUIT FOR BJT.

Following points are to be remembered when designing the base circuit for transistor
1. BJT is a cureent controlled device
2. Power BJT is used as on/off switch in power converters
3. Power BJT operates in saturation and cut off when used as switch
4. Sufficient base current is required to drive BJT in saturation
5. Amount of carrier injected in base region determine storage time of BJT
6. Storage time determines turn on and turn off times of BJT
65
7. There should be mechanism to control the amount of saturation so as to control

storage time
Base Drive Control during Turn on
The below figure shows the base drive circuit for turn on of a transistor. Due to this
circuit the ton time is reduced
As shown in this circuit, when base drive VB is applied, the capacitor C1 acts as a short.
Hence R2 is virtually by passes. Therefore an initial value of base current is only limited by
R1 and it is given by
This heavy base current drives transistor into saturation for quick turn o. Once the transistor
is turned on, there is no need of such large base current. This is taken care of by R2C1 circuit.
The capacitor C1 starts charging and base current starts falling. This is shown in the graph.
Observe that there is peaking of base current at the beginning of turn on. Then the current
reduces to
University questions
66
Two marks
1. Why igbt is very popular nowadays? May/june-2012
2. what are the different methods to turn on the thyristor?apr/may-2011
3. Define latching current. Nov/dec-2012,15, may/june-14
4. What are the advantages of gto over scr? Nov/dec-2009,15
5. What are the drawbacks of gto? Nov/dec-2012
6. what is pinch off voltage?may/june-2012
7. What is a snubber circuit? (or)what is the use of snubber circuit? May/june-13,nov/dec-13
8. list the various forced commutation techniques used to turn off scr. Nov/dec-13
9. What is the limitations of high frequency operation of a power electronics devices?
May/june-2013
10. Define holding current. May/june-14,nov/dec-15
11. Compare power mosfet and bjt .may/june-2014
12. Distinguish between scr and triac nov / dec-2014
13. What is meant by current commutation? Nov / dec-2014
14. Draw triac characteristic.april/may-2015.
15. Draw switching times characteristic of bjt. April/may-2015.
16. Define latching current and holding current? May/june-16
17. What is the function of free wheeling diode? May/june-16
18. Draw the two transistor model of scr may/june-16
Part-b
1. triggering modes of triac (or) explain why triac is rarely operated in i quadrant with –ve gate
current and in iii quadrant with +ve gate current.may/june-2012,nov/dec-2015.pg.no:9
2. Explain the construction, operation & static characteristics of insulated gate bipolar transistor
(igbt).nov/dec-2012 ,apr/may-2015 (or)
Describe the basic structure of igbt and explain its working. Nov/dec 2013.pg.no:18
3. draw and explain switching characteristic of igbt nov/dec-2012,apr/may-2011, nov/dec-2009,
nov/dec-2013, apr/may-2015.pg.no:19
4. Draw and explain the v-i characteristics of thyristor.(or) discuss the different modes of
operation of thyristor with the help of its static v-i characteristics.may/june-2012,nov/dec-
2009.pg.no:22
5. draw and explain switching characteristics (dynamic characteristics) of scr.nov/dec-13 (or)

sketch the dynamic characteristics of a thyristor during its turn-on and turn-off
process.discuss briefly the nature of these curves.may/june-13,nov/dec-15. .pg.no:25
67
6. discuss various gate triggering methods of scr (or) describe driver circuit for mosfet and
igbt.may/june-2012. .pg.no:29
dv
7. Explain the operation of protection (or) describe snubber circuit for mosfet and
dt
igbt.may/june-2012, apr/may-2011 (or)snubber circuit for an scr should primarily consists of
capacitor only.but in practice a resistor is used in series with the capacitor.why?-discuss.
may/june-2013. .pg.no:37
8. discuss any two types of commutation circuits used for scr in details.nov/dec-2012, apr/may-
2011,may/june-13.pg.no:43
9. discuss the working of a complementary commutation (class c commutation, parallel
capacitor commutation)circuit of scr with a neat circuit diagram and waveforms.nov/dec-
13.pg.no:51
10. Discuss the static characteristics of mosfet.nov/dec-2014.pg.no:14
11. explain the switching characteristics of power mosfet. May/june-2014,nov/dec-2014
,apr/may-2015 .pg.no:17
12. explain the construction, operation & static characteristics of insulated gate bipolar transistor
(igbt).nov/dec-2012, nov/dec-2014 .pg.no:18
13. Draw and explain switching characteristic of igbt nov/dec-2012,apr/may-2011, nov/dec-2009,
nov/dec-2013, nov/dec-2014. Pg.no:19
14. Draw and explain the v-i characteristics of thyristor(scr).(or) discuss the different modes of
operation of thyristor with the help of its static v-i characteristics.may/june-2012,nov/dec-
2009, may/june-2014 .pg.no:22
15. explain the operation of scr using two transistor analogy. May/june-2014, may/june-2016
pg.no:23
16. discuss different turn–on methods of scr with its turn-on characteristics. Nov/dec-14
.pg.no:25
17. briefly explain about the power mosfet protection circuits. May/june-2014 pg.no:37
18. Explain the construction, operation & static characteristics of triac? Nov/dec-2015. May/june-
2016 pg. No:9, q:2
68
POWER ELECTRONICS-EE6503 - UNIT-II
TWO MARKS
1. What is meant by phase controlled rectifier?
It converts fixed ac voltage into variable dc voltage.
2. Mention some of the applications of controlled rectifier. NOV/DEC-2015
a. Steel rolling mills, printing press, textile mills and paper mills employing dc motor drives.
b. DC traction
c. Electro chemical and electro-metallurgical process
d. Portable hand tool drives
e. Magnet power supplies
f. HVDC
3. What is the function (application) of freewheeling diodes in controlled rectifier?
(APR/MAY-17,18))(Nov/Dec 2016),(APR/MAY-16)
It serves two processes.
a. It prevents the output voltage from becoming negative.
b. The load current is transferred from the main thyristors to the freewheeling diode, thereby
allowing all of its thyristors to regain their blocking states.
4. What are the advantages of freewheeling diodes in a controlled in a controlled rectifier?
(Nov/Dec 2016)
a. Input power factor is improved.
b. Load current waveform is improved and thus the load performance is better.
5. What is meant by delay angle?(or)What is meant by phase control. (APR/MAY-2017),(Nov/
Dec 2014)
The delay angle is defined as the angle between the zero crossing of the input voltage and the
instant the Thyristor is fired.
6. What are the advantages of single phase bridge converter over single phase mid-point
converter?
1
a. SCRs are subjected to a peak-inverse voltage of 2Vm in a fully controlled bridge rectifier.
Hence for same voltage and current ratings of SCRs, power handled by mid-point
configuration is about
b. In mid-point converter, each secondary winding should be able to supply the load power. As
such, the transformer rating in mid-point converter is double the load rating.
7. What is commutation angle or overlap angle?NOV/DEC-2015
The commutation period when outgoing and incoming thyristors are conducting is known as
overlap period. The angular period, when both devices share conduction is known as the
commutation angle or overlap angle.
8. What are the different methods of firing circuits for line commutated converter?
a. UJT firing circuit.
b. The cosine wave crossing pulse timing control.
c. Digital firing schemes.
9. Give an expression for average voltage of single phase semiconverters.
Average output voltage Vdc = (Vm / π) (1 + cos α ).
10. What is meant by input power factor in controlled rectifier?
The input power factor is defined as the ratio of the total mean input power to the total RMS
input volt-amperes. PF = ( V1 I1 cos φ1 ) / ( Vrms Irms) where V1 = phase voltage, I1 =
fundamental component of the supply current, φ1 = inputdisplacement angle, Irms = supply
rms current.
11. What are the advantages of six pulse converter?
a. Commutation is made simple.
b. Distortion on the ac side is reduced due to the reduction in lower order harmonics.
c. Inductance reduced in series is considerably reduced.
12. What is the inversion mode rectifier.NOV/DEC- 2012, MAY/JUNE-2012
When the alpha (delay angle) value varies from 900 to 1800,then the rectifier is said to operate
in inversion mode.
13. What is dual converter? Mention its functional mode of operation. APR/MAY-2011,
MAY/JUNE 2014
2
Dual convertor means it converts ac to dc and again it converts dc to ac this phenomenon of

converting two types of signal are in the same circuit is called as dual converter
There are two modes of operations possible for a dual converter system.
 Non circulating current mode of operation (circulating current free mode of operation).
 Circulating current mode of operation.
14. Why the power factor of semi converter is better than full converter?NOV/DEC-2012,
NOV/DEC-2014
Because semi converter has only 2 Thyristor where else full converter has 4 thyristors. In
semi converter the rectification is through rectifier and diodes. But in full converter no diodes is
used only 4 thyristors are used.
15. Define THD.MAY/JUNE-2012
The total harmonic distortion, or THD, of a signal is a measurement of the
harmonicdistortion present and is defined as the ratio of the sum of the powers of all harmonic
components to the power of the fundamental frequency.
16. Effect of Source and Load Inductance.NOV/DEC-2009APR/MAY-16(or)
What is the effect of source impedance on the performance of converter?APR/MAY-15
In choppers, the source inductance should be as small as possible to limit the transient voltage.
Usually an input filter is used to overcome the problem of source inductance. Also source
inductance may cause commutation problem for the chopper. The load ripple current is inversely
proportional to load inductance and chopping frequency. Therefore the peak load current
depends on load inductance. To limit the load ripple current, a smoothing inductor is connected
in series with the load.
17. What is Displacement factor for two pulse converter? MAY/JUNE-2013
The displacement factor is defined as the cosine of the displacement angle.
DF  Cos
18. What is circuit turn-off time for single phase full converter?MAY/JUNE-2013
It is defined as the time during which a reverse voltage is applied across
theThyristor during its commutation process.
19. Mention the disadvantages of dual converter with circulating current mode of
operation.NOV/DEC-13
The disadvantage of the circulating current mode of operation is that a current flows
continuously in the dual converter circuit even at times when the load current is zero. Hence we
should connect current limiting inductors (reactors) in order to limit the peak circulating current
within specified value. The circulating current flowing through the series inductors gives rise to
increased power losses, due to dc voltage drop across the series inductors which decreases the
3
efficiency. Also the power factor of operation is low. The current limiting series inductors are
heavier and bulkier which increases the cost and weight of the dual converter system.
20. In a single phase full wave rectifier supply is 200 V AC. The load resistance is 10 ,
  600 . Find the average voltage across the load and the power consumed in the load.
NOV/DEC-13
Solution
In a single phase full wave rectifier
V
Vdc  m 1  cos  

200  2
Vdc 

1  cos 60 
0
Vdc  135 Volts
21. Compare half controlled rectifier and full controlled rectifier . MAY/JUNE 2014,18
S.NO. Half controlled rectifier Fully controlled rectifier
1. This consist of half number SCR and This consist of all SCRs as controlled
half number of diodes devices
2. This operates in only one quadrant This can operate in two quadrants
3. Output voltage is always positive Ouput voltage can be negative in case
of inductive loads
4. Inherent free-wheeling action is External free-wheeling diode is to be
present connected for free-wheeling
5. Power factor is better Power factor is poor than half converter
6. Inversion is not possible Inversion is possible
7. Used for battery chargers, lighting and Used for DC motor drives
heater control
22. Draw circuit and waveform of ideal dual converter. APRIL/MAY-2015
4
23. Classify the different types of controlled rectifier. (Nov/Dec 2016)
According to input supply

(a) Single Phase Controlled Rectifier
(b) Three Phase Controlled Rectifier
According to quadrant of operation

(a) Semi converter
(b) Full converter
(c) Dual converter
According to no. of pulses per cycle

(a) One pulse converter
i. Single phase half-wave controlled rectifier
(b) Two pulse converter
i. Single phase half-controlled rectifier
ii. Single phase fully-controlled rectifier
(c) Three pulse converter
i. Three phase half-wave controlled rectifier
ii. Three phase half controlled rectifier
(d) Six pulse converter
i. Three phase fully-controlled rectifier
5
(e) Twelve Pulse Converter

24.Distinguish between syrnmetric and asyrmmetric semiconductor
configuration.Nov/Dec-17
(a)average and RMS thyristor current in symmetrical configuration is higher. So
SCR current rating should be higher in symmetrical configuration.
(b)average and RMS diode current in asymmetrical configuration is higher. So
diode current rating should be higher in asymmetrical configuration.
Another obvious difference operation-wise is that the freewheeling path
in symmetrical configuration is through a (thyristor-diode) combination and
in asymmetrical configuration is through a (diode-diode) combination. This is because during
freewheeling, devices belonging to the same leg will conduct in both configurations.
25.Define Input Power Factor.Nov/Dec-17

Power factor is defined as the cosine of the angle between voltage and current in an AC
circuit. If the circuit is inductive, the current lags behind the voltage and power factor is
referred to as lagging. However, in a capacitive circuit, current leads the voltage and the power
factor is said to be leading.
VS I S 1 I
PF  cos   S 1 cos 
VS I S IS
INTRODUCTION
Controlled rectifiers are line commutated ac to dc power converters which are used to
convert a fixed voltage, fixed frequency ac power supply into variable dc output voltage.
+
AC Line DC Output
Input Commutated V0(dc )
Voltage Converter
-
Type of input: Fixed voltage, fixed frequency ac power supply.

Type of output: Variable dc output voltage
The input supply fed to a controlled rectifier is ac supply at a fixed rms voltage and at a
fixed frequency. We can obtain variable dc output voltage by using controlled rectifiers. By
employing phase controlled thyristors in the controlled rectifier circuits we can obtain variable
dc output voltage and variable dc (average) output current by varying the trigger angle (phase
angle) at which the thyristors are triggered. We obtain a uni-directional and pulsating load
current waveform, which has a specific average value.
6
The thyristors are forward biased during the positive half cycle of input supply and can
be turned ON by applying suitable gate trigger pulses at the thyristor gate leads. The thyristor
current and the load current begin to flow once the thyristors are triggered (turned ON) say at
t   . The load current flows when the thyristors conduct from t   to  . The output
voltage across the load follows the input supply voltage through the conducting thyristor. At
 t   , when the load current falls to zero, the thyristors turn off due to AC line (natural)
commutation.
In some bridge controlled rectifier circuits the conducting thyristor turns off, when the
other thyristor is (other group of thyristors are) turned ON.
The thyristor remains reverse biased during the negative half cycle of input supply. The
type of commutation used in controlled rectifier circuits is referred to AC line commutation or
Natural commutation or AC phase commutation.
When the input ac supply voltage reverses and becomes negative during the negative half cycle,
the thyristor becomes reverse biased and hence turns off. There are several types of power
converters which use ac line commutation. These are referred to as line commutated converters.
Different types of line commutated converters are
 Phase controlled rectifiers which are AC to DC converters.
 AC to AC converters
 AC voltage controllers, which convert input ac voltage into variable ac output voltage at
the same frequency.
 Cyclo converters, which give low output frequencies.All these power converters operate
from ac power supply at a fixed rms input supply voltage and at a fixed input supplyfrequency.
Hence they use ac line commutation for turning off the thyristors after they have been triggered
ON by the gating signals.
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN DIODE RECTIFIERS AND PHASE CONTROLLED

RECTIFIERS
The diode rectifiers are referred to as uncontrolled rectifiers which make use of power
semiconductor diodes to carry the load current. The diode rectifiers give a fixed dc output
voltage (fixed average output voltage) and each diode rectifying element conducts for one half
cycle duration (T/2 seconds), that is the diode conduction angle = 1800 or  radians.
A single phase half wave diode rectifier gives (under ideal conditions) an average dc output
V
voltage VO  dc   m and single phase full wave diode rectifier gives (under ideal conditions) an

7
2Vm
average dc output voltage VO dc   , where Vm is maximum value of the available ac supply

voltage.
Thus we note that we can not control (we can not vary) the dc output voltage or the
average dc load current in a diode rectifier circuit.
In a phase controlled rectifier circuit we use a high current and a high power thyristor
device (silicon controlled rectifier; SCR) for conversion of ac input power into dc output power.
Phase controlled rectifier circuits are used to provide a variable voltage output dc and a
variable dc (average) load current.
We can control (we can vary) the average value (dc value) of the output load voltage (and
hence the average dc load current) by varying the thyristor trigger angle.
We can control the thyristor conduction angle  from 1800 to 00 by varying the trigger angle 
from 00 to 1800, where thyristor conduction angle      
CLASSIFICATION OF PHASE CONTROLLED RECTIFIERS
The phase controlled rectifiers can be classified based on the type of input power supply as
 Single Phase Controlled Rectifiers which operate from single phase ac input power
supply.
 Three Phase Controlled Rectifiers which operate from three phase ac input power supply.
DIFFERENT TYPES OF SINGLE PHASE CONTROLLED RECTIFIERS
Single Phase Controlled Rectifiers are further subdivided into different types
 Half wave controlled rectifier which uses a single thyristor device (which provides output
control only in one half cycle of input ac supply, and it provides low dc output).
 Full wave controlled rectifiers(which provide higher dc output)
o Full wave controlled rectifier using a center tapped transformer (which requires
two thyristors).
o Full wave bridge controlled rectifiers (which do not require a center tapped
transformer)
 Single phase semi-converter (half controlled bridge converter, using two
SCR’s and two diodes, to provide single quadrant operation).
 Single phase full converter (fully controlled bridge converter which
requires four SCR’s, to provide two quadrant operation).
Three Phase Controlled Rectifiers are of different types
 Three phase half wave controlled rectifiers.
 Three phase full wave controlled rectiriers.
o Semi converter (half controlled bridge converter).
o Full converter (fully controlled bridge converter).
o
8
PART-B
1. Explain the operation of Single Phase Half-Wave converter with neat
waveforms.
The basic principle of operation of a phase controlled rectifier circuit is explained with reference
to a single phase half wave phase controlled rectifier circuit with a resistive load shown in the
figure.
R  RL  Load Resistance
Fig.: Single Phase Half-Wave Thyristor Converter with a Resistive Load
A single phase half wave thyristor converter which is used for ac-dc power conversion is shown
in the above figure. The input ac supply is obtained from a main supply transformer to provide
the desired ac supply voltage to the thyristor converter depending on the output dc voltage
required. v P represents the primary input ac supply voltage. vS represents the secondary ac
supply voltage which is the output of the transformer secondary.
During the positive half cycle of input supply when the upper end of the transformer secondary is
at a positive potential with respect to the lower end, the thyristor anode is positive with respect
to its cathode and the thyristor is in a forward biased state. The thyristor is triggered at a delay
angle of t   , by applying a suitable gate trigger pulse to the gate lead of thyristor. When the
thyristor is triggered at a delay angle of t   , the thyristor conducts and assuming an ideal
thyristor, the thyristor behaves as a closed switch and the input supply voltage appears across the
load when the thyristor conducts from t   to  radians. Output voltage vO  vS , when the
thyristor conducts from  t   to  .
For a purely resistive load, the load current iO (output current) that flows when the thyristor T1 is
on, is given by the expression
v
iO  O , for    t  
RL
The output load current waveform is similar to the output load voltage waveform during
the thyristor conduction time from  to  . The output current and the output voltage waveform
9
are in phase for a resistive load. The load current increases as the input supply voltage increases

and the maximum load current flows at  t  , when the input supply voltage is at its
2
maximum value.
The maximum value (peak value) of the load current is calculated as
V
iO max   I m  m .
RL
Note that when the thyristor conducts ( T1 is on) during  t   to  , the thyristor current
iT 1 , the load current iO through RL and the source current iS flowing through the transformer
secondary winding are all one and the same.
Hence we can write
v V sin  t
iS  iT 1  iO  O  m ; for    t  
R R
I m is the maximum (peak) value of the load current that flows through the transformer

secondary winding, through T1 and through the load resistor RL at the instant  t  , when the
2
input supply voltage reaches its maximum value.
When the input supply voltage decreases the load current decreases. When the supply
voltage falls to zero at t   , the thyristor and the load current also falls to zero at t   .
Thus the thyristor naturally turns off when the current flowing through it falls to zero at t   .
During the negative half cycle of input supply when the supply voltage reverses and becomes
negative during t   to 2 radians, the anode of thyristor is at a negative potential with
respect to its cathode and as a result the thyristor is reverse biased and hence it remains cut-off
(in the reverse blocking mode). The thyristor cannot conduct during its reverse biased state
between t   to 2 . An ideal thyristor under reverse biased condition behaves as an open
switch and hence the load current and load voltage are zero during t   to 2 . The maximum
or peak reverse voltage that appears across the thyristor anode and cathode terminals is Vm .
The trigger angle  (delay angle or the phase angle  ) is measured from the beginning of each
positive half cycle to the time instant when the gate trigger pulse is applied. The thyristor
conduction angle is from  to  , hence the conduction angle       . The maximum
conduction angle is  radians (1800) when the trigger angle   0 .
10
Fig: Quadrant Diagram
The waveforms shows the input ac supply voltage across the secondary winding of the
transformer which is represented as vS , the output voltage across the load, the output (load)
current, and the thyristor voltage waveform that appears across the anode and cathode terminals.
Fig: Waveforms of single phase half-wave controlled rectifier with resistive load
EQUATIONS
vs  Vm sin t  the ac supply voltage across the transformer secondary.
Vm  max. (peak) value of input ac supply voltage across transformer secondary.
Vm
VS   RMS value of input ac supply voltage across transformer secondary.
2
vO  vL  the output voltage across the load ; iO  iL  output (load) current.

When the thyristor is triggered at t   (an ideal thyristor behaves as a closed switch)
and hence the output voltage follows the input supply voltage.
11
vO  vL  Vm sin t ; for  t   to  , when the thyristor is on.

vO
= Load current for  t   to  , when the thyristor is on.
iO  iL 
R
TO DERIVE AN EXPRESSION FOR THE AVERAGE (DC) OUTPUT VOLTAGE
ACROSS THE LOAD
If Vm is the peak input supply voltage, the average output voltage Vdc can be found from

1
vO .d t 
2 
VO dc   Vdc 

1
Vm sin  t.d t 
2 

1
Vm sin t.d t 
2 
VO dc  

Vm
sin  t.d  t 
2 
VO dc  

V  
VO dc   m   cos  t 
2  
Vm
VO dc     cos   cos   ; cos   1
2
Vm
VO dc   1  cos   ; Vm  2VS
2
The maximum average (dc) output voltage is obtained when   0 and the maximum dc output
V
voltage Vdc max   Vdm  m .

The average dc output voltage can be varied by varying the trigger angle  from 0 to a
maximum of 1800  radians  .
We can plot the control characteristic, which is a plot of dc output voltage versus the trigger
angle  by using the equation for VO dc  .
12
TO DERIVE AN EXPRESSION FOR THE RMS VALUE OF OUTPUT VOLTAGE OF A

SINGLE PHASE HALF WAVE CONTROLLED RECTIFIER WITH RESISTIVE LOAD
The rms output voltage is given by

 1 2 2 
VO RMS     vO .d  t  
 2 0 
Output voltage vO  Vm sin  t ; for  t   to 
1
 1  2
VO RMS     Vm2 sin 2  t.d  t  
 2  
1  cos 2 t
By substituting sin 2  t  , we get
2
1
 1 
1  cos 2t  .d t  2
VO RMS     Vm2  
 2  2 
1
2 
V  2
VO RMS   
 4
m
 1  cos 2t  .d t 

1
V  2  
 2
VO RMS      d t    cos 2t.d t  
m
 4   
1
V 1  
 sin 2 t   2 
VO RMS   m   t    
2      2   
1
V 1   sin 2  sin 2   2 ;
VO RMS   m          sin 2  0
2    2  
Hence we get,
1
Vm  1  sin 2   2
VO RMS          
2   2  
1
V  sin 2  2
VO RMS   m       
2   2 
13
PERFORMANCE PARAMETERS OF PHASE CONTROLLED RECTIFIERS
Output dc power (average or dc output power delivered to the load)
PO dc   VO dc   IO dc  ; i.e., Pdc  Vdc  I dc

Where
VO dc   Vdc  average or dc value of output (load) voltage.
I O dc   I dc  average or dc value of output (load) current.
Output ac power
PO ac   VO RMS   IO RMS 
Efficiency of Rectification (Rectification Ratio)

PO dc  PO dc 
Efficiency   ; % Efficiency   100
PO ac  PO ac 
The output voltage can be considered as being composed of two components
 The dc component VO dc  = DC or average value of output voltage.
 The ac component or the ripple component Vac  Vr  rms   RMS value of all the ac
ripple components.
The total RMS value of output voltage is given by
VO RMS   VO2 dc   Vr2 rms 
Therefore
Vac  Vr  rms   VO2 RMS   VO2 dc 
Form Factor (FF) which is a measure of the shape of the output voltage is given by
VO RMS  RMS output  load  voltage

FF  
VO dc  DC output  load  voltage
The Ripple Factor (RF) which is a measure of the ac ripple content in the output voltage
waveform. The output voltage ripple factor defined for the output voltage waveform is given by
14
Vr  rms  Vac
rv  RF  
VO dc  Vdc
2
VO2 RMS   VO2 dc  VO RMS  
rv     1
VO dc   VO dc  
Therefore
rv  FF 2  1
Current Ripple Factor defined for the output (load) current waveform is given by
I r  rms  I ac
ri  
I O dc  I dc
Where I r  rms   I ac  I O2  RMS   IO2  dc 

Sometimes the peak to peak output ripple voltage is also considered to express the peak to peak
output ripple voltage as
Vr  pp   peak to peak ac ripple output voltage

The peak to peak ac ripple load current is the difference between the maximum and the
minimum values of the output load current.
I r  pp   IO max   IO min 
Transformer Utilization Factor (TUF)
PO dc 
TUF 
VS  I S
Where
VS  RMS value of transformer secondary output voltage (RMS supply voltage at the
secondary)
I S  RMS value of transformer secondary current (RMS line or supply current).
15
vS  Supply voltage at the transformer secondary side .

iS  Input supply current (transformer secondary winding current) .
iS1  Fundamental component of the input supply current .
I P  Peak value of the input supply current .
  Phase angle difference between (sine wave components) the fundamental
components of input supply current and the input supply voltage.
  Displacement angle (phase angle)
For an RL load   Displacement angle = Load impedance angle

L 
   tan 1   for an RL load
 R 
Displacement Factor (DF) or Fundamental Power Factor
DF  Cos
Harmonic Factor (HF) or Total Harmonic Distortion Factor (THD)
The harmonic factor is a measure of the distortion in the output waveform and is also
referred to as the total harmonic distortion (THD)
1 1
I  I 
2 2  I 
2
2
 2
HF        1
S S1 S
 I S 1  
2
 I S1 
Where
I S  RMS value of input supply current.
I S1  RMS value of fundamental component of the input supply current.
Input Power Factor (PF)
16
VS I S 1 I
PF  cos   S 1 cos 
VS I S IS
The Crest Factor (CF)
I S  peak  Peak input supply current
CF  
IS RMS input supply current
For an Ideal Controlled Rectifier
FF  1 ; which means that VO RMS   VO dc  .
Efficiency   100% ; which means that PO dc   PO ac  .
Vac  Vr  rms   0 ; so that RF  rv  0 ; Ripple factor = 0 (ripple free converter).
TUF  1 ; which means that PO dc   VS  I S

HF  THD  0 ; which means that I S  I S 1
PF  DPF  1 ; which means that   0
2. Explain the operation of single phase half wave controlled rectifier with an RL load
with neat waveforms
In this section we will discuss the operation and performance of a single phase half wave
controlled rectifier with RL load. In practice most of the loads are of RL type. For example if we
consider a single phase controlled rectifier controlling the speed of a dc motor, the load which is
the dc motor winding is an RL type of load, where R represents the motor winding resistance and
L represents the motor winding inductance.
A single phase half wave controlled rectifier circuit with an RL load using a thyristor T1 (
T1 is an SCR) is shown in the figure below.
17
The thyristor T1 is forward biased during the positive half cycle of input supply. Let us
assume that T1 is triggered at t   , by applying a suitable gate trigger pulse to T1 during the
positive half cycle of input supply. The output voltage across the load follows the input supply
voltage when T1 is ON. The load current iO flows through the thyristor T1 and through the load in
the downward direction. This load current pulse flowing through T1 can be considered as the
positive current pulse. Due to the inductance in the load, the load current iO flowing through T1
would not fall to zero at t   , when the input supply voltage starts to become negative. A
phase shift appears between the load voltage and the load current waveforms, due to the load
inductance.
The thyristor T1 will continue to conduct the load current until all the inductive energy stored in
the load inductor L is completely utilized and the load current through T1 falls to zero at  t   ,
where  is referred to as the Extinction angle, (the value of t ) at which the load current falls
to zero. The extinction angle  is measured from the point of the beginning of the positive half
cycle of input supply to the point where the load current falls to zero.
The thyristor T1 conducts from t   to  . The conduction angle of T1 is        ,
which depends on the delay angle  and the load impedance angle  . The waveforms of the
input supply voltage, the gate trigger pulse of T1 , the thyristor current, the load current and the
load voltage waveforms appear as shown in the figure below.
18
i1  iO  iS
Fig.: Input supply voltage & Thyristor current waveforms

 is the extinction angle which depends upon the load inductance value.
Fig.: Output (load) voltage waveform of a single phase half wave controlled rectifier with
RL load
From  to 2 , the thyristor remains cut-off as it is reverse biased and behaves as an open
switch. The thyristor current and the load current are zero and the output voltage also remains at
zero during the non conduction time interval between  to 2 . In the next cycle the thyristor is
triggered again at a phase angle of  2    , and the same operation repeats.
TO DERIVE AN EXPRESSION FOR THE OUTPUT (INDUCTIVE LOAD) CURRENT,

DURING  t   to  WHEN THYRISTOR T1 CONDUCTS
Considering sinusoidal input supply voltage we can write the expression for the supply
voltage as
vS  Vm sin  t = instantaneous value of the input supply voltage.
Let us assume that the thyristor T1 is triggered by applying the gating signal to T1 at
t   . The load current which flows through the thyristor T1 during t   to  can be found
from the equation
19
 di 
L  O   RiO  Vm sin  t ;
 dt 
The solution of the above differential equation gives the general expression for the output
load current which is of the form
t
Vm
iO  sin  t     A1e  ;
Z
Where Vm  2VS = maximum or peak value of input supply voltage.
Z  R 2   L  = Load impedance.
2
L 
  tan 1   = Load impedance angle (power factor angle of load).
 R 
L

= Load circuit time constant.
R
Therefore the general expression for the output load current is given by the equation
R
Vm
sin  t     A1e L ;
t
iO 
Z
The value of the constant A1 can be determined from the initial condition. i.e. initial value
of load current iO  0 , at t   . Hence from the equation for iO equating iO to zero and
substituting t   , we get
R
Vm
sin      A1e L
t
iO  0 
Z
R
Vm
sin    
t
Therefore A1e L 
Z
1  Vm 
A1  R Z sin     
Lt 
e
R
 Vm 
 Z sin     
t
A1  e L
 
R  t 
 Vm 
A1  e  Z sin     
L
 
By substituting t   , we get the value of constant A1 as
R  
 V 
A1  e  L  m sin     
 Z 
20
Substituting the value of constant A1 from the above equation into the expression for iO , we
obtain
R   R
Vm  V 
sin  t     e L e  L  m sin      ;
t
iO 
Z  Z 
 R  t  R 
Vm  V 
iO  sin  t     e L
e  L  m sin     
Z  Z 
R
Vm  t    Vm 
iO  sin  t     e L  sin     
Z  Z 
Therefore we obtain the final expression for the inductive load current of a single phase half
wave controlled rectifier with RL load as
V  R
 t   
iO  m sin  t     sin     e Where    t   .
L
 ;
Z  
The above expression also represents the thyristor current iT 1 , during the conduction time
interval of thyristor T1 from  t   to  .
TO CALCULATE EXTINCTION ANGLE 

The extinction angle  , which is the value of t at which the load current iO falls
to zero and T1 is turned off can be estimated by using the condition that iO  0 , at  t  
By using the above expression for the output load current, we can write
Vm  R
    
iO  0   sin       sin     e L

Z  
Vm
As  0 , we can write
Z
 R
    
 sin       sin     e L
0
 
Therefore we obtain the expression
R
   
sin       sin     e L
The extinction angle  can be determined from this transcendental equation by using the
iterative method of solution (trial and error method). After  is calculated, we can determine the
thyristor conduction angle        .
21
 is the extinction angle which depends upon the load inductance value. Conduction angle 
increases as  is decreased for a specific value of  .
Conduction angle        ; for a purely resistive load or for an RL load when the load
inductance L is negligible the extinction angle    and the conduction angle      
Equations
vs  Vm sin  t  Input supply voltage
vO  vL  Vm sin  t  Output load voltage for  t   to  ,when the thyristor T1

conducts ( T1 is on).
Expression for the load current(thyristor current): for  t   to 
V  R
 t   
iO  m  sin   t     sin     e L
 ; Where    t   .
Z  
Extinction angle  can be calculated using the equation

R
   
sin       sin     e L
TO DERIVE AN EXPRESSION FOR AVERAGE (DC) LOAD VOLTAGE
2
1
VO dc   VL 
2  v .d t 
0
O
1  
  2
VO dc   VL    vO .d t    vO .d t    vO .d t   ;
2  0   
vO  0 for t  0 to  & for  t   to 2 ;

1  
 VO dc   VL    vO .d  t   ; vO  Vm sin  t for  t   to 
2  
22

1  
VO dc   VL    Vm sin  t.d  t  
2  

Vm   Vm
VO dc   VL    cos  t   cos   cos  
2   2
Vm
 VO dc   VL   cos   cos  
2
Note: During the period  t   to  , we can see from the output load voltage waveform that the
instantaneous output voltage is negative and this reduces the average or the dc output voltage
when compared to a purely resistive load.
Average DC Load Current
VO dc  V
I O dc   I L Avg    m  cos   cos  
RL 2 RL
3. Explain the operation of single phase half wave controlled rectifier with RL load and
freewheeling diode with neat waveforms.MAY/JUNE-2013
T
i0
+
V0
+ R
Vs

~ FWD
L

Fig. : Single Phase Half Wave Controlled Rectifier with RL Load and Free Wheeling
Diode (FWD)
With a RL load it was observed that the average output voltage reduces. This disadvantage can
be overcome by connecting a diode across the load as shown in figure. The diode is called as a
Free Wheeling Diode (FWD). The waveforms are shown below.
23
Vs Vm
Supply voltage
0    t

iG
Gate pulses -V m
0 t

iO Load current

t=
0 t
   
 2
VO Load voltage
0    t

At t   , the source voltage vS falls to zero and as vS becomes negative, the freewheeling
diode is forward biased. The stored energy in the inductance maintains the load current flow
through R, L, and the FWD. Also, as soon as the FWD is forward biased, at t   , the SCR
becomes reverse biased, the current through it becomes zero and the SCR turns off. During the
period  t   to  , the load current flows through FWD (free wheeling load current) and
decreases exponentially towards zero at  t   .
Also during this freewheeling time period the load is shorted by the conducting FWD and the
load voltage is almost zero, if the forward voltage dropacross the conducting FWD is neglected.
Thus there is no negative region in the load voltage wave form. This improves the average output
voltage.
V
The average output voltage Vdc  m 1  cos   , which is the same as that of a purely resistive
2
load. The output voltage across the load appears similar to the output voltage of a purely resistive
load.
The following points are to be noted.
24
 If the inductance value is not very large, the energy stored in the inductance is able to
maintain the load current only upto  t   , where     2 , well before the next gate
pulse and the load current tends to become discontinuous.
 During the conduction period  to  , the load current is carried by the SCR and during
the free wheeling period  to  , the load current is carried by the free wheeling diode.
 The value of  depends on the value of R and L and the forward resistance of the FWD.
Generally     2 .
If the value of the inductance is very large, the load current does not decrease to zero during the
free wheeling time interval and the load current waveform appears as shown in the figure.
i0
t1 t2 t3 t4
SCR FWD SCR FWD

0
 t
  2 
Fig. : Waveform of Load Current in Single Phase Half Wave Controlled Rectifier
with a Large Inductance and FWD
During the periods t1 , t3 ,..... the SCR carries the load current and during the periods t2 , t4 ,..... the
FWD carries the load current.
It is to be noted that
 The load current becomes continuous and the load current does not fall to zero for large
value of load inductance.
 The ripple in the load current waveform (the amount of variation in the output load
current) decreases.
SINGLE PHASE HALF WAVE CONTROLLED RECTIFIER WITH A GENERAL

LOAD
A general load consists of R, L and a DC source ‘E’ in the load circuit
25
iO
R
+
~ vS
L
vO

+
 E
In the half wave controlled rectifier circuit shown in the figure, the load circuit consists of
a dc source ‘E’ in addition to resistance and inductance. When the thyristor is in the cut-off
state, the current in the circuit is zero and the cathode will be at a voltage equal to the dc voltage
in the load circuit i.e. the cathode potential will be equal to ‘E’. The thyristor will be forward
biased for anode supply voltage greater than the load dc voltage.
When the supply voltage is less than the dc voltage ‘E’ in the circuit the thyristor is reverse
biased and hence the thyristor cannot conduct for supply voltage less than the load circuit dc
voltage.
The value of t at which the supply voltage increases and becomes equal to the load circuit dc
voltage can be calculated by using the equation Vm sin  t  E . If we assume the value of t is
 E
equal to  then we can write Vm sin   E . Therefore  is calculated as   sin 1   .
 Vm 
For trigger angle    , the thyristor conducts only from  t   to  .
For trigger angle    , the thyristor conducts from  t   to  .
The waveforms appear as shown in the figure
vO Vm
Load voltage
  t
0   
iO
 
Im
Load current
0 t
   

26
Equations
vS  Vm sin  t  Input supply voltage .
vO  Vm sin  t  Output load voltage for  t   to 
vO  E for  t  0 to  & for  t   to 2

Expression for the Load Current
When the thyristor is triggered at a delay angle of  , the equation for the circuit can be
written as
 di 
Vm sin  t  iO  R  L  O  +E ;    t  
 dt 
The general expression for the output load current can be written as
t
Vm E
iO  sin  t      Ae 
Z R
Where
Z  R 2   L  = Load Impedance
2
L 
  tan 1    Load impedance angle
 R 
L
  Load circuit time constant
R
The general expression for the output load current can be written as
R
Vm E
sin  t      Ae L
t
iO 
Z R
To find the value of the constant ‘A’ apply the initial condition at t   , load current
iO  0 . Equating the general expression for the load current to zero at t   , we get
R 
Vm E 
iO  0  sin       Ae L 
Z R
We obtain the value of constant ‘A’ as
E V  
R
A    m sin      e L
R Z 
Substituting the value of the constant ‘A’ in the expression for the load current, we get
the complete expression for the output load current as
27
R
Vm E  E Vm   L t  
iO  sin  t        sin      e
Z R R Z 
The Extinction angle  can be calculated from the final condition that the output current iO  0
at  t   . By using the above expression we get,
R
Vm E E V     
iO  0  sin          m sin      e L
Z R R Z 
To derive an expression for the average or dc load voltage
2
1
VO dc  
2  v .d t 
0
O
1   2 
VO dc     vO .d  t    vO .d t    vO .d t  
2  0   
vO  Vm sin  t  Output load voltage for  t   to 
vO  E for  t  0 to  & for  t   to 2
1  
  2
VO dc     E.d  t    Vm sin  t   E.d t  
2  0   
2
1  
 
VO dc    E  t   Vm   cos  t   E  t  
2  0   
1
VO dc    E   0   Vm  cos   cos    E  2    
2
V E
VO dc   m  cos   cos      2     
2 2
Vm  2       
VO dc    cos   cos     E
2  2 
Conduction angle of thyristor       
RMS Output Voltage can be calculated by using the expression
28
2
1  2 
VO RMS     vO .d  t  
2  0 
DISADVANTAGES OF SINGLE PHASE HALF WAVE CONTROLLED RECTIFIERS

Single phase half wave controlled rectifier gives
 Low dc output voltage.
 Low dc output power and lower efficiency.
 Higher ripple voltage & ripple current.
 Higher ripple factor.
 Low transformer utilization factor.
 The input supply current waveform has a dc component which can result in dc saturation
of the transformer core.
Single phase half wave controlled rectifiers are rarely used in practice as they give low dc output
and low dc output power. They are only of theoretical interest.
The above disadvantages of a single phase half wave controlled rectifier can be overcome by
using a full wave controlled rectifier circuit. Most of the practical converter circuits use full wave
controlled rectifiers.
4. Describe the working of single phase full converter in the rectifier mode with RL load.
Discuss how one pair of SCR is commutated by an incoming pair of SCR. Illustrate your
answer with the waveforms of source voltage, load voltage and source current. Assume
continuous and discontinuous conduction. Also derive the expressions for average and rms
output voltage.APR/MAY-2017, NOV/DEC-16, NOV/DEC-13,APRIL/MAY-2015
Single phase full wave controlled rectifier circuit combines two half wave controlled
rectifiers in one single circuit so as to provide two pulse output across the load. Both the half
cycles of the input supply are utilized and converted into a uni-directional output current through
the load so as to produce a two pulse output waveform. Hence a full wave controlled rectifier
circuit is also referred to as a two pulse converter.
Single phase full wave controlled rectifiers are of various types
 Single phase full wave controlled rectifier using a center tapped transformer (two pulse
converter with midpoint configuration).
 Single phase full wave bridge controlled rectifier
 Half controlled bridge converter (semi converter).
 Fully controlled bridge converter (full converter).
29
SINGLE PHASE FULL WAVE CONTROLLED RECTIFIER USING A CENTER

TAPPED TRANSFORMER
iS T1
A
+
vO
vS
R L
AC O iO
Supply
FWD
B
T2
vS = Supply Voltage across the upper half of the transformer secondary winding
vS  vAO  Vm sin t
vBO  vAO  Vm sin  t  supply voltage across the lower half of the transformer secondary
winding.
This type of full wave controlled rectifier requires a center tapped transformer and two
thyristors T1 and T2 . The input supply is fed through the mains supply transformer, the primary
side of the transformer is connected to the ac line voltage which is available (normally the
primary supply voltage is 230V RMS ac supply voltage at 50Hz supply frequency in India). The
secondary side of the transformer has three lines and the center point of the transformer (center
line) is used as the reference point to measure the input and output voltages.The upper half of the
secondary winding and the thyristor T1 along with the load act as a half wave controlled rectifier,
the lower half of the secondary winding and the thyristor T2 with the common load act as the
second half wave controlled rectifier so as to produce a full wave load voltage waveform.
There are two types of operations possible.
 Discontinuous load current operation, which occurs for a purely resistive load or an RL
load with low inductance value.
 Continuous load current operation which occurs for an RL type of load with large load
inductance.
30
Discontinuous Load Current Operation (for low value of load inductance)

Generally the load current is discontinuous when the load is purely resistive or when the RL load
has a low value of inductance.
During the positive half cycle of input supply, when the upper line of the secondary winding is at
a positive potential with respect to the center point ‘O’ the thyristor T1 is forward biased and it is
triggered at a delay angle of . The load current flows through the thyristor T1 , through the load
and through the upper part of the secondary winding, during the period  to  , when the
thyristor T1 conducts.
The output voltage across the load follows the input supply voltage that appears across the upper
part of the secondary winding from  t   to  . The load current through the thyristor T1
decreases and drops to zero at  t   , where    for RL type of load and the thyristor T1
naturally turns off at  t   .
vO Vm
t
0

iO


t
0 
  
() ()
Fig.: Waveform for Discontinuous Load Current Operation without FWD
During the negative half cycle of the input supply the voltage at the supply line ‘A’ becomes
negative whereas the voltage at line ‘B’ (at the lower side of the secondary winding) becomes
positive with respect to the center point ‘O’. The thyristor T2 is forward biased during the
negative half cycle and it is triggered at a delay angle of     . The current flows throughthe
thyristor T2 , through the load, and through the lower part of the secondary winding when T2
conducts during the negative half cycle the load is connected to the lower half of the secondary
winding when T2 conducts.
31
For purely resistive loads when L = 0, the extinction angle    . The load current falls to zero
at  t     , when the input supply voltage falls to zero at t   . The load current and the
load voltage waveforms are in phase and there is no phase shift between the load voltage and the
load current waveform in the case of a purely resistive load.
For low values of load inductance the load current would be discontinuous and the
extinction angle    but       .
For large values of load inductance the load current would be continuous and does not
fall to zero. The thyristor T1 conducts from  to     , until the next thyristor T2 is triggered.
When T2 is triggered at t      , the thyristor T1 will be reverse biased and hence T1 turns
off.
TO DERIVE AN EXPRESSION FOR THE DC OUTPUT VOLTAGE OF A SINGLE

PHASE FULL WAVE CONTROLLED RECTIFIER WITH RL LOAD (WITHOUT
FREE WHEELING DIODE (FWD))
The average or dc output voltage of a full-wave controlled rectifier can be calculated by finding
the average value of the output voltage waveform over one output cycle (i.e.,  radians) and note
T
that the output pulse repetition time is seconds where T represents the input supply time
2
1
period and T  ; where f = input supply frequency.
f
Assuming the load inductance to be small so that    ,       we obtain
discontinuous load current operation. The load current flows through T1 form  t   to  ,
where  is the trigger angle of thyristor T1 and  is the extinction angle where the load current
through T1 falls to zero at  t   . Therefore the average or dc output voltage can be obtained by
using the expression

2
VO dc   Vdc   vO .d  t 
2  t 

1
VO dc   Vdc   vO .d  t 
  t 

1 
VO dc   Vdc    Vm sin  t.d t  
  
32

Vm  
VO dc   Vdc    cos  t 
  
V
VO dc   Vdc  m  cos   cos  

V
Therefore VO dc   m  cos   cos   , for discontinuous load current operation,

        .
When the load inductance is small and negligible that is L  0 , the extinction angle
   radians . Hence the average or dc output voltage for resistive load is obtained as
Vm
VO dc    cos   cos   ; cos   1

 cos    1 
Vm
VO dc  

Vm
VO dc   1  cos   ; For resistive load, when L  0

Due to the presence of load inductance the output voltage reverses and becomes negative
during the time period  t   to  . This reduces the dc output voltage. To prevent this reduction
of dc output voltage due to the negative region in the output load voltage waveform, we can
connect a free wheeling diode across the load. The output voltage waveform and the dc output
voltage obtained would be the same as that for a full wave controlled rectifier with resistive load.
When the Free wheeling diode (FWD) is connected across the load
When T1 is triggered at t   , during the positive half cycle of the input supply the FWD is
reverse biased during the time period  t   to  . FWD remains reverse biased and cut-off
from  t   to  . The load current flows through the conducting thyristor T1 , through the RL
load and through upper half of the transformer secondary winding during the time period  to 
.
At t   , when the input supply voltage across the upper half of the secondary winding
reverses and becomes negative the FWD turns-on. The load current continues to flow through
the FWD from  t   to  .
33
vO Vm
t
0

iO


t
0 
  
() ()
Fig.: Waveform for Discontinuous Load Current Operation with FWD
EXPRESSION FOR THE DC OUTPUT VOLTAGE OF A SINGLE PHASE FULL WAVE

CONTROLLED RECTIFIER WITH RL LOAD AND FWD

1
VO dc   Vdc   vO .d t 
  t 0
Thyristor T1 is triggered at t   . T1 conducts from  t   to 

Output voltage vO  Vm sin  t ; for  t   to 
FWD conducts from  t   to  and vO  0 during discontinuous load current


1
Therefore VO dc   Vdc  V sin t.d t 
 
m

Vm  
VO dc   Vdc    cos  t 
  
V
VO dc   Vdc  m   cos   cos   ; cos   1

V
Therefore VO dc   Vdc  m 1  cos  

The DC output voltage Vdc is same as the DC output voltage of a single phase full wave
controlled rectifier with resistive load. Note that the dc output voltage of a single phase full wave
controlled rectifier is two times the dc output voltage of a half wave controlled rectifier.
CONTINUOUS LOAD CURRENT OPERATION (WITHOUT FWD)

34
For large values of load inductance the load current flows continuously without decreasing and
falling to zero and there is always a load current flowing at any point of time. This type of
operation is referred to as continuous current operation.
Generally the load current is continuous for large load inductance and for low trigger
angles.
The load current is discontinuous for low values of load inductance and for large values
of trigger angles.
The waveforms for continuous current operation are as shown.
vO Vm
t
0
iO
   
T1 ON T2 ON T1 ON
t
0
   
() ()
Fig.: Load voltage and load current waveform of a single phase full wave controlled
rectifier with RL load & without FWD for continuous load current operation
In the case of continuous current operation the thyristor T1 which is triggered at a delay angle of
 , conducts from  t   to     . Output voltage follows the input supply voltage across the
upper half of the transformer secondary winding vO  vAO  Vm sin  t .
The next thyristor T2 is triggered at t      , during the negative half cycle input supply.
As soon as T2 is triggered at t      , the thyristor T1 will be reverse biased and T1 turns off
due to natural commutation (ac line commutation). The load current flows through the thyristor
T2 from t      to  2    . Output voltage across the load follows the input supply
voltage across the lower half of the transformer secondary winding vO  vBO  Vm sin  t .Each
thyristor conducts for  radians 1800  in the case of continuous current operation.
35
TO DERIVE AN EXPRESSION FOR THE AVERAGE OR DC OUTPUT VOLTAGE OF

SINGLE PHASE FULL WAVE CONTROLLED RECTIFIER WITH LARGE LOAD
INDUCTANCE ASSUMING CONTINUOUS LOAD CURRENT OPERATION.
  
1
VO  dc   Vdc   vO .d  t 
  t 
  
1 
VO dc   Vdc    Vm sin t.d t  
   
   
V 
VO dc   Vdc  m   cos  t 
   
Vm
VO dc   Vdc  cos   cos      ; cos       cos 
 
Vm
VO dc   Vdc  cos   cos  

2Vm
 VO dc   Vdc  cos 

The above equation can be plotted to obtain the control characteristic of a single phase
full wave controlled rectifier with RL load assuming continuous load current operation.
Normalizing the dc output voltage with respect to its maximum value, the normalized dc output
voltage is given by
2Vm
 cos  
 
Vdc
Vdcn  Vn   cos 
Vdc max  2Vm

Therefore Vdcn  Vn  cos 
Trigger angle 
VO dc  Remarks
in degrees
36
 2V  Maximum dc output voltage

Vdm   m 
0     2V 
Vdc max   Vdm   m 
  
30 0 0.866 Vdm
60 0 0.5 Vdm
90 0 0 Vdm
120 0 -0.5 Vdm
150 0 -0.866 Vdm
 2V 
180 0 Vdm    m 
  
V O(dc)
Vdm
0.6Vdm
0.2 Vdm

0
30 60 90 120 150 180
-0.2Vdm
-0.6 V dm
-Vdm
Trigger angle in degrees
Fig.: Control Characteristic
We notice from the control characteristic that by varying the trigger angle  we can vary the
output dc voltage across the load. Thus it is possible to control the dc output voltage by changing
the trigger angle  . For trigger angle  in the range of 0 to 90 degrees  i.e., 0    900  , Vdc
is positive and the circuit operates as a controlled rectifier to convert ac supply voltage into dc
output power which is fed to the load.
For trigger angle   900 , cos  becomes negative and as a result the average dc output
voltage Vdc becomes negative, but the load current flows in the same positive direction. Hence
37
the output power becomes negative. This means that the power flows from the load circuit to the
input ac source. This is referred to as line commutated inverter operation. During the inverter
mode operation for   900 the load energy can be fed back from the load circuit to the input ac
source.
TO DERIVE AN EXPRESSION FOR RMS OUTPUT VOLTAGE
The rms value of the output voltage is calculated by using the equation
1
 2    2
VO RMS    vO2 .d  t  
 2  
1
 1    2 2 2
VO RMS    m V sin  t .d   t  
   
1
V 2    2
VO RMS   m  sin  t.d  t  
2
   
1
  
V 2 1  cos 2 t  .d  t  2
VO RMS   m   
   2 
1
 1   

  

2
VO RMS   Vm 
 2

 
 d t    cos 2 t.d  t  

1
 1    
 sin 2 t 
     2

VO RMS   Vm   t    
 2    2   
1
 1   sin 2      sin 2   2
VO RMS   Vm             
 2   2  
38
1
 1   sin 2  cos 2  cos 2  sin 2  sin 2   2
VO RMS   Vm       
 2   2  
1
 1   0  sin 2  sin 2   2
VO RMS   Vm       
 2   2  
1
 1 2 V
VO RMS   Vm      m
 2  2
Therefore
Vm
VO RMS   ; The rms output voltage is same as the input rms supply voltage.
2
5. Explain the operation of Single Phase Semi converters with RLE load and
freewheeling diode with neat waveforms.April/may-18-PART-C
Errata: Consider diode D2 as D1 in the figure and diode D1 as D2
Single phase semi-converter circuit is a full wave half controlled bridge converter which uses
two thyristors and two diodes connected in the form of a full wave bridge configuration.
39
The two thyristors are controlled power switches which are turned on one after the other
by applying suitable gating signals (gate trigger pulses). The two diodes are uncontrolled power
switches which turn-on and conduct one after the other as and when they are forward biased.
The circuit diagram of a single phase semi-converter (half controlled bridge converter) is
shown in the above figure with highly inductive load and a dc source in the load circuit. When
the load inductance is large the load current flows continuously and we can consider the
continuous load current operation assuming constant load current, with negligible current ripple
(i.e., constant and ripple free load current operation).
The ac supply to the semi converter is normally fed through a mains supply transformer
having suitable turns ratio. The transformer is suitably designed to supply the required ac supply
voltage (secondary output voltage) to the converter.
During the positive half cycle of input ac supply voltage, when the transformer secondary
output line ‘A’ is positive with respect to the line ‘B’ the thyristor T1 and the diode D1 are both
forward biased. The thyristor T1 is triggered at t   ;  0      by applying an appropriate
gate trigger signal to the gate of T1 . The current in the circuit flows through the secondary line
‘A’, through T1 , through the load in the downward direction, through diode D1 back to the
secondary line ‘B’. T1 and D1 conduct together from  t   to  and the load is connected to
the input ac supply. The output load voltage follows the input supply voltage (the secondary
output voltage of the transformer) during the period  t   to  .
At t   , the input supply voltage decreases to zero and becomes negative during the
period  t   to     . The free wheeling diode Dm across the load becomes forward biased
and conducts during the period  t   to     .
The load current is transferred from T1 and D1 to the FWD Dm . T1 and D1 are turned off. The
load current continues to flow through the FWD Dm . The load current free wheels (flows
continuously) through the FWD during the free wheeling time period  to     .
During the negative half cycle of input supply voltage the secondary line ‘A’ becomes negative
with respect to line ‘B’. The thyristor T2 and the diode D2 are both forward biased. T2 is
triggered at t      , during the negative half cycle. The FWD is reverse biased and turns-
off as soon as T2 is triggered. The load current continues to flow through T2 and D2 during the
period t      to 2
40
Waveforms of single phase semi-converter for RLE load and constant load current for > 900

A SINGLE PHASE SEMI-CONVERTER
The average output voltage can be found from


2
Vm sin t.d t 
2 
Vdc 
2Vm
  cos  t 

Vdc 
2
Vm
Vdc    cos   cos   ; cos   1

41
Vm
Therefore Vdc  1  cos  

2Vm
Vdc can be varied from to 0 by varying  from 0 to  .

The maximum average output voltage is
2Vm
Vdc max   Vdm 

Normalizing the average output voltage with respect to its maximum value
Vdc
Vdcn  Vn   0.5 1  cos  
Vdm
The output control characteristic can be plotted by using the expression for Vdc
TO DERIVE AN EXPRESSION FOR THE RMS OUTPUT VOLTAGE OF A SINGLE

PHASE SEMI-CONVERTER
The rms output voltage is found from
1

 2  2
VO RMS     Vm2 sin 2  t.d  t  
 2  
1

V 2 2
VO RMS   m  1  cos 2 t  .d   t  
 2  
1
V 1  sin 2   2
VO RMS   m      
2   2  
SINGLE PHASE FULL CONVERTER (FULLY CONTROLLED BRIDGE

CONVERTER).
6. Describe the operation of a 1 phase two pulse bridge converter in the inverter mode with
RLE load.MAY/JUNE-2012,NOV/DEC-2009, APRIL/MAY-2016,18-PART-C
42
The circuit diagram of a single phase fully controlled bridge converter is shown in the
figure with a highly inductive load and a dc source in the load circuit so that the load current is
continuous and ripple free (constant load current operation).
The fully controlled bridge converter consists of four thyristors T1 , T2 , T3 and T4
connected in the form of full wave bridge configuration as shown in the figure. Each thyristor is
controlled and turned on by its gating signal and naturally turns off when a reverse voltage
appears across it. During the positive half cycle when the upper line of the transformer secondary
winding is at a positive potential with respect to the lower end the thyristors T1 and T2 are
forward biased during the time interval t  0 to  . The thyristors T1 and T2 are triggered
simultaneously t   ; 0      , the load is connected to the input supply through the
conducting thyristors T1 and T2 . The output voltage across the load follows the input supply
voltage and hence output voltage vO  Vm sin  t . Due to the inductive load T1 and T2 will
continue to conduct beyond t   , even though the input voltage becomes negative. T1 and T2
conduct together during the time period  to     , for a time duration of  radians
(conduction angle of each thyristor = 180 0 )
During the negative half cycle of input supply voltage for t   to 2 the thyristors T3
and T4 are forward biased. T3 and T4 are triggered at t      . As soon as the thyristors
T3 and T4 are triggered a reverse voltage appears across the thyristors T1 and T2 and they
naturally turn-off and the load current is transferred from T1 and T2 to the thyristors T3 and T4
. The output voltage across the load follows the supply voltage and vO  Vm sin t during the
time period t      to  2    . In the next positive half cycle when T1 and T2 are
triggered, T3 and T4 are reverse biased and they turn-off. The figure shows the waveforms of
the input supply voltage, the output load voltage, the constant load current with negligible ripple
and the input supply current.
43
During the time period  t   to  , the input supply voltage vS and the input
supply current iS are both positive and the power flows from the supply to the load. The
converter operates in the rectification mode during  t   to  .
During the time period  t   to     , the input supply voltage vS is negative and the input
supply current iS is positive and there will be reverse power flow from the load circuit to the
input supply. The converter operates in the inversion mode during the time period
 t   to     and the load energy is fed back to the input source.
The single phase full converter is extensively used in industrial applications up to about 15kW of
output power. Depending on the value of trigger angle  , the average output voltage may be
either positive or negative and two quadrant operation is possible.
TO DERIVE AN EXPRESSION FOR THE AVERAGE (DC) OUTPUT VOLTAGE
44
The average (dc) output voltage can be determined by using the expression
2
1  
VO dc   Vdc    vO .d  t   ;
2  0 
The output voltage waveform consists of two output pulses during the input supply time period
between 0 & 2 radians . In the continuous load current operation of a single phase full
converter (assuming constant load current) each thyristor conduct for  radians (1800) after it is
triggered. When thyristors T1 and T2 are triggered at t   T1 and T2 conduct from
 to     and the output voltage follows the input supply voltage. Therefore output voltage
vO  Vm sin  t ; for  t   to    
Hence the average or dc output voltage can be calculated as
 
2  
VO dc   Vdc    Vm sin  t.d  t  
2   
 
1 
VO dc   Vdc   V sin  t.d  t  
 
m

 
Vm  
VO dc   Vdc    sin  t.d  t  
  
Vm
  cos  t 
 

Vm
VO dc   Vdc    cos      cos   ; cos       cos 
 
2Vm
Therefore VO dc   Vdc  cos 

2Vm
The dc output voltage Vdc can be varied from a maximum value of for   00 to a

2Vm
minimum value of for    radians  1800

45
The maximum average dc output voltage is calculated for a trigger angle   00 and is obtained
as
2V 2V
Vdc max   Vdm  m  cos  0   m
 
2Vm
Therefore Vdc max   Vdm 

The normalized average output voltage is given by

VO dc  V
Vdcn  Vn   dc
Vdc max  Vdm
2Vm
cos 
Vdcn  Vn    cos 
2Vm

Therefore Vdcn  Vn  cos  ; for a single phase full converter assuming continuous and
constant load current operation.
TWO QUADRANT OPERATION OF A SINGLE PHASE FULL CONVERTER
46
The above figure shows the two regions of single phase full converter operation in the
Vdc versus I dc plane. In the first quadrant when the trigger angle  is less than 900, Vdc and I dc
are both positive and the converter operates as a controlled rectifier and converts the ac input
power into dc output power. The power flows from the input source to the load circuit. This is
the normal controlled rectifier operation where Pdc is positive.
When the trigger angle is increased above 900 , Vdc becomes negative but I dc is positive
and the average output power (dc output power) Pdc becomes negative and the power flows from
the load circuit to the input source. The operation occurs in the fourth quadrant where Vdc is
negative and I dc is positive. The converter operates as a line commutated inverter.
TO DERIVE AN EXPRESSION FOR THE RMS VALUE OF THE OUTPUT VOLTAGE

The rms value of the output voltage is calculated as
2
1  2 
VO RMS     vO .d  t  
2  0 
The single phase full converter gives two output voltage pulses during the input supply time
period and hence the single phase full converter is referred to as a two pulse converter. The rms
output voltage can be calculated as
 
2  
VO RMS     vO .d  t  
2
2   
 
1 
VO RMS     Vm2 sin 2  t.d  t  
  
 
Vm2  
VO RMS     sin  t.d  t  
2
  
Vm2  1  cos 2 t 
 

VO RMS     .d  t  
  2 
47
   
Vm2  
VO RMS     d  t    cos 2 t.d  t  
2    
   
Vm2   sin 2 t  
VO RMS     t    
2    2   
Vm2   sin 2      sin 2  

VO RMS           
2   2  
Vm2   sin  2  2   sin 2  

VO RMS          ; sin  2  2   sin 2
2   2  
Vm2  sin 2  sin 2  

VO RMS        
2   2 
Vm2 Vm2 Vm
VO RMS      0  
2 2 2
Vm
Therefore VO RMS    VS
2
Hence the rms output voltage is same as the rms input supply voltage
The rms Thyristors current can be calculated as
Each thyristor conducts for  radians or 180 0 in a single phase full converter operating
at continuous and constant load current.
Therefore rms value of the thyristor current is calculated as
 1
IT  RMS   I O RMS   I O RMS 
2 2
I O  RMS 
IT  RMS  
2
The average thyristor current can be calculated as
48
   1
IT  Avg   I O  dc      I O dc    
 2   2
I O  dc 
IT  Avg  
2
7. Explain the principle of operation of single phase dual converter with neat power circuit
diagram.APR/MAY-2017,NOV/DEC-16,APR/MAY-2011, MAY/JUNE-2013,NOV/DEC-13,
NOV/DEC-14,15.
(or)
Explain the two functional modes of dual converter with necessary diagrams.MAY/JUNE-
2014,Nov/Dec-17 (or)
With neat sketch describe voltage and current waveforms of a circulating current type dual
converter.APRIL/MAY-2015.
49
We have seen in the case of a single phase full converter with inductive loads the converter can
operate in two different quadrants in the Vdc versus I dc operating diagram. If two single phase
full converters are connected in parallel and in opposite direction (connected in back to back)
across a common load four quadrant operation is possible. Such a converter is called as a dual
converter which is shown in the figure.
The dual converter system will provide four quadrant operation and is normally used in
high power industrial variable speed drives. The converter number 1 provides a positive dc
output voltage and a positive dc load current, when operated in the rectification mode.
The converter number 2 provides a negative dc output voltage and a negative dc load current
when operated in the rectification mode. We can thus have bi-directional load current and bi-
directional dc output voltage. The magnitude of output dc load voltage and the dc load current
can be controlled by varying the trigger angles 1 &  2 of the converters 1 and 2 respectively.
50
Fig.: Four quadrant operation of a dual converter
There are two modes of operations possible for a dual converter system.
 Non circulating current mode of operation (circulating current free mode of operation).
 Circulating current mode of operation.
NON CIRCULATING CURRENT MODE OF OPERATION (CIRCULATING

CURRENT FREE MODE OF OPERATION)
In this mode of operation only one converter is switched on at a time while the second
converter is switched off. When the converter 1 is switched on and the gate trigger signals are
released to the gates of thyristors in converter 1, we get an average output voltage across the
load, which can be varied by adjusting the trigger angle 1 of the converter 1. If 1 is less than
900, the converter 1 operates as a controlled rectifier and converts the input ac power into dc
output power to feed the load. Vdc and I dc are both positive and the operation occurs in the first
quadrant. The average output power Pdc  Vdc  I dc is positive. The power flows from the input ac
supply to the load. When 1 is increased above 900 converter 1 operates as a line commutated
inverter and Vdc becomes negative while I dc is positive and the output power Pdc becomes
negative. The power is fed back from the load circuit to the input ac source through the converter
1. The load current falls to zero when the load energy is utilized completely.
The second converter 2 is switched on after a small delay of about 10 to 20 mill seconds
to allow all the thyristors of converter 1 to turn off completely. The gate signals are released to
the thyristor gates of converter 2 and the trigger angle  2 is adjusted such that 0   2  900 so
that converter 2 operates as a controlled rectifier. The dc output voltage Vdc and I dc are both
negative and the load current flows in the reverse direction. The magnitude of Vdc and I dc are
controlled by the trigger angle  2 . The operation occurs in the third quadrant where Vdc and I dc
51
are both negative and output power Pdc is positive and the converter 2 operates as a controlled
rectifier and converts the ac supply power into dc output power which is fed to the load.
When we want to reverse the load current flow so that I dc is positive we have to operate
converter 2 in the inverter mode by increasing the trigger angle  2 above 90 0 . When  2 is made
greater than 90 0 , the converter 2 operates as a line commutated inverter and the load power (load
energy) is fed back to ac mains. The current falls to zero when all the load energy is utilized and
the converter 1 can be switched on after a short delay of 10 to 20 milli seconds to ensure that the
converter 2 thyristors are completely turned off.
The advantage of non circulating current mode of operation is that there is no circulating current
flowing between the two converters as only one converter operates and conducts at a time while
the other converter is switched off. Hence there is no need of the series current limiting inductors
between the outputs of the two converters. The current rating of thyristors is low in this mode.
But the disadvantage is that the load current tends to become discontinuous and the transfer
characteristic becomes non linear. The control circuit becomes complex and the output response
is sluggish as the load current reversal takes some time due to the time delay between the
switching off of one converter and the switching on of the other converter. Hence the output
dynamic response is poor. Whenever a fast and frequent reversal of the load current is required,
the dual converter is operated in the circulating current mode.
CIRCULATING CURRENT MODE OF OPERATION
In this mode of operation both the converters 1 and 2 are switched on and operated
simultaneously and both the converters are in a state of conduction. If converter 1 is operated as
a controlled rectifier by adjusting the trigger angle 1 between 0 to 900 the second converter 2 is
operated as a line commutated inverter by increasing its trigger angle  2 above 900. The trigger
angles 1 and  2 are adjusted such that they produce the same average dc output voltage across
the load terminals.
The average dc output voltage of converter 1 is
2V
Vdc1  m cos 1

The average dc output voltage of converter 2 is
2V
Vdc 2  m cos  2

In the dual converter operation one converter is operated as a controlled rectifier with 1  900
and the second converter is operated as a line commutated inverter in the inversion mode with
 2  900 .
52
Vdc1  Vdc 2
2Vm 2Vm 2Vm
cos 1  cos  2    cos  2 
  
Therefore cos 1   cos  2 or cos  2   cos 1  cos   1 
Therefore  2    1  or 1   2    radians
Which gives  2    1 
When the trigger angle 1 of converter 1 is set to some value the trigger angle  2 of the
second converter is adjusted such that  2  1800  1  . Hence for circulating current mode of
operation where both converters are conducting at the same time 1   2   1800 so that they
produce the same dc output voltage across the load.
When 1  900 (say 1  300 ) the converter 1 operates as a controlled rectifier and
converts the ac supply into dc output power and the average load current I dc is positive. At the
same time the converter 2 is switched on and operated as a line commutated inverter, by
adjusting the trigger angle  2 such that  2  1800  1  , which is equal to 1500 , when 1  300
. The converter 2 will operate in the inversion mode and feeds the load energy back to the ac
supply. When we want to reverse the load current flow we have to switch the roles of the two
converters.
When converter 2 is operated as a controlled rectifier by adjusting the trigger angle  2
such that  2  900 , the first converter1 is operated as a line commutated inverter, by adjusting
the trigger angle 1 such that 1  900 . The trigger angle 1 is adjusted such that
1  1800   2  for a set value of  2 .
In the circulating current mode a current builds up between the two converters even when the
load current falls to zero. In order to limit the circulating current flowing between the two
converters, we have to include current limiting reactors in series between the output terminals of
the two converters.
The advantage of the circulating current mode of operation is that we can have faster
reversal of load current as the two converters are in a state of conduction simultaneously. This
greatly improves the dynamic response of the output giving a faster dynamic response. The
output voltage and the load current can be linearly varied by adjusting the trigger angles 1 &  2
to obtain a smooth and linear output control. The control circuit becomes relatively simple. The
transfer characteristic between the output voltage and the trigger angle is linear and hence the
output response is very fast. The load current is free to flow in either direction at any time. The
reversal of the load current can be done in a faster and smoother way.
53
The disadvantage of the circulating current mode of operation is that a current flows
continuously in the dual converter circuit even at times when the load current is zero. Hence we
should connect current limiting inductors (reactors) in order to limit the peak circulating current
within specified value. The circulating current flowing through the series inductors gives rise to
increased power losses, due to dc voltage drop across the series inductors which decreases the
efficiency. Also the power factor of operation is low. The current limiting series inductors are
heavier and bulkier which increases the cost and weight of the dual converter system.
The current flowing through the converter thyristors is much greater than the dc load
current. Hence the thyristors should be rated for a peak thyristor current of
IT  max   I dc max   ir  max  , where I dc max  is the maximum dc load current and ir  max  is the maximum
value of the circulating current.
TO CALCULATE THE CIRCULATING CURRENT

As the instantaneous output voltages of the two converters are out of phase, there will be an
instantaneous voltage difference and this will result in circulating current between the two
converters. In order to limit the circulating current, current limiting reactors are connected in
series between the outputs of the two converters. This circulating current will not flow through
the load and is normally limited by the current reactor Lr .
If vO1 and vO2 are the instantaneous output voltages of the converters 1 and 2, respectively the
circulating current can be determined by integrating the instantaneous voltage difference (which
is the voltage drop across the circulating current reactor Lr), starting from t = (2 - 1). As the
two average output voltages during the interval t = (+1) to (2 - 1) are equal and opposite
their contribution to the instantaneous circulating current iris zero.
54
Fig.: Waveforms of dual converter
1  t 
ir    vr .d  t   ; vr   vO1  vO 2 
 Lr   2 1  
As the output voltage vO 2 is negative
vr   vO1  vO 2 
55
1  
t
Therefore ir     vO1  vO 2  .d  t   ;
 Lr   2 1  
vO1  Vm sin t for  2  1  to t
Vm  
t t
ir     sin  t.d  t    sin  t.d  t  
 Lr   2 1   2 1  
t t
Vm  
ir   cos t    cos t  
 Lr   2 1   2 1  

Vm
ir   cos  t   cos  2  1    cos  t   cos  2  1  
 Lr 
Vm
ir   2 cos  t  2 cos  2  1  
 Lr 
2Vm
ir   cos  t  cos 1 
 Lr
The instantaneous value of the circulating current depends on the delay angle.
For trigger angle (delay angle) 1 = 0, its magnitude becomes minimum when
 t  n , n  0, 2, 4,.... and magnitude becomes maximum when  t  n , n  1,3,5,....
If the peak load current is I p , one of the converters that controls the power flow may carry a
4Vm
peak current of Ip  ,
 Lr
Vm 4V
Where I p  I L max   , & ir  max   m
RL  Lr
56
Problems

1. What will be the average power in the load for the circuit shown, when   . Assume SCR
4
to be ideal. Supply voltage is 330 sin314t. Also calculate the RMS power and the rectification
efficiency.
T
+
330
Sin314t
~ R 100

GIVEN:


4
VS=330 sin314t
TO FIND:
RMS power and the rectification efficiency.
SOLUTION:
The circuit is that of a single phase half wave controlled rectifier with a resistive load
Vm 
Vdc  1  cos   ;  radians
2 4
330    
Vdc   1  cos   
2   4 
Vdc  89.66 Volts
Vdc2 89.662
Average Power    80.38 Watts
R 100
Vdc 89.66
I dc    0.8966 Amps
R 100
57
1
V 1  sin 2   2
VRMS  m       
2   2  
1
    2
 sin 2  
330 1  
   
 4
VRMS 
2   4 2 
   
VRMS  157.32 V
RMS Power (AC power)
2
VRMS 157.322
   247.50 Watts
R 100
Average power
Rectification Efficiency 
RMS power
80.38
  0.3248
247.47
2. In the circuit shown find out the average voltage across the load assuming that the
conduction drop across the SCR is 1 volt. Take  = 450.
VAK
+
330
Sin314t
~ R 100

The wave form of the load voltage is shown below (not to scale).
58
Vm
voltage
Load
Voltage across
resistance
VAK
0 t
    

It is observed that the SCR turns off when  t   , where       because the SCR turns-
off for anode supply voltage below 1 Volt.
VAK  Vm sin   1 volt (given)
 VAK  1  1 
  sin 1    sin    0.17  0.003 radians 
0
Therefore
 Vm   330 
  1800    ; By symmetry of the curve.
  179.830 ; 3.138 radians.

1
Vdc 
2  V

m sin  t  VAK  d  t 
 
1  
Vdc   mV sin  t .d   AK  d t 
 t  V
2   
 
1  
Vdc  Vm   cos  t   VAK  t  
2   
1
Vdc  Vm  cos   cos    VAK      
2 
59
330  cos 450  cos179.830   1 3.138  0.003 

1
Vdc 
2  
Vdc  89.15 Volts
Note:  and  values should be in radians


3. In the figure find out the battery charging current when   . Assume ideal SCR.
4
R
10
+
200 V 24V
50 Hz ~ (VB)

GIVEN:


4
TO FIND:
Battery Charging Current
SOLUTION:
It is obvious that the SCR cannot conduct when the instantaneous value of the supply
voltage is less than 24 V, the battery voltage. The load voltage waveform is as shown (voltage
across ion).
Vm
Voltage across
resistance
VB
0 t
    

VB  Vm sin 
60
24  200 2 sin 
 24 
  sin 1    4.8675  0.085 radians
0
 200  2 
      3.056 radians
Average value of voltage across 10

1  
   Vm sin  t  VB  .d  t  
2  
(The integral gives the shaded area)
 3.056 

1 
2  
  
200  2 sin  t  24 .d  t  
 4 
1       
  200 2  cos 4  cos 3.056   24  3.056  4  
2     
 68 Vots
Therefore charging current
Average voltage across R


R
68
  6.8 Amps
10
Note: If value of  is more than  , then the SCR will trigger only at t   , (assuming that the
gate signal persists till then), when it becomes forward biased.
61
1  

Therefore Vdc    Vm sin  t  VB  .d  t  
2   
4. In a single phase full wave rectifier supply is 200 V AC. The load resistance is 10 ,
  60 . Find the average voltage across the load and the power consumed in the load.
0
GIVEN:
V=200 V, R= 10 ,   600
TO FIND:
Average voltage across the load and the power consumed in the load
SOLUTION:
In a single phase full wave rectifier
Vm
Vdc  1  cos  

200  2
Vdc 

1  cos 60 
0
Vdc  135 Volts
Average Power
Vdc2 1352
   1.823 kW
R 10
2. In the circuit shown find the charging current if the trigger angle   900 .
R = 10 
+
200 V
50 Hz ~

+
10V
 (VB)
62
GIVEN:   900 .
TO FIND: charging current
SOLUTION:
With the usual notation
VB  Vm sin 
10  200 2 sin 
 10 
Therefore   sin 1    0.035 radians
 200  2 

  900  radians ;        3.10659
2

2  
Average voltage across 10    Vm sin  t  VB  .d  t  
2  
1 
  V cos  t  VB  t  
 m
1
 V  cos   cos    VB      
 m
1      
  200  2  cos  cos 3.106   10  3.106   
  2   2 
 85 V
Note that the values of  &  are in radians.
dc voltage across resistance

Charging current 
resistance
63
85
  8.5 Amps
10
3. A single phase full wave controlled rectifier is used to supply a resistive load of 10
from a 230 V, 50 Hz, supply and firing angle of 900. What is its mean load voltage? If a large
inductance is added in series with the load resistance, what will be the new output load voltage?
NOV/DEC-13,15.
GIVEN:
R=10,V= 230 V, F=50 Hz, firing angle of 900
TO FIND:
V
SOLUTION:
For a single phase full wave controlled rectifier with resistive load,
Vm
Vdc  1  cos  

230  2  
Vdc  1  cos 
  2
Vdc  103.5 Volts
When a large inductance is added in series with the load, the output voltage wave form will be as
shown below, for trigger angle   900 .
V0

0 t
 
64
2Vm
Vdc  cos 

  
Since   ; cos  cos    0
2 2
Therefore Vdc  0 and this is evident from the waveform also.
4. The figure shows a battery charging circuit using SCRs. The input voltage to the circuit is
230 V RMS. Find the charging current for a firing angle of 450. If any one of the SCR is open
circuited, what is the charging current?
GIVEN:
230 V RMS, firing angle of 450
TO FIND:
charging current
SOLUTION:
10 VL
+
Vs ~

+
100V

With the usual notations
VS  Vm sin  t
VS  2  230sin t
Vm sin   VB , the battery voltage
2  230sin   100
65
 100 
Therefore   sin 1  
 2  230 
  17.90 or 0.312 radians
         0.312 
  2.829 radians
Average value of voltage across load resistance

2  
   Vm sin  t  VB  d  t  
2  
1 
  V cos  t  VB  t  
 m
1
 V  cos   cos    VB      
 m
1      
  230  2  cos  cos 2.829   100  2.829   
  4   4 
1
 230  2  0.707  0.9517   204.36 

 106.68 Volts
Voltage across resistance

Charging current 
R
106.68
  10.668 Amps
10
66
If one of the SCRs is open circuited, the circuit behaves like a half wave rectifier. The
average voltage across the resistance and the charging current will be half of that of a full wave
rectifier.
10.668
Therefore Charging Current   5.334 Amps
2
5.A 230V, 50Hz, supply is connected to load resistance of 12ohm through half wave controlled
rectifier. If the firing angle is 60degree, determine
1. Average output voltage
2. RMS output voltage
3. Ratio of rectification
4. Transformer Utilization Factor (TUF)NOV/DEC-2014,17,April-18-PART-C
GIVEN:
V =230 V, F = 50 HZ , α=60ͦ, R=12Ω
S
TO FIND:
4. Transformer Utilization Factor (TUF)
SOLUTION:
Single phase half wave controller V =230 V, F = 50 HZ , α=60ͦ, R=12Ω
S
1) Average output voltage,
Vm
VDC  (1  cos )
2
230  2
V DC  (1  cos 60 )
2
Vdc =77.65 V
2) RMS output voltage
Vm sin 2 1 / 2
V ( RMS )  [1 /  (    )]
2 2
sin(120) 1 / 2
[1 /  (   ) 
230 2
 ]
2 3 2
230 2
 [0.6667  0.4330]1 / 2
2
67
V (RMS ) =170.55 V
3) Ratio of rectification = (77.65)2/(170.55)2 = 0.2073
Ratio of rectification efficiency = 20.73%
4) Transformer utilization factor (TUF)
(Vdc ) 2
TUF 
0.707V m0.3536V m
(77.65) 2
TUF 
115 170.55V m
TUF  0.3074
5) PIV (peak inverse voltage)
PIV=Vm
THREE PHASE CONTROLLED RECTIFIERS
INTRODUCTION TO 3-PHASE CONTROLLED RECTIFIERS

Single phase half controlled bridge converters & fully controlled bridge converters are used
extensively in industrial applications up to about 15kW of output power. The single phase
2V
controlled rectifiers provide a maximum dc output of Vdc max   m .

The output ripple frequency is equal to the twice the ac supply frequency. The single phase full
wave controlled rectifiers provide two output pulses during every input supply cycle and hence
are referred to as two pulse converters.
Three phase converters are 3-phase controlled rectifiers which are used to convert ac input power
supply into dc output power across the load.
Features of 3-phase controlled rectifiers are
 Operate from 3 phase ac supply voltage.

 They provide higher dc output voltage and higher dc output power.
 Higher output voltage ripple frequency.
 Filtering requirements are simplified for smoothing out load voltage and load current
Three phase controlled rectifiers are extensively used in high power variable speed industrial dc
drives.
68
3-PHASE HALF WAVE CONVERTER

8. Explain the principle of operation of 3-phase half wave converter with neat power circuit
diagram.(OR)EXPLAIN THE OPERATION OF THREE PHASE 3-PULSE
CONVERTER WITH R-LOAD.DERIVE FOR AVERAGE OUTPUT
VOLTAGE.NOV/DEC-2015
Three single phase half-wave converters are connected together to form a three phase half-wave
converter as shown in the figure.
69
THEE PHASE SUPPLY VOLTAGE EQUATIONS
We define three line neutral voltages (3 phase voltages) as follows
vRN  van  Vm sin  t ; Vm  Max. Phase Voltage
 2 
vYN  vbn  Vm sin   t   VCN
 3 
vYN  vbn  Vm sin t  1200 

0
120
0 VAN
 2  120
vBN  vcn  Vm sin   t   0
 3  120
vBN  vcn  Vm sin t  1200 

VBN
Vector diagram of 3-phase supply voltages

70
vBN  vcn  Vm sin t  2400 

The 3-phase half wave converter combines three single phase half wave controlled
rectifiers in one single circuit feeding a common load. The thyristor T1 in series with one of the
supply phase windings ' a  n ' acts as one half wave controlled rectifier. The second thyristor T2
in series with the supply phase winding ' b  n ' acts as the second half wave controlled rectifier.
The third thyristor T3 in series with the supply phase winding ' c  n ' acts as the third half wave
controlled rectifier.
The 3-phase input supply is applied through the star connected supply transformer as
shown in the figure. The common neutral point of the supply is connected to one end of the load
while the other end of the load connected to the common cathode point.
 
When the thyristor T1 is triggered at  t        300    , the phase voltage van
6 
appears across the load when T1 conducts. The load current flows through the supply phase
winding ' a  n ' and through thyristor T1 as long as T1 conducts.
 5 
When thyristor T2 is triggered at  t       1500    , T1 becomes reverse biased and
 6 
turns-off. The load current flows through the thyristor T2 and through the supply phase winding
' b  n ' . When T2 conducts the phase voltage vbn appears across the load until the thyristor T3 is
triggered .
 3 
When the thyristor T3 is triggered at  t        2700    , T2 is reversed biased and
 2 
hence T2 turns-off. The phase voltage vcn appears across the load when T3 conducts.
When T1 is triggered again at the beginning of the next input cycle the thyristor T3 turns off as it
is reverse biased naturally as soon as T1 is triggered. The figure shows the 3-phase input supply
voltages, the output voltage which appears across the load, and the load current assuminga
constant and ripple free load current for a highly inductive load and the current through the
thyristor T1 .
 
For a purely resistive load where the load inductance ‘L = 0’ and the trigger angle     , the
6
load current appears as discontinuous load current and each thyristor is naturally commutated
when the polarity of the corresponding phase supply voltage reverses. The frequency of output
71
ripple frequency for a 3-phase half wave converter is 3 f S , where f S is the input supply
frequency.
The 3-phase half wave converter is not normally used in practical converter systems because of
the disadvantage that the supply current waveforms contain dc components (i.e., the supply
current waveforms have an average or dc value).
TO DERIVE AN EXPRESSION FOR THE AVERAGE OUTPUT VOLTAGE OF A 3-

PHASE HALF WAVE CONVERTER FOR CONTINUOUS LOAD CURRENT
The reference phase voltage is vRN  van  Vm sin  t .The trigger angle  is measured from the
cross over points of the 3-phase supply voltage waveforms. When the phase supply voltage van
begins its positive half cycle at t  0 , the first cross over point appears at
 
 t    radians  300 .
6
The trigger angle  for the thyristor T1 is measured from the cross over point at  t  300 . The
thyristor T1 is forward biased during the period  t  300 to 1500 , when the phase supply voltage
van has a higher amplitude than the other phase supply voltages. Hence T1 can be triggered
between 300 to 1500 . When the thyristor T1 is triggered at a trigger angle  , the average or dc
output voltage for continuous load current is calculated using the equation
 5  
3 6 
vO .d  t  
2   
Vdc 
 6  
Output voltage vO  van  Vm sin t for t   300    to 1500   
 56  
3  
Vdc    Vm sin  t.d  t  
2 
 6  
As the output load voltage waveform has three output pulses during the input cycle of
 56  
3Vm  
sin  t.d  t  
2   
2 radians Vdc 
 6  
72
5
  
3Vm  6

Vdc    cos  t 
2  

 6
 
3Vm   5   
Vdc 
2   cos  6     cos  6    
    
Note from the trigonometric relationship
cos  A  B    cos A.cos B  sin A.sin B 
3Vm   5   5      
Vdc    cos  6  cos    sin   sin    cos   .cos    sin   sin   
2     6  6 6 
  cos 1500  cos    sin 1500  sin    cos  300  .cos    sin  300  sin   
3Vm
Vdc 
2  
  cos 1800  300  cos    sin 1800  300  sin    cos  300  .cos    sin  300  sin   
3Vm
Vdc 
2  
Note: cos 1800  300    cos  300 
sin 1800  300   sin  300 

Therefore
  cos  300  cos    sin  300  sin    cos  300  .cos    sin  300  sin   
3Vm
Vdc 
2  
 2 cos  300  cos   

3Vm
Vdc 
2  
3Vm  3 
Vdc  2  cos   
2  2 
73
3Vm 3 3Vm
Vdc   3 cos     cos  
2   2
3VLm
Vdc  cos  
2
Where
VLm  3Vm  Max. line to line supply voltage for a 3-phase star connected transformer.
The maximum average or dc output voltage is obtained at a delay angle  = 0 and is given by
3 3 Vm
Vdc max   Vdm 
2
Where
Vm is the peak phase voltage.
And the normalized average output voltage is
Vdc
Vdm
TO DERIVE AN EXPRESSION FOR THE RMS VALUE OF THE OUTPUT VOLTAGE

OF A 3-PHASE HALF WAVE CONVERTER FOR CONTINUOUS LOAD CURRENT
The rms value of output voltage is found by using the equation
1
5
  2
 3 
6
VO RMS    Vm2 sin 2  t.d  t  
2 
 6
 
and we obtain
1
1 3 2
VO RMS   3Vm   cos 2 
 6 8 
3PHASE HALF WAVE CONTROLLED RECTIFIER OUTPUT VOLTAGE

WAVEFORMS FOR DIFFERENT TRIGGER ANGLES WITH RL LOAD
74
 Van Vbn Vcn

V0
0
=30
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
t
30 60 90 120 150 180 210 240 270 300 330 360 390 420
 Van Vbn Vcn

V0 0
=60
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
t
30 60 90 120 150 180 210 240 270 300 330 360 390 420
 Vbn Vcn
Van

V0
0
=90
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
t
30 60 90 120 150 180 210 240 270 300 330 360 390 420
75
3 PHASE HALF WAVE CONTROLLED RECTIFIER OUTPUT VOLTAGE

WAVEFORMS FOR DIFFERENT TRIGGER ANGLES WITH R LOAD
Van Vbn Vcn
=0
Vs
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
t
30 60 90 120 150 180 210 240 270 300 330 360 390 420
 Van Vbn Vcn
=150
V0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
t
30 60 90 120 150 180 210 240 270 300 330 360 390 420
 Van Vbn Vcn
=300
0
V0
30
0
60
0
90
0
120
0
150
0 0
180 210
0
240
0
270
0
300
0
330
0
360
0 0
390 420
0 t
 Van Vbn Vcn
=60
0
V0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
t
30 60 90 120 150 180 210 240 270 300 330 360 390 420
76

A 3 PHASE HALF WAVE CONVERTER WITH RESISTIVE LOAD ORRLLOADWITH
FWD.
In the case of a three-phase half wave controlled rectifier with resistive load, the thyristor
T1 is triggered at t   300    and T1 conducts up to  t  1800   radians. When the phase
supply voltage van decreases to zero at t   , the load current falls to zero and the thyristor T1
turns off. Thus T1 conducts from t   300    to 1800  .
Hence the average dc output voltage for a 3-pulse converter (3-phase half wave controlled
rectifier) is calculated by using the equation
 180 
0
3
Vdc    vO .d  t  
2  300 
vO  van  Vm sin t; for t    300  to 1800 
 180 
0
3
Vdc    Vm sin  t.d t  
2  300 
3V  
0
180
Vdc  m   sin  t.d  t  
2  300 
3V  1800 
Vdc  m   cos  t 
2  0 
  30 
  cos1800  cos   300  

3Vm
Vdc 
2  
Since cos1800  1,
1  cos   300  
3Vm
We get Vdc 
2  
77
THREE PHASE SEMICONVERTERS
9. Explain the operation of three phase semi converter with neat waveforms.NOV/DEC-
2012,April-18
3-phase semi-converters are three phase half controlled bridge controlled rectifiers which
employ three thyristors and three diodes connected in the form of a bridge configuration. Three
thyristors are controlled switches which are turned on at appropriate times by
applyingappropriate gating signals. The three diodes conduct when they are forward biased by
the corresponding phase supply voltages.
3-phase semi-converters are used in industrial power applications up to about 120kW
output power level, where single quadrant operation is required. The power factor of 3-phase
semi-converter decreases as the trigger angle  increases. The power factor of a 3-phase semi-
converter is better than three phase half wave converter.
The figure shows a 3-phase semi-converter with a highly inductive load and the load
current is assumed to be a constant and continuous load current with negligible ripple.
Thyristor T1 is forward biased when the phase supply voltage van is positive and greater than the
other phase voltages vbn and vcn . The diode D1 is forward biased when the phase supply
voltage vcn is more negative than the other phase supply voltages.
Thyristor T2 is forward biased when the phase supply voltage vbn is positive and greater than the
other phase voltages. Diode D2 is forward biased when the phase supply voltage van is more
negative than the other phase supply voltages.
78
Thyristor T3 is forward biased when the phase supply voltage vcn is positive and greater than the
other phase voltages. Diode D3 is forward biased when the phase supply voltage vbn is more
negative than the other phase supply voltages.
The figure shows the waveforms for the three phase input supply voltages, the output voltage,
the thyristor and diode current waveforms, the current through the free wheeling diode Dm and
the supply current ia . The frequency of the output supply waveform is 3 f S , where f S is the
input ac supply frequency. The trigger angle  can be varied from 00 to 1800 . During the time
   7 
period     t    i.e., for 30   t  210 , thyristor T1 is forward biased. If T1
0 0
6  6 
 
istriggered at  t      , T1 and D1 conduct together and the line to line supply voltage vac
6 
 7 
appears across the load. At  t    , vac starts to become negative and the freewheeling
 6 
diode Dm turns on and conducts. The load current continues to flow through the freewheeling
diode Dm and thyristor T1 and diode D1 are turned off.
79
If the freewheeling diode Dm is not connected across the load, then T1 would continue to
 5 
conduct until the thyristor T2 is triggered at  t      and the freewheeling action is
 6 
accomplished through T1 and D2 , when D2 turns on as soon as van becomes more negative at
 7   2
t    . If the trigger angle     each thyristor conducts for radians 1200  and the
 6  3 3
freewheeling diode Dm does not conduct. The waveforms for a 3-phase semi-converter with
 
    is shown in figure
3
80

 2 
vYN  vbn  Vm sin   t  
 3 
vYN  vbn  Vm sin t  1200 
81
 2 
vBN  vcn  Vm sin   t  
 3 
vBN  vcn  Vm sin t  1200 
vBN  vcn  Vm sin t  2400 
The corresponding line-to-line voltages are
 
vRB  vac   van  vcn   3Vm sin   t  
 6
 5 
vYR  vba   vbn  van   3Vm sin   t  
 6 
 
vBY  vcb   vcn  vbn   3Vm sin   t  
 2
 
vRY  vab   van  vbn   3Vm sin   t  
 6
Where Vm is the peak phase voltage of a star (Y) connected source.
TO DERIVE AN EXPRESSION FOR THE AVERAGE OUTPUT VOLTAGE OF THREE

 
PHASE SEMICONVERTER FOR     AND DISCONTINUOUS OUTPUT
3
VOLTAGE

For   and discontinuous output voltage: the average output voltage is found from
3
82
7
6
3
Vdc   vac .d  t 
2 
6 
7
3 6
 
Vdc   3 Vm sin   t   d  t 
2   6
6 
3 3Vm
Vdc  1  cos  
2
3VmL
Vdc  1  cos  
2
The maximum average output voltage that occurs at a delay angle of   0 is
3 3Vm
Vdm 

The normalized average output voltage is
Vdc
Vn   0.5 1  cos  
Vdm
The rms output voltage is found from
1
7
 3  2
2
6
VO RMS    3Vm sin   t   d  t  
2
 2   6 
 6  
1
 3  1  2
VO RMS   3Vm       sin 2 
 4  2 

For   , and continuous output voltage
3
     
Output voltage vO  vab  3Vm sin   t   ; for  t      to  
 6 6  2
83
     5 
Output voltage vO  vac  3Vm sin   t   ; for  t    to   
 6 2  6 
The average or dc output voltage is calculated by using the equation
 5
3  2 6  
    
2    ac
Vdc  v .d  t  v .d  t

ab

 6 2 
3 3Vm
Vdc  1  cos  
2
Vdc
Vn   0.5 1  cos  
Vdm
The RMS value of the output voltage is calculated by using the equation
1
 5
 3 2 6  2
VO RMS   
2
vab .d  t    vac .d  t  
2
 2   
 6  2 
1
 3  2  2
VO RMS   3Vm    3 cos 2   
 4  3 
THREE PHASE FULL CONVERTER

10. With necessary circuit and waveforms, explain the principle of operation of 6-
pulse(3 phase fully controlled) converter. Derive the expression for average output voltage
in it.MAY/JUNE-2012, NOV/DEC-2008,17.
Three phase full converter is a fully controlled bridge controlled rectifier using six
thyristors connected in the form of a full wave bridge configuration. All the six thyristors are
controlled switches which are turned on at a appropriate times by applying suitable gate trigger
signals.
The three phase full converter is extensively used in industrial power applications upto
about 120kW output power level, where two quadrant operation is required. The figure shows a
three phase full converter with highly inductive load. This circuit is also known as three phase
full wave bridge or as a six pulse converter.
84
 
The thyristors are triggered at an interval of   radians (i.e. at an interval of 60 0 ). The
3
frequency of output ripple voltage is 6 f S and the filtering requirement is less than that of three
phase semi and half wave converters.
 
At  t      , thyristor T6 is already conducting when the thyristor T1 is turned on by
6 
   
applying the gating signal to the gate of T1 . During the time period  t      to     ,
6  2 
thyristors T1 and T6 conduct together and the line to line supply voltage vab appears across the
load.
 
At  t      , the thyristor T2 is triggered and T6 is reverse biased immediately and T6 turns
2 
   5 
off due to natural commutation. During the time period  t      to     , thyristor T1
2   6 
and T2 conduct together and the line to line supply voltage vac appears across the load.
The thyristors are numbered in the circuit diagram corresponding to the order in which they are
triggered. The trigger sequence (firing sequence) of the thyristors is 12, 23, 34, 45, 56, 61, 12,
23, and so on. The figure shows the waveforms of three phase input supply voltages, output
voltage, the thyristor current through T1 and T4 , the supply current through the line ‘a’.
85
 2 
vYN  vbn  Vm sin   t    Vm sin  t  120 
0
 3 
 2 
vBN  vcn  Vm sin   t    Vm sin  t  120   Vm sin  t  240 
0 0
 3 
Where Vm is the peak phase voltage of a star (Y) connected source.
The corresponding line-to-line voltages are
 
 6
 
vYB  vbc   vbn  vcn   3Vm sin   t  
 2
 
vBR  vca   vcn  van   3Vm sin   t  
 2
86
87
T6 T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T1 T2
iG1
t
(30 + )
0 0 0
(360 +30 +)
0
iG2 60
t
0
iG3 60
t
0
iG4 60
t
0
iG5 60
t
0
iG6 60
t
Gating (Control) Signals of 3-phase full converter
TO DERIVE AN EXPRESSION FOR THE AVERAGE OUTPUT VOLTAGE OF

THREEPHASE FULL CONVERTER WITH HIGHLY INDUCTIVE LOAD ASSUMING
CONTINUOUS AND CONSTANT LOAD CURRENT
The output load voltage consists of 6 voltage pulses over a period of 2 radians, hence the
average output voltage is calculated as


2
6
2 
 vO .d t ;

6
 
vO  vab  3Vm sin   t  
 6


3 2
 
 
Vdc  3Vm sin   t   .d t

 6
6
3 3Vm 3VmL
Vdc  cos   cos 
 
88
Where VmL  3Vm  Max. line-to-line supply voltage
The maximum average dc output voltage is obtained for a delay angle  = 0,

3 3Vm 3VmL
Vdc max   Vdm  
 
The normalized average dc output voltage is
Vdc
Vdm
The rms value of the output voltage is found from
1

  2
 6 
2
VO rms    vO2 .d  t  
2 
 6
 
1

   2
 6 
2
VO rms    v .d  t  
2
2
ab

 6
 
1

  2
 3
2
  
VO rms    3Vm2 sin 2   t  .d  t  
2   6
 6
 
1
1 3 3 2
VO rms   3Vm   cos 2 
 2 4 
THREE PHASE DUAL CONVERTERS
11.Explain the operation of Three Phase Dual Converters with neat waveforms.MAY/JUNE-
2016
In many variable speed drives, the four quadrant operation is generally required and three
phase dual converters are extensively used in applications up to the 2000 kW level. Figure shows
three phase dual converters where two three phase full converters are connected back to back
across a common load. We have seen that due to the instantaneous voltage differences between
the output voltages of converters, a circulating current flows through the converters. The
circulating current is normally limited by circulating reactor, Lr . The two converters are
89
controlled in such a way that if 1 is the delay angle of converter 1, the delay angle of converter
2 is  2    1  .
The operation of a three phase dual converter is similar that of a single phase dual
converter system. The main difference being that a three phase dual converter gives much higher
dc output voltage and higher dc output power than a single phase dual converter system. But the
drawback is that the three phase dual converter is more expensive and the design of control
circuit is more complex.
The figure below shows the waveforms for the input supply voltages, output voltages of
converter1 and conveter2 , and the voltage across current limiting reactor (inductor) Lr . The
operation of each converter is identical to that of a three phase full converter.
   
During the interval   1  to   1  , the line to line voltage vab appears across the output of
6  2 
converter 1 and vbc appears across the output of converter 2

 2 
vYN  vbn  Vm sin   t    Vm sin  t  120 
0
 3 
 2 
vBN  vcn  Vm sin   t    Vm sin  t  120   Vm sin t  240
 
0 0
 3 
The corresponding line-to-line supply voltages are
 
 6
90
 
vYB  vbc   vbn  vcn   3Vm sin   t  
 2
 
vBR  vca   vcn  van   3Vm sin   t  
 2
TO OBTAIN AN EXPRESSION FOR THE CIRCULATING CURRENT
If vO1 and vO 2 are the output voltages of converters 1 and 2 respectively, the instantaneous
   
voltage across the current limiting inductor during the interval   1    t    1  is
6  2 
vr   vO1  vO 2    vab  vbc 
91
     
vr  3Vm sin   t    sin   t   
  6  2 
 
vr  3Vm cos   t  
 6
The circulating current can be calculated by using the equation
t
1
ir  t    vr .d  t 
 Lr 
1
6
t
1  
ir  t    3Vm cos   t   .d  t 
 Lr   6
1
6
3Vm    
ir  t   sin   t  6   sin 1 
 Lr    
3Vm
ir  max   = maximum value of the circulating current.
 Lr
There are two different modes of operation of a three phase dual converter system.
Circulating current free (non circulating) mode of operation
Circulating current mode of operation
CIRCULATING CURRENT FREE (NON-CIRCULATING) MODE OF OPERATION
In this mode of operation only one converter is switched on at a time when the converter number
1 is switched on and the gate signals are applied to the thyristors the average output voltage and
the average load current are controlled by adjusting the trigger angle 1 and the gating signals of
converter 1 thyristors.
The load current flows in the downward direction giving a positive average load current
when the converter 1 is switched on. For 1  900 the converter 1 operates in the rectification
mode Vdc is positive, I dc is positive and hence the average load power Pdc is positive.
The converter 1 converts the input ac supply and feeds a dc power to the load. Power
flows from the ac supply to the load during the rectification mode. When the trigger angle 1 is
92
increased above 90 0 , Vdc becomes negative where as I dc is positive because the thyristors of
converter 1 conduct in only one direction and reversal of load current through thyristors of
converter 1 is not possible.
For 1  900 converter 1 operates in the inversion mode & the load energy is supplied back to
the ac supply. The thyristors are switched-off when the load current decreases to zero & after a
short delay time of about 10 to 20 milliseconds, the converter 2 can be switched on by
releasing the gate control signals to the thyristors of converter 2.
We obtain a reverse or negative load current when the converter 2 is switched ON. The
average or dc output voltage and the average load current are controlled by adjusting the trigger
angle  2 of the gate trigger pulses supplied to the thyristors of converter 2. When  2 is less than
90 0 , converter 2 operates in the rectification mode and converts the input ac supply in to dc
output power which is fed to the load.
When  2 is less than 90 0 for converter 2, Vdc is negative & I dc is negative, converter 2
operates as a controlled rectifier & power flows from the ac source to the load circuit. When  2
is increased above 900, the converter 2 operates in the inversion mode with Vdc positive and I dc
negative and hence Pdc is negative, which means that power flows from the load circuit to the
input ac supply.
The power flow from the load circuit to the input ac source is possible if the load circuit
has a dc source of appropriate polarity.
When the load current falls to zero the thyristors of converter 2 turn-off and the
converter 2 can be turned off.
CIRCULATING CURRENT MODE OF OPERATION

Both the converters are switched on at the same time in the mode of operation. One converter
operates in the rectification mode while the other operates in the inversion mode. Trigger angles
1 &  2 are adjusted such that 1   2   1800
When 1  900 , converter 1 operates as a controlled rectifier. When  2 is made greater
than 90 0 , converter 2 operates in the inversion mode. Vdc , I dc , Pdc are positive.
When  2  900 , converter 2 operates as a controlled rectifier. When 1 is made greater
than 90 0 , converter 1 operates as an Inverter. Vdc and I dc are negative while Pdc is positive.
Problems
93
5. A 3 phase fully controlled bridge rectifier is operating from a 400 V, 50 Hz supply. The

thyristors are fired at   . There is a FWD across the load. Find the average output voltage
4
for   450 and   750 .NOV/DEC-13
GIVEN:

  ,400 V, 50 Hz
4
TO FIND:
Vdc
SOLUTION:
3Vm
For   450 , Vdc  cos 

3  2  400
Vdc  cos 450  382 Volts

1  cos  600    
6Vm
For   750 , Vdc 
2  
6  2  400
Vdc  1  cos  600  750  
2  
Vdc  158.4 Volts
6. A 6 pulse converter connected to 415 V ac supply is controlling a 440 V dc motor. Find
the angle at which the converter must be triggered so that the voltage drop in the circuit is 10%
of the motor rated voltage.
Given:
V=415 V
To find:
α
Solution:
94
44V
A
+ Ra La
3 phase 484 +
B Full Wave V=V0 440 V
Rectifier 

C
Ra - Armature resistance of motor.
La - Armature Inductance.
If the voltage across the armature has to be the rated voltage i.e., 440 V, then the output voltage
of the rectifier should be 440 + drop in the motor
That is 440  01 440  484 Volts .
3Vm cos 
Therefore VO   484

3  2  415  cos 
That is  484

Therefore   30.27 0
7. A 3 phase half controlled bridge rectifier is feeding a RL load. If input voltage is 400

sin314t and SCR is fired at   . Find average load voltage. If any one supply line is
4
disconnected what is the average load voltage.April-18-PART-C
GIVEN:

V=400 sin314t ,SCR is fired at   .
4
TO FIND:
Vdc
95
SOLUTION:
 
 radians which is less than
4 3
3Vm
Therefore Vdc  1  cos  
2
3  400
Vdc  1  cos 450 
2
Vdc  326.18 Volts
If any one supply line is disconnected, the circuit behaves like a single phase half controlled
rectifies with RL load.
Vm
Vdc  1  cos  

400
Vdc  1  cos 450 

Vdc  217.45 Volts
12. Describe the effect of load inductance on the performance of a single phase full
converter indicating clearly the conduction of various thyristors during one cycle. Derive
the expression for its output voltage.APR/MAY-2011,NOV/DEC-2009, NOV/DEC-2008,
MAY/JUNE-2013.
(or)
Discuss the effect of source inductance on the performance of single phase full
converter.MAY/JUNE-2014.
Actually, in practice, inductance and resistance must be present in the supply source, and time is
required for a current change to take place. The net result is that the current commutation is
delayed, as it takes a finite time for the current to decay to zero in the outgoing thyristor, while the
current will rise at the same rate in the incoming thyristor. Thus, in practice, the commutation
process may occupy a quite significant period of time, during which both the "incoming" and
"outgoing" thyristors are simultaneous in conduction. This period, during which both the outgoing
96
and incoming thyristors are conducting, is known as the overlap period and the angle for which
both devices share conduction is known as the overlap angle (µ) or commutation angle.
During this "commutation overlap" period, the waveforms of the voltage at the output terminals
of the converter, as well as the current and voltage at the input terminal are different from those
obtained with zero-source inductance. This has the modifying effect upon the external
performance characteristics of the converter. At the output terminals, the effect of the input
source inductance is to cause a loss of mean voltage, as well as modification to the harmonic
distortion terms, while at the input terminals, a slight reduction of displacement factor, with
respect to the a.c. source voltage, as well as the modification to the distortion-terms in the current
waveform, takes place.
The inductive reactance of the a.c. supply is normally much greater than its resistance and, as it
is the inductance which delays to current change, it is reasonable to neglect the supply resistance.
However, if the source impedance is resistive, then there will be a drop across this resistance and
the average output voltage of a converter gets reduced by an amount equivalent to the average
drop. Since the source resistance is usually small, the commutation angle during which the
load_current is transferred from thc_outgoing,to the incoming thvristors is generally
neglected.the effect of source inductance is investigated in this section for both single-phase and
three fully controlled converter.
Single-Phase Fully-Controlled Converters

 The commutation overlap is more predominant in full converters than semi converters.
 LS – source inductance
 Load current assumed constant
 When the terminal L of the source voltage eS, is positive, then the current flows through
the path L-Ls-T1-R-L-T2-N
 Similarly when terminal N is positive the load current flows through N-T3-Load-T4-Ls-L
97
(b)Equivalent circuit
98
 When T1,T2 are triggered at a firing angle α, the commutation of already conducting
thyristors T3,T4 begins.
 Because of the presence of source inductance Ls, the current through the outgoing
thyristors T3, T4 gradually decreases to zerofrom initial value of Id
 For T1, T2 current builds to full value of load current, Id
 During the overlap angle μ, KVL for the loop OPQRO gives
99
𝑑𝑖𝑇1 𝑑𝑖3
𝑒1 − 𝐿𝑠 = 𝑒2 − 𝐿𝑠
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑒1 − 𝑒2 = 𝐿𝑠 −
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
But from fig 6.51(c), we have the relation
𝑒1 = 𝐸𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡
𝑒2 = −𝐸𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡
Sub e1, e2 in above eqn.
𝐸𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡 + 𝐸𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡 = 𝐿𝑠 −
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
2𝐸𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡 = 𝐿𝑠 − − − − − − −(1)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
Since load current is assumed constant
𝑖 𝑇1 + 𝑖 𝑇3 = 𝐼𝑑
Differentiating w.r.t t
𝑑𝑖𝑇1 𝑑𝑖𝑇3
=−
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
Sub above in (1)
𝑑𝑖𝑇1 𝑑𝑖𝑇1
2𝐸𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡 = 𝐿𝑠 +
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑖𝑇1
2𝐸𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡 = 𝐿𝑠 2
𝑑𝑡
2𝐸𝑚 𝑑𝑖𝑇1
sin 𝜔𝑡 =
2𝐿𝑠 𝑑𝑡
𝐸𝑚 𝑑𝑖𝑇1
sin 𝜔𝑡 = − − − − − (2)
𝐿𝑠 𝑑𝑡
If the overlap angle isμ then the current through the thyristor pair T1, T2 builds up from zerp to
Id during this interval
Therefore, at 𝜔𝑡 = 𝛼, 𝑖 𝑇1 = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎𝑡 𝜔𝑡 = (𝛼 + 𝜇, 𝑖 𝑇1 = 𝐼𝑑 )
Integrating eqn. (2)
100
(𝛼+𝜇 )
𝐼𝑑
𝐸𝑚 𝜔
𝑑𝑖𝑇1 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔𝑡𝑑(𝜔𝑡)
0 𝐿𝑠 𝛼
𝜔
𝐸𝑚
𝐼𝑑 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝛼 + 𝜇) − − − (3)
𝜔𝐿𝑠
The avg. output voltage is given by
𝜋+𝛼
𝐸𝑚
𝐸𝑑𝑐 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔𝑡𝑑(𝜔𝑡)
𝜋 𝛼+𝜇
𝐸𝑚
𝐸𝑑𝑐 = [−𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑡]𝜋+𝛼
𝛼+𝜇
𝜋
𝐸𝑚
𝐸𝑑𝑐 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛼 + 𝜇 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛼 + 𝜋 − − − −(4)
𝜋
From eqn.(3)
𝜔𝐿𝑠
𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛼 + 𝜇 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼 − 𝐼 − − − −(5)
𝐸𝑚 𝑑
Sub the value 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛼 + 𝜇 in eqn.(4) we get
𝐸𝑚 𝜔𝐿𝑠
𝐸𝑑𝑐 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼 − 𝐼 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛼 + 𝜋
𝜋 𝐸𝑚 𝑑
𝐸𝑚 𝜔𝐿𝑠
𝐸𝑑𝑐 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼 − 𝐼 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛼
𝜋 𝐸𝑚 𝑑
2𝐸𝑚 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼 𝜔𝐿𝑠
𝐸𝑑𝑐 = − 𝐼 − − − −(6)
𝜋 𝐸𝑚 𝑑
Also from eqn (5)
𝜔𝐿𝑠
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛼 + 𝜇 + 𝐼 − − − (7)
𝐸𝑚 𝑑
𝑆𝑢𝑏 7 𝑖𝑛(6)
2𝐸𝑚 𝜔𝐿𝑠 𝜔𝐿𝑠
𝐸𝑑𝑐 = [𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛼 + 𝜇 + 𝐼𝑑 ] − 𝐼
𝜋 𝐸𝑚 𝐸𝑚 𝑑
2𝐸𝑚 2𝐸𝑚 𝜔𝐿𝑠 𝜔𝐿𝑠
𝐸𝑑𝑐 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛼 + 𝜇 + 𝐼𝑑 − 𝐼
𝜋 𝜋 𝐸𝑚 𝐸𝑚 𝑑
2𝐸𝑚 𝜔𝐿𝑠
𝐸𝑑𝑐 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛼 + 𝜇 + 𝐼 − − − (8)
𝜋 𝐸𝑚 𝑑
𝑊𝑖𝑡𝑕 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑕𝑒𝑙𝑝 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑣𝑒 𝑒𝑞𝑛 𝑤𝑒 𝑐𝑎𝑛 𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑤 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚 𝑓𝑜𝑟 2 𝑝𝑢𝑙𝑠𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑝𝑕𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑓𝑢𝑙𝑙 𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑
101
𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑒𝑟
As long as the commutation angle μ is less than ᴫ, the output voltage is given by eqn(8)
When μ is equal to ᴫ, the load will be permanently short circuited by SCRs and the output
voltage will be zero because during the overlap period, all SCRs will be conduction
102
THREE PHASE FULLY CONTROLLED BRIDGE CONVERTER(Six pulse bridge

converter)
Three phase fully controlled bridge converter with a Source inductance Ls in each line is shown.
In this case also the load current Id is assumed to be constant.
 The conduction of various SCRs with firing angle α is shown in the waveform
 The effect of overlap is shown in waveform (c)
o At ωt = 0 to 30° thyristor T3, T5 conducts
o At ωt=30º to (30º+μ) T3, T5, T1 conducts
o After ωt=(30º+μ) T5 and T1 conducts
o At ωt=90° to (90º+μ) T5, T1, T6 conducts
o After ωt=(90º+μ) T1 and T6 conducts
o The above sequence is repeated
The sequence of conduction is as shown below
103
VOLTAGE AND CURRENT WAVEFORM
104
 Hence it become clear that 3 Thyristor and 2 Thyristor conduct alternatively

 It is observed that for a six pulse converter , there are six shaded region which indicates sis
commutation in each cycle of the supply voltage
13. A single phase full converter is feeding a RLE load with source voltage 230V, the
average load current is 10A and R=0.04Ω, L=2mH. Find the firing angle α for E = 120V
and E = -120V. (Nov/Dec 2016)
Solution:
Given: Vs=230V, Idc=10A, R=0.04 Ω, L=2mH
(a) For E=120V, the full converter is operating as a controlled rectifier (i.e.
rectification mode)
2𝑉𝑚
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼 = 𝐸 + 𝐼𝑑𝑐 𝑅
𝜋
2 × 2 × 230
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼 = 120 + 10 × 0.4
𝜋
α = 53.21°
For α = 53.21°, power flows from AC source to DC load.
(b) For E = -120V, the full converter operating as a line commutated inverter
2 × 2 × 230
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼 = −120 + 10 × 0.4
𝜋
α = 124.1°
For α = 124.1°, power flows from DC source to AC load.
UNIVERSITY QUESTIONS
PART-A
105
1. What is the inversion mode rectifier.NOV/DEC- 2012, MAY/JUNE-2012

2. What is dual converter? APR/MAY-2011
3. Why the power factor of semi converter is better than full converter?NOV/DEC-2012,14
4. Define THD.MAY/JUNE-2012
5. Effect of Source and Load Inductanc.NOV/DEC-2009,april/may-2016
6. What is Displacement factor for two pulse converter? MAY/JUNE-2013
7. What is circuit turn-off time for single phase full converter? MAY/JUNE-2013
8. Mention the disadvantages of dual converter with circulating current mode of
operation.NOV/DEC-13
9. In a single phase full wave rectifier supply is 200 V AC. The load resistance is 10 ,   600 .
10.Find the average voltage across the load and the power consumed in the load. NOV/DEC-
13
11.What is meant by delay angle?(or) What is meant by phase control.(Nov/ Dec 2014)
12. What is dual converter? Mention its functional mode of operation. APR/MAY-2011,
May/June 2014
13. Compare half controlled rectifier and full controlled rectifier . (May/June 2014)
14. What is the effect of source impedance on the performance of converter?APR/MAY-15
15. Draw circuit and waveform of ideal dual converter. APRIL/MAY-2015
16.Mention some of the applications of controlled rectifier. NOV/DEC-2015
17.What is the function of freewheeling diodes in controlled rectifier? APR/MAY-16
18.What is commutation angle or overlap angle? NOV/DEC-2015
PART-B
1. Explain the operation of single phase half wave controlled rectifier with RL load and
freewheeling diode with neat waveforms.MAY/JUNE-2013.PG.NO:21
2. Describe the effect of load inductance on the performance of a single phase full converter
indicating clearly the conduction of various thyristors during one cycle. Derive the
expression for its output voltage.APR/MAY-2011,NOV/DEC-2009, NOV/DEC-2008,
MAY/JUNE-2013..PG.NO:84(OR)
Discuss the effect of source inductance on the performance of single phase full converter.
MAY/JUNE-2014.
3. Describe the operation of a 1 phase two pulse bridge converter in the inverter mode with RLE
load.MAY/JUNE-2012,16,NOV/DEC-2009.PG.NO:39
4. Explain the principle of operation of single phase dual converter with neat power circuit
diagram.APR/MAY-2011, MAY/JUNE-2013,NOV/DEC-13,14,15.PG.NO:44
106
5. Explain the operation of three phase semi converter with neat waveforms.NOV/DEC-
2012.PG.NO:68
6. With necessary circuit and waveforms, explain the principle of operation of 6-pulse converter.
Derive the expression for average output voltage in it.MAY/JUNE-2012, NOV/DEC-
2008.PG.NO:74
7. Describe the working of single phase full converter in the rectifier mode with RL load.
Discuss how one pair of SCR is commutated by an incoming pair of SCR. Illustrate your
answer with the waveforms of source voltage, load voltage and source current. Assume
continuous conduction. Also derive the expressions for average and rms output
voltage.NOV/DEC-13APRIL/MAY-2015.PG.NO:27
8. Explain the two functional modes of dual converter with necessary diagrams. MAY/JUNE-
2014.PG.NO:44 (OR)
With neat sketch describe voltage and current waveforms of a circulating current type dual
converter.APRIL/MAY-2015,16.
9. A 230V, 50Hz, supply is connected to load resistance of 12ohm through half wave controlled
rectifier. If the firing angle is 60degree, determine
4. Transformer Utilization Factor (TUF) NOV/DEC-2014.PG.NO:59
10. Explain the operation of three phase 3-pulse converter with r-load.derive for average output
voltage. NOV/DEC-2015.PG.NO.61
11.A single phase full wave controlled rectifier is used to supply a resistive load of 10 from a
230 V, 50 Hz, supply and firing angle of 900. What is its mean load voltage? If a large
inductance is added in series with the load resistance, what will be the new output load
voltage? NOV/DEC-13,15.PG.NO:57
12.Explain the operation of Three Phase Dual Converters with neat waveforms.MAY/JUNE-
2016
107
POWER ELECTRONICS-EE6503 - UNIT-III
PART-A (TWO MARKS)

1. What is meant by commutation?
It is the process of changing the direction of current flow in a particular path of the circuit. This
process is used in thyristors for turning it off.
2. What are the types of commutation?
a. Natural commutation
b. Forced commutation
3. What is meant by natural commutation?
Here the current flowing through the Thyristor goes through a natural zero and enable the
Thyristor to turn off.
4. What is meant by forced commutation?NOV/DEC-2009
In this commutation, the current flowing through the Thyristoris forced to become zero by
external circuitry.
5. What is meant by dc chopper? MAY/JUNE-2012 ,NOV/DEC-2013
A dc chopper is a high speed static switch used to obtain variable dc voltage from a constant dc
voltage.
6. What are the applications& advantages of dc chopper? (Apr/May-2017)NOV-09,NOV/DEC-

2014
Applications:
a. Battery operated vehicles

b. Traction motor control in electric traction
c. Trolley cars
d. Marine hoists
e. Mine haulers
f. Electric braking.
Advantages:
Chopper provides
a. High efficiency
b. Smooth acceleration
1
c. Fast dynamic response

d. Regeneration
7. What is meant by step-up and step-down chopper?

In a step- down chopper or Buck converter, the average output voltage is less than the input
voltage. In a step- up chopper or Boost converter, the average output voltage is more than the
input voltage.
8. Write down the expression for average output voltage for step down chopper.
𝑉𝑂 = 𝛼𝑉𝑆 , α is the duty cycle
9. Write down the expression for average output voltage for step up chopper.
1
𝑉𝑂 = 𝛼𝑉𝑆 , α is the duty cycle
1−𝛼
10. Define the term duty-cycle in DC-DC converters.MAY/JUNE-2012, NOV/DEC-15.MAY/JUNE-

16
Duty cycle is defined as the ratio of the on time of the chopper to the total time period of the
chopper. It is denoted by .
11. What are the two types of control strategies for chopper Circuit?(NOV / DEC 2016),
(MAY/JUNE-2013)
a. Time Ratio Control (TRC)

b. Current Limit Control method (CLC)
12. What is meant by time ratio control TRC?NOV/DEC-2013,APRIL/MAY-2015
In TRC, the value of Ton / T is varied in order to change the average output voltage.
13. What are the two types of TRC?
a. Constant frequency control
b. Variable frequency control
14. What is meant by FM control in a dc chopper?
In frequency modulation control, the chopping frequency f (or the chopping period T) is varied.
Here two controls are possible.
a. On-time Ton is kept constant
2
b. Off period Toff is kept constant.
15. What is meant by PWM control in dc chopper?(OR)What is constant frequency of

chopper?NOV/DEC-2012,15.MAY/JUNE-16
In this control method, the on time Ton is varied but chopping frequency is kept constant. The
width of the pulse is varied and hence this type of control is known as Pulse Width Modulation
(PWM).
16. Write down the expression for the average output voltage for step down and step up
chopper.
Average output voltage for step down chopper is𝑉𝑂 = 𝛼𝑉𝑆 . Average output voltage for step up
1
chopper is𝑉𝑂 = 𝛼𝑉𝑆 ,
1−𝛼
17. What are the different types of chopper with respect to commutation process? NOV/DEC-
2009
a. Voltage commutated chopper.

b. Current commutated chopper.
c. Load commutated chopper.
18. What is meant by voltage commutation?
In this process, a charged capacitor momentarily reverses biases the conducting Thyristor and
turn it off.
19. What is meant by current commutation?
In this process, a current pulse is made to flow in the reverse direction through the conducting
thyristor and when the net thyristor current becomes zero, it is turned off.
20. What is meant by load commutation?
In this process, the load current flowing through the thyristor either becomes zero or is
transferred to another device from the conducting thyristor.
21. What are the advantages of current commutated chopper?
a. The capacitor always remains charged with the correct polarity.

b. Commutation is reliable as load current is less than the peak commutation current ICP.
c. The auxiliary thyristor TA is naturally commutated as its current passes through zero value.
3
22. What are the advantages of load commutated chopper?
a. Commutating inductor is not required.

b. It is capable of commutating any amount of load current.
c. It can work at high frequencies in the order of kHz.
d. Filtering requirements are minimal.
23. What are the disadvantages of load commutated chopper?
a. For high power applications, efficiency becomes very low because of high switching losses
at high operating frequencies.
b. Freewheeling diode is subjected to twice the supply voltage.
c. Peak load voltage is equal to twice the supply voltage.
d. The commutating capacitor has to carry full load current at a frequency of half chopping
frequency.
e. One thyristor pair should be turned-on only when the other pair is commutated. This can be
realized by sensing the capacitor current that is alternating.
24. What is meant by resonant converter? Nov/Dec 2017,April/May-18.

A converter operated with LC resonant is called resonant converter. The PWM control is
used in the converter circuits to get the desired shape of the output voltage or current.
Mainly, resonant converters employ Zero Current Switching (ZCS) and Zero Voltage
Switching (ZVS).
25. What is the need for resonant converter? (or)Give the uses of resonant switching.
MAY/JUNE-2013
Because,
i) It reduces electromagnetic interference
ii) It reduces the power losses
iii) Compact in size
26. Brief up the working of four quadrant DC chopper.NOV/DEC-2012
4
27. What is meant by SMPS and mention its two advantages? (Or) what are the advantages of
SMPS over phase controlled rectifiers? APR/MAY-2011
 SMPS means Switched mode power supply and is an electronic device which converts or
switches required dc voltage to the appliances.
 The main advantage of this method is greater efficiency because the switching transistor
dissipates little power when it is outside of its active region (i.e., when the transistor acts like
a switch and either has a negligible voltage drop across it or a negligible current through it).
 Other advantages include smaller size and lighter weight (from the elimination of low
frequency transformers which have a high weight) and lower heat generation due to higher
efficiency.
28. What are the advantages and disadvantages of CUK converter? May-2014
Advantages:
1. Low switching losses.

2. Continuous output current since intermediate energy transfer takes place
through capacitor.
3. High Efficiency.
Disadvantages:
1. Additional inductor and capacitor is required.
29. What are the different circuit configurations used for SMPS? May-2014
1. Flyback converter.
2. Forward converter.
3. Cuk converter.
4. SEPIC converter.
5. Buck converter.
6. Boost converter.
7. Buck-Boost converter.
30. Define Current Limit Control in DC-DC converter. APR/MAY-2015,18

The current changes between the maximum and minimum values, if it (current) is continuous. In
the current limit control strategy, the switch in dc-dc converter (chopper) is turned ON and OFF,
so that the current is maintained between two (upper and lower) limits.
5
31. Comparison between TRC and CLC.NOV/DEC-14
TRC CLC
1) Duty cycle depends upon ON and OFF time 1) Duty cycle depends upon minimum
Of thyristor and maximum values of load current
32. What are the different classifications of chopper depending upon the direction of
current and voltage? Nov/Dec 2016
Depending on the direction of current and voltage, choppers can be classified into following
types
1. Type-A Chopper (or) First Quadrant Chopper
2. Type-B Chopper (or) Second Quadrant Chopper
3. Type-C Chopper (or) Two Quadrant Type-A Chopper
4. Type-D Chopper (or) Two Quadrant Type-B Chopper
5. Type-E Chopper (or) Four Quadrant Chopper
33.What is the effect of load inductance on the load current waveforms in the case of DC
chopper ?Nov/Dec-17
In choppers, the source inductance should be as small as possible to limit the transient voltage.
Usually an input filter is used to overcome the problem of source inductance. Also source
inductance may cause commutation problem for the chopper. The load ripple current is inversely
proportional to load inductance and chopping frequency. Therefore the peak load current
depends on load inductance. To limit the load ripple current, a smoothing inductor is connected
in series with the load.
34.what is the disadvantage of frequency modulated chopper ?Nov/Dec-17
 Requires more complicated demodulator
 Some other modes have higher data spectral efficiency
 Sidebands extend to infinity either side
INTRODUCTION
 A chopper is a static device which is used to obtain a variable dc voltage from a constant dc
voltage source. A chopper is also known as dc-to-dc converter.
 The thyristors converter offers greater efficiency, faster response, lower maintenance, smaller
size and smooth control.
 Choppers are widely used in trolley cars, battery operated vehicles, traction motor control,
control of large number of dc motors, etc…..
 They are also used in regenerative braking of dc motors to return energy back to supply and
also as dc voltage regulators.
6
Choppers are of two types

 Step-down choppers
 Step-up choppers.
In step-down choppers, the output voltage will be less than the input voltage whereas in
step-up choppers output voltage will be more than the input voltage.
PART-B
1. EXPLAIN THE PRINCIPLE OPERATION OF STEP-DOWN CHOPPER WITH R
LOAD.(OR)DISCUSS THE PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION OF DC-DC STEP DOWN
CHOPPER WITH SUITABLE WAVEFORM.DERIVE AN EXPRESSION FOR ITS
AVERAGE DC OUTPUT VOLTAGE.NOV/DEC-15,17
Fig. 1: Step-down Chopper with Resistive Load
 Figure 1 shows a step-down chopper with resistive load. The thyristor in the circuit acts
as a switch.
 When thyristor is ON, supply voltage appears across the load and when thyristor is OFF,
the voltage across the load will be zero.
 The output voltage and current waveforms are as shown in figure 2.
7
v0
V
Vdc
t
tON tOFF
i0
V/R
Idc
t
T
Fig. 2: Step-down choppers — output voltage and current waveforms
Vdc = average value of output or load voltage

I dc = average value of output or load current
tON = time interval for which SCR conducts
tOFF = time interval for which SCR is OFF.
T  tON  tOFF = period of switching or chopping period
1
f   frequency of chopper switching or chopping frequency.
T
Average output voltage:

 tON 
Vdc  V   ...  2.1
 tON  tOFF 
t 
Vdc  V  ON   V .d ...  2.2 
 T 
t 
but  ON   d  duty cycle ...  2.3 
 t 
Average output current:
V
I dc  dc ...  2.4 
R
8
V  tON  V
I dc    d ...  2.5 
R T  R
RMS value of output voltage:
tON
1
VO   v dt
2
o
T 0
But during tON , vo  V
Therefore RMS output voltage

tON
1
VO  V
2
dt
T 0
V2 t
VO  tON  ON .V ...  2.6 
T T
VO  d .V ...  2.7 
Output power:
PO  VO I O
VO
But IO 
R
VO2
Therefore output power PO 
R
dV 2
PO  ...  2.8 
R
Effective input resistance of chopper:

V
Ri  ...  2.9 
I dc
R
Ri  ...  2.10 
d
The output voltage can be varied by varying the duty cycle.
9
2. EXPLAIN THE PRINCIPLE OPERATION OF STEP-DOWN CHOPPER WITH R-L

LOAD
 Figure 3 shows a step-down chopper with R-L load and freewheeling diode.
 When chopper is ON, the supply is connected across the load. Current flows from the
supply to the load.
 When chopper is OFF, the load current iO continues to flow in the same direction
through the free-wheeling diode due to the energy stored in the inductor L.
 The load current can be continuous or discontinuous depending on the values of L and
duty cycle, d.
 For a continuous current operation the load current is assumed to vary between two limits
I min and I max .
 Figure 4 shows the output current and output voltage waveforms for a continuous current
and discontinuous current operation.
Chopper
i0
+
R
V V0
FWD L
E

Fig. 3: Step Down Chopper with R-L Load
v0
Output
voltage
V
tON tOFF
t
T
i0 Output
Imax current
Continuous
Imin current
t
i0 Output
current
Discontinuous
current
t
10
Fig. 4: Output Voltage and Load Current Waveforms (Continuous Current)

 When the current exceeds I max the chopper is turned-off and it is turned-on when current
reduces to I min .
EXPRESSIONS FOR LOAD CURRENT iO FOR CONTINUOUS CURRENT

OPERATION WHEN CHOPPER IS ON  0  t  tON 
i0
+
R
V V0
L
E
-
Fig. 3 (a)
Voltage equation for the circuit shown in figure 3(a) is
diO
V  iO R  L E ...  2.11
dt
Taking Laplace Transform

 RI O  S   L  S .I O  S   iO  0   
V E
...  2.12 
S S
At t  0 , initial current iO  0   I min

V E I
IO  S    min ...  2.13
 R R
LS  S   S 
 L L
Taking Inverse Laplace Transform
V E   t 
 R  R
 t
iO  t   1  e     I min e  
L L
...  2.14 
R  
This expression is valid for 0  t  tON . i.e., during the period chopper is ON.
At the instant the chopper is turned off, load current is
iO  tON   I max
11
When Chopper is OFF  0  t  tOFF 

i0
Fig. 3 (b)
Voltage equation for the circuit shown in figure 3(b) is

di
0  RiO  L O  E ...  2.15 
dt
Taking Laplace transform

0  RI O  S   L  SI O  S   iO  0   
E
S
Redefining time origin we have at t  0 , initial current iO  0   I max
I max E
Therefore I O  S   
S
R  R
LS  S  
L  L
Taking Inverse Laplace Transform
R
 t E  t
R
iO  t   I max e L
 1  e L
 ...  2.16 
R 
The expression is valid for 0  t  tOFF , i.e., during the period chopper is OFF. At the instant
the chopper is turned ON or at the end of the off period, the load current is
iO  tOFF   I min
TO FIND I max AND I min
From equation (2.14),
At t  tON  dT , iO  t   I max
V E  
dRT
 
dRT
Therefore I max  1  e L

 min
I e L
...  2.17 
R  
12
From equation (2.16),
At t  tOFF  T  tON , iO  t   I min
t  tOFF  1  d  T
1 d  RT 1 d  RT
 E  
Therefore I min  I max e L
 1  e L
 ...  2.18 
R  
Substituting for I min in equation (2.17) we get,
 
dRT

V 1  e L  E
I max  ...  2.19 
R 
RT  R
 1  e 
L
Substituting for I max in equation (2.18) we get,
 dRT 
V  e L  1 E
I min   ...  2.20 
R  RTL  R
 e  1 
 I max  I min  is known as the steady state ripple.
Therefore peak-to-peak ripple current

I  I max  I min
Average output voltage:

Vdc  d .V ...  2.21
Average output current:

I max  I min
I dc approx   ...  2.22 
2
Assuming load current varies linearly from I min to I max instantaneous load current is
given by
13
iO  I min 
 I  .t for 0  t  tON  dT 
dT
I I 
iO  I min   max min t ...  2.23
 dT 
RMS value of load current:

dT
1
I O RMS    i dt
2
0
dT 0
 I max  I min  t  dt
2
1
dT

I O RMS  
dT 
0
 I min 
 dT


 2  I max  I min  2 2 I min  I max  I min  t 

dT 2
1
I O RMS   0  I min   dT  t   dt
dT  dT 
RMS value of output current:

1
 2  I max  I min  2
2
I O RMS    I min   I min  I max  I min   ...  2.24 

 3 
RMS chopper current:
dT
1
  i dt
2
I CH 0
T 0
2
 I I  
dT
1
I CH 
T 0  I min   maxdT min  t  dt
1
 2  I max  I min  2
2
I CH  d  I min   I min  I max  I min  

 3 
ICH  d IO RMS  ...  2.25
Effective input resistance:

V
Ri 
IS
Where I S = Average source current
14
I S  dI dc
V
Therefore Ri  ...  2.26 
dI dc
3. EXPLAIN THE OPERATION OF STEP-UP CHOPPER AND DERIVE AN EXPRESSION

FOR ITS OUTPUT VOLTAGE.APR/DEC 2017, NOV/DEC 2016,MAY/JUNE-
2013,NOV/DEC-2014
(OR)
EXPLAIN THE PRINCIPLE OF WORKING OF A STEP-UP CHOPPER WIYH NEAT
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM AND NECESSARY WAVEFORMS. DERIVE AN EXPRESSION
FOR ITS OUTPUT VOLTAGE.NOV/DEC-2013,APR/MAY-2015
I L D
+
+ 
L
C O VO
V A
D
Chopper

Fig. 5: Step-up Chopper
 Figure 5 shows a step-up chopper to obtain a load voltage VO higher than the input
voltage V. The values of L and C are chosen depending upon the requirement of output
voltage and current.
 When the chopper is ON, the inductor L is connected across the supply. The inductor
current ‘I’ rises and the inductor stores energy during the ON time of the chopper, tON .
 When the chopper is off, the inductor current I is forced to flow through the diode D and
load for a period, tOFF .
 The current tends to decrease resulting in reversing the polarity of induced EMF in L.
Therefore voltage across load is given by,
dI
VO  V  L i.e., VO  V ...  2.27 
dt
 If a large capacitor ‘C’ is connected across the load then the capacitor will provide a
continuous output voltage VO .
15
 Diode D prevents any current flow from capacitor to the source. Step up choppers are
used for regenerative braking of dc motors.
EXPRESSION FOR OUTPUT VOLTAGE

Assume the average inductor current to be I during ON and OFF time of Chopper.
When Chopper is ON
Voltage across inductor L  V
Therefore energy stored in inductor = V .I .tON ...  2.28 ,
where tON  ON period of chopper.
When Chopper is OFF (energy is supplied by inductor to load)
Voltage across L  VO  V
Energy supplied by inductor L  VO  V  ItOFF , where tOFF  OFF period of Chopper.
Neglecting losses, energy stored in inductor L = energy supplied by inductor L
Therefore VItON  VO  V  ItOFF
V tON  tOFF 
VO 
tOFF
 T 
VO  V  
 T  tON 
Where T = Chopping period or period of switching.
T  tON  tOFF
 
 1 
VO  V  
t
 1  ON 
 T 
 1 
Therefore VO  V   ...  2.29 
 1 d 
tON
Where d  duty cyle
T
For variation of duty cycle ‘d’ in the range of 0  d  1 the output voltage VO will vary in
the range V  VO   .
16
4. EXPLAIN THE METHODS OF CONTROL STRATEGIES IN CHOPPER CIRCUIT?

Apr/May 2017
The output dc voltage can be varied by the following methods.
1) Pulse width modulation control or constant frequency operation.
2) Variable frequency control.
3) Current Limit Control
i) PULSE WIDTH MODULATION

 In pulse width modulation the pulse width  tON  of the output waveform is varied
keeping chopping frequency ‘f’ and hence chopping period ‘T’ constant.
 Therefore output voltage is varied by varying the ON time, tON . Figure 6 shows the
output voltage waveforms for different ON times.
V0
V
tON tOFF
t
T
V0
t
tON tOFF
Fig. 6: Pulse Width Modulation Control
ii) VARIABLE FREQUENCY CONTROL
 In this method of control, chopping frequency f is varied keeping either tON or tOFF
constant. This method is also known as frequency modulation.
 Figure 7 shows the output voltage waveforms for a constant tON and variable chopping
period T.
 In frequency modulation to obtain full output voltage, range frequency has to be varied
over a wide range.
 This method produces harmonics in the output and for large tOFF load current may
become discontinuous.
17
v0
V
tON tOFF
t
T
v0
tON tOFF
t
T
Fig. 7: Output Voltage Waveforms for Time Ratio Control

iii) CURRENT LIMIT CONTROL
 The current changes between the maximum and minimum values, if it (current) is
continuous. In the current limit control strategy, the switch in dc-dc converter (chopper)
is turned ON and OFF, so that the current is maintained between two (upper and lower)
limits.
 When the current exceed upper (maximum) limit, the switch is turned OFF. During OFF
period, the current freewheels in say, buck converter (dc-dc) through the diode,DF , and
decreases exponentially.
 When it reaches lower (minimum) limit, the switch is turned ON. This type of control is
possible, either with constant frequency, or constant ON time,Ton . This is used only,
when the load has energy storage elements, i.e. inductance, L.
 The reference values are load current or load voltage. This is shown in Fig. In this case,
the current is continuous, varying between Imax and Imin , which decides the frequency
used for switching.
 The ripple in the load current can be reduced, if the difference between the upper and
lower limits is reduced, thereby making it minimum. This in turn increases the frequency,
thereby increasing the switching losses.
Fig. Current limit control
18
iv) PERFORMANCE PARAMETERS
 The thyristor requires a certain minimum time to turn ON and turn OFF.
 Hence duty cycle d can be varied only between a minimum and a maximum value,
limiting the minimum and maximum value of the output voltage.
 Ripple in the load current depends inversely on the chopping frequency, f.
 Therefore to reduce the load ripple current, frequency should be as high as possible.
5. Explain the classifications of choppers?

Choppers are classified as follows
 Class A Chopper
 Class B Chopper
 Class C Chopper
 Class D Chopper
 Class E Chopper
6. Explain the operation of CLASS A type single quadrant chopper.
i0 v0
+
Chopper
L
O v0 V
V A
FWD D
 i0
Fig. 8: Class A Chopper and vO  iO Characteristic
 Figure 8 shows a Class A Chopper circuit with inductive load and free-wheeling diode.
When chopper is ON, supply voltage V is connected across the load i.e., vO  V and
current i0 flows as shown in figure.
 When chopper is OFF, v0 = 0 and the load current iO continues to flow in the same
direction through the free wheeling diode. Therefore the average values of output voltage
and current i.e., vO and iO are always positive.
 Hence, Class A Chopper is a first quadrant chopper (or single quadrant chopper). Figure
9 shows output voltage and current waveforms for a continuous load current.
19
ig Thyristor
gate pulse
t
i0
Output current
CH ON
t
v0 FWD Conducts
Output voltage
t
tON
T
Fig. 9: First quadrant Chopper – Output Voltage and Current Waveforms
 Class A Chopper is a step-down chopper in which power always flows from source to
load. It is used to control the speed of dc motor.
 The output current equations obtained in step down chopper with R-L load can be used to
study the performance of Class A Chopper.
7. Explain the operation of CLASS B type single quadrant chopper.

D
i0 v0
+
R
V L v0
Chopper
E i0

Fig. 10: Class B Chopper
 Fig. 10 shows a Class B Chopper circuit.
 When chopper is ON, vO  0 and E drives a current iO through Land R in a direction
opposite to that shown in figure 10. During the ON period of the chopper, the inductance
L stores energy.
 When Chopper is OFF, diode D conducts, vO  V and part of the energy stored in
inductor L is returned to the supply. Also the current iO continues to flow from the load
to source.
 Hence the average output voltage is positive and average output current is negative.
Therefore Class B Chopper operates in second quadrant. In this chopper, power flows
from load to source.
20
 Class B Chopper is used for regenerative braking of dc motor. Figure 11 shows the
output voltage and current waveforms of a Class B Chopper.
 The output current equations can be obtained as follows. During the interval diode ‘D’
conducts (chopper is off) voltage equation is given by,
i0
+
D
Conducting R
V V0
L
E
-
LdiO
V  RiO  E
dt
 For the initial condition i.e., iO  t   I min at t  0 .

 The solution of the above equation is obtained along similar lines as in step-down
chopper with R-L load
V E  t 
R R
 t
Therefore iO  t    1  e L

 min
I e L
0  t  tOFF
R  
At t  tOFF i O   t   I max
V E  tOFF 
R R
 tOFF
I max  1  e
L
  I min e
L
R  
 During the interval chopper is ON voltage equation is given by
i0
+
R
Chopper V0
ON L
E
-
21
LdiO
0  RiO  E
dt
 Redefining the time origin, at t  0 iO  t   I max .
 The solution for the stated initial condition is
R
 t E  t 
R
iO  t   I max e L
 1  e L  0  t  tON
R 
At t  tON iO  t   I min
R
 tON E  tON 
R
Therefore I min  I max e L
  1  e L

R 
ig
Thyristor
gate pulse
t
i0 tOFF tON
T
t
Output current
Imax
Imin
D
conducts Chopper
conducts
v0 Output voltage
Class B Chopper – Output Voltage and Current Waveforms
8. Explain the operation of CLASS C type TWO quadrant chopper. (May-2014)
 Class C Chopper is a combination of Class A and Class B Choppers. Figure 12 shows a

Class C two quadrant Chopper circuit.
 For first quadrant operation, CH1 is ON or D2 conducts and for second quadrant
operation, CH 2 is ON or D1 conducts.
 When CH1 is ON, the load current iO is positive. i.e., iO flows in the direction as shown
in figure 12.
22
 The output voltage is equal to V  vO  V  and the load receives power from the source.
CH1 D1
i0 v0
+
V R
CH2 D2 L v0
Chopper
i0
E

Class C Chopper
 When CH1 is turned OFF, energy stored in inductance L forces current to flow through
the diode D2 and the output voltage vO  0 , but iO continues to flow in positive direction.
 When CH 2 is triggered, the voltage E forces iO to flow in opposite direction through L
and CH 2 . The output voltage vO  0 .
 On turning OFF CH 2 , the energy stored in the inductance drives current through diode
D1 and the supply; output voltage vO  V the input current becomes negative and power
flows from load to source.
 Thus the average output voltage vO is positive but the average output current iO can take
both positive and negative values.
 Choppers CH1 and CH 2 should not be turned ON simultaneously as it would result in
short circuiting the supply.
 Class C Chopper can be used both for dc motor control and regenerative braking of dc
motor. Figure 13 shows the output voltage and current waveforms.
23
ig1
Gate pulse
of CH1
t
ig2 Gate pulse
of CH2
t
i0
Output current
D1 CH1 D2 CH2 D1 CH1 D2 CH2

ON ON ON ON
V0
Output voltage
Fig. 13: Class C Chopper – Output Voltage and Current Waveforms
9. Explain the operation of CLASS D type two quadrant chopper. (May-2014)
v0
CH1 D2
R i0 L E
V
+ v0  i0
D1 CH2
Fig. 14: Class D Chopper

 Figure 14 shows a class D two quadrant chopper circuit. When both CH1 and CH 2 are
triggered simultaneously, the output voltage vO  V and output current iO flows through
the load in the direction shown in figure 14.
 When CH1 and CH 2 are turned OFF, the load current iO continues to flow in the same
direction through load, D1 and D2 , due to the energy stored in the inductor L, but output
voltage vO  V .
24
 The average load voltage vO is positive if chopper ON-time  tON  is more than their
OFF-time  tOFF  and average output voltage becomes negative if tON  tOFF .
 Hence the direction of load current is always positive but load voltage can be positive or
negative. Waveforms are shown in figures 15 and 16.
ig1
Gate pulse
of CH1
t
ig2 Gate pulse
of CH2
t
i0
Output current
t
CH1,CH2 D1,D2 Conducting
ON
v0 Output voltage
V
Average v0
t
Output Voltage and Current Waveforms for tON  tOFF

ig1
Gate pulse
of CH1
t
ig2 Gate pulse
of CH2
t
i0
Output current
CH1
CH2
t
D1, D2
v0 Output voltage
V
t
Average v0
Fig. 16: Output Voltage and Current Waveforms for tON  tOFF
10. Explain the operation of CLASS E type four quadrant chopper.
25
CH1 D1 CH3 D3
i0 R L E
V
+ 
v0
CH2 D2 CH4 D4
Class E Chopper
v0
CH2 - D4 Conducts CH1 - CH4 ON
D1 - D4 Conducts CH4 - D2 Conducts
i0
CH3 - CH2 ON D2 - D3 Conducts

CH2 - D4 Conducts CH4 - D2 Conducts
Four Quadrant Operation

 Figure 17 shows a class E 4 quadrant chopper circuit. When CH1 and CH 4 are triggered,
output current iO flows in positive direction as shown in figure17 through CH1 and CH 4
, with output voltage vO  V . This gives the first quadrant operation.
 When both CH1 and CH 4 are OFF, the energy stored in the inductor L drives iO through
D3 and D2 in the same direction, but output voltage vO  V .
 Therefore the chopper operates in the fourth quadrant. For fourth quadrant operation the
direction of battery must be reversed. When CH 2 and CH 3 are triggered, the load current
iO flows in opposite direction and output voltage vO  V .
 Since both iO and vO are negative, the chopper operates in third quadrant. When both
CH 2 and CH 3 are OFF, the load current iO continues to flow in the same direction
through D1 and D4 and the output voltage vO  V .
 Therefore the chopper operates in second quadrant as vO is positive but iO is negative.
Figure 17(a) shows the devices which are operative in different quadrants.
26
Problem 1: For the first quadrant chopper shown in figure 18, express the following
variables as functions of V, R and duty cycle ‘d’ in case load is resistive.
Average output voltage and current
Output current at the instant of commutation
Average and rms freewheeling diode current.
RMS value of output voltage
RMS and average thyristor currents.
i0
+
Chopper
L
O v0
V FWD A
D

Solution
t 
 Average output voltage, Vdc   ON  V  dV
 T 
V dV
 Average output current, I dc  dc 
R R
 The thyristor is commutated at the instant t  tON .
V
 Therefore output current at the instant of commutation is , since V is the output voltage at
R
that instant.
 Free wheeling diode (FWD) will never conduct in a resistive load. Therefore average and
RMS free wheeling diode currents are zero.
RMS value of output voltage:

tON
1
  v dt
2
VO RMS  0
T 0
But vO  V during tON
tON
1
VO RMS   V
2
dt
T 0
27
t 
VO RMS   V 2  ON 
 T 
VO RMS   dV
tON
Where duty cycle, d
T
RMS value of thyristor current:
= RMS value of load current
VO  RMS 

R
dV

R
Average value of thyristor current:
dV
= Average value of load current 
R
Problem 2 : A Chopper circuit is operating on TRC at a frequency of 2 kHz on a 460 V

supply. If the load voltage is 350 volts, calculate the conduction period of the thyristor
in each cycle.
GIVEN:
V = 460 V, Vdc = 350 V, f = 2 kHz
TO FIND:
TON
SOLUTION:
V = 460 V, Vdc = 350 V, f = 2 kHz
1
Chopping period T 
f
1
T  0.5 m sec
2 103
t 
Output voltage Vdc   ON  V
 T 
Conduction period of thyristor
T  Vdc
tON 
V
28
0.5 103  350

tON 
460
tON  0.38 msec
Problem 3 : Input to the step up chopper is 200 V. The output required is 600 V. If the
conducting time of thyristor is 200 ssec. ComputeChopping frequency,If the pulse
width is halved for constant frequency of operation, find the new output voltage.
MAY/JUNE-12, NOV/DEC-2012
GIVEN:
V = 200 V, tON  200 s , Vdc  600V
TO FIND:
F, V
SOLUTION:
V = 200 V, tON  200 s , Vdc  600V
 T 
Vdc  V  
 T  tON 
 T 
600  200  6 
 T  200  10 
Solving for T
T  300  s
Chopping frequency
1
f 
T
1
f   3.33KHz
300 106
Pulse width is halved
200 106
Therefore tON   100 s
2
Frequency is constant
Therefore f  3.33KHz
1
T  300 s
f
29
 T 
Therefore output voltage =V 
 T  tON 
 300 106 
 200    300 Volts
6 
  300  100  10 
Problem 4: A dc chopper has a resistive load of 20 and input voltage VS  220V .
When chopper is ON, its voltage drop is 1.5 volts and chopping frequency is 10 kHz. If
the duty cycle is 80%, determine the average output voltage and the chopper on time.
GIVEN:
VS  220V , R  20 , f = 10 kHz
TO FIND:
V,TON
SOLUTION:
VS  220V , R  20 , f = 10 kHz
tON
d  0.80
T
Vch = Voltage drop across chopper = 1.5 volts
Average output voltage
t 
Vdc   ON  VS  Vch 
 T 
Vdc  0.80  220  1.5  174.8 Volts
Chopper ON time, tON  dT
1
Chopping period, T 
f
1
T  0.1103 secs  100 μsecs
10 10 3
Chopper ON time,
tON  dT
tON  0.80  0.1103
tON  0.08  10 3  80 μsecs
Problem 5: In a dc chopper, the average load current is 30 Amps, chopping frequency is
250 Hz. Supply voltage is 110 volts. Calculate the ON and OFF periods of the chopper if
the load resistance is 2 ohms. NOV/DEC-2013
GIVEN:
I dc  30 Amps , f = 250 Hz, V = 110 V, R  2
TO FIND:
30
TON, TOFF
SOLUTION:
I dc  30 Amps , f = 250 Hz, V = 110 V, R  2
1 1
Chopping period, T    4 103  4 msecs
f 250
V
I dc  dc and Vdc  dV
R
dV
Therefore I dc 
R
I R 30  2
d  dc   0.545
V 110
Chopper ON period, tON  dT  0.545  4 103  2.18 msecs
Chopper OFF period, tOFF  T  tON
tOFF  4 103  2.18 103
tOFF  1.82 103  1.82 msec
Problem 6: A dc chopper in figure 19 has a resistive load of R  10 and input voltage
of V = 200 V. When chopper is ON, its voltage drop is 2 V and the chopping frequency
is 1 kHz. If the duty cycle is 60%, determineAverage output voltageRMS value of
output voltage
Effective input resistance of chopperChopper efficiency.NOV/DEC-15
Chopper
i0
+
V R v0

Fig. 19
GIVEN:
V = 200 V, R  10 , Chopper voltage drop, Vch  2V , d = 0.60, f = 1 kHz.
TO FIND:
1) Average output voltage 2) RMS value of output voltage
3) Effective input resistance of chopper,4) Chopper efficiency
SOLUTION:
V = 200 V, R  10 , Chopper voltage drop, Vch  2V , d = 0.60, f = 1 kHz.
31
Average output voltage

Vdc  d V  Vch 
Vdc  0.60  200  2  118.8 Volts
RMS value of output voltage
VO  d V  Vch 
VO  0.6  200  2   153.37 Volts
Effective input resistance of chopper is
V V
Ri  
I S I dc
Vdc 118.8
I dc    11.88 Amps
R 10
V V 200
Ri     16.83
I S I dc 11.88
Output power is
dT
1 v02
PO 
T 
0
R
dt
V  Vch 
dT 2
1
PO 
T 
0
R
dt
d V  Vch 
2
PO 
R
0.6  200  2
2
PO   2352.24 watts
10
dT
1
Input power, Pi   ViO dt
T 0
1
dT
V V  Vch 
PO 
T 
0
R
dt
dV V  Vch  0.6  200  200  2

PO    2376 watts
R 10
Chopper efficiency,
P
  O  100
Pi
32
2352.24
 100  99%
2376
FORCED COMMUTATION
When supply is DC, natural commutation is not possible because the polarity of the
supply remains unchanged. Hence special methods must be used to reduce the SCR current
below the holding value or to apply a negative voltage across the SCR for a time interval
greater than the turn off time of the SCR. This technique is called FORCED
COMMUTATION and is applied in all circuits where the supply voltage is DC - namely,
Choppers (fixed DC to variable DC), inverters (DC to AC). Forced commutation techniques
are as follows:
 Self Commutation
 Resonant Pulse Commutation
 Complementary Commutation
 Impulse Commutation
 External Pulse Commutation.
 Load Side Commutation.
 Line Side Commutation.
11. EXPLAIN VOLTAGE OR IMPULSE COMMUTATED CHOPPER. NOV/DEC 2016,

MAY/JUNE-16,18
Impulse commutated choppers are widely used in high power circuits where load
fluctuation is not large. This chopper is also known as parallel capacitor turn-off chopper or
voltage commutated chopper or classical chopper.
Fig. 2.28 shows an impulse commutated chopper with two thyristors T1 and T2. We
shall assume that the load current remains constant at a value ILduring the commutation
process.
To start the circuit, capacitor ‘C’ is initially charged with polarity (with plate ‘a’
positive) as shown in the fig. 2.28 by triggering the thyristor T2. Capacitor ‘C’ gets charged
through ‘VS’, ‘C’, T2and load. As the charging current decays to zero thyristor T2will be
turned-off. With capacitor charged with plate ‘a’ positive the circuit is ready for operation.
For convenience the chopper operation is divided into five modes.
33
LS T1 iT1
+ a + IL +
b _C T2
iC FWD
L
O
VS A vO
D
L D1
_ _
Fig. 2.28
MODE – 1
Thyristor T1 is fired at t = 0. The supply voltage comes across the load. Load current IL
flows through T1 and load. At the same time capacitor discharges through T1, D1, L1, and ‘C’
and the capacitor reverses its voltage. This reverse voltage on capacitor is held constant by
diode D1. Fig. 2.29 shows the equivalent circuit of Mode 1.
LS T1
+ + IL
VC _C iC
L
VS O
A
D
L D1
_
Fig. 2.29
Capacitor Discharge Current
C
iC  t   V sin t
L
C
iC  t   I P sin t ; where I P  V
L
1
Where 
LC
& Capacitor Voltage
34
VC  t   V cos t
MODE – 2
Thyristor T2 is now fired to commutate thyristor T1. When T2 is ON capacitor voltage
reverse biases T1 and turns it off. Now the capacitor discharges through the load from –VS to
0 and the discharge time is known as circuit turn-off time.
Circuit turn-off time is given by
VC  C
tC 
IL
Where ILis load current.
Since tC depends on load current, it must be designed for the worst case condition which
occur at the maximum value of load current and minimum value of capacitor voltage.
Then the capacitor recharges back to the supply voltage (with plate ‘a’ positive). This
time is called the recharging time and is given by
VS  C
td 
IL
The total time required for the capacitor to discharge and recharge is called the
commutation time and it is given by
tr  tC  td
At the end of Mode-2 capacitor has recharged to ‘VS’ and the freewheeling diode starts
conducting. The equivalent circuit for Mode-2 is shown in fig. 2.30.
IL
+ LS _ IL
VC C L
VS + T2 O
A
D
_
Fig. 2.30.
35
MODE – 3
Freewheeling diode FWD starts conducting and the load current decays. The energy
stored in source inductance LS is transferred to capacitor. Instantaneous current is
i  t   I L cos t Hence capacitor charges to a voltage higher than supply voltage. T2 naturally
turns-off.
The instantaneous capacitor voltage is
LS
VC  t   VS  I L sin  S t
C
1
Where S 
LS C
Fig. 2.31 shows the equivalent circuit of Mode – 3.
IL
+ LS + IL
VS _C T2 L
VS O
A
FWD D
_
Fig. 2.31
MODE – 4
Since the capacitor has been overcharged i.e. its voltage is above supply voltage it starts
discharging in reverse direction. Hence capacitor current becomes negative. The capacitor
discharges through LS, VS, FWD, D1 and L. When this current reduces to zero D1will stop
conducting and the capacitor voltage will be same as the supply voltage fig. 2.32 shows in
equivalent circuit of Mode – 4.
LS
+ + IL
VC _C L
D1 O
VS
A
L D
_ FWD
Fig. 2.32
36
MODE – 5
In mode 5 both thyristors are off and the load current flows through the freewheeling
diode (FWD). This mode will end once thyristor T1 is fired. The equivalent circuit for mode 5
is shown in fig. 2.33
IL
L
FWD O
A
D
Fig. 2.33
Fig. 2.34 shows the current and voltage waveforms for a voltage commutated
chopper.
ic Capacitor Current
IL
0 t
Ip
iT1
Ip
IL Current through T 1
t
0
v T1
Vc Voltage across T 1
t
0
vo
Vs+Vc
Vs Output Voltage
t
vc
Vc
t
Capacitor Voltage
-Vc
tc
td
Fig. 2.34
Though voltage commutated chopper is a simple circuit it has the following disadvantages.
A starting circuit is required and the starting circuit should be such that it triggers ThyristorT2
first.
Load voltage jumps to twice the supply voltage when the commutation is initiated.
The discharging and charging time of commutation capacitor are dependent on the load
current and this limits high frequency operation, especially at low load current.
Chopper cannot be tested without connecting load.
Thyristor T1has to carry load current as well as resonant current resulting in increasing its
peak current rating.
37
12. EXPLAIN SELF COMMUTATION OR LOAD COMMUTATION OR CLASS A

COMMUTATION: (COMMUTATION BY RESONATING THE LOAD)
In this type of commutation the current through the SCR is reduced below the holding current
value by resonating the load. i.e., the load circuit is so designed that even though the supply
voltage is positive, an oscillating current tends to flow and when the current through the SCR
reaches zero, the device turns off. This is done by including an inductance and a capacitor in
series with the load and keeping the circuit under-damped. Figure 1.3 shows the circuit.
This type of commutation is used in Series Inverter Circuit.
T L Vc(0)
i R + -
Load C
Fig. 1.3: Circuit for Self Commutation

C
V
L Current i
t
0 /2 
2V
Capacitor voltage
V
t
Gate pulse
t
t
V
Voltage across SCR
Fig. 1.5: Self Commutation – Wave forms of Current and Capacitors Voltage
38
13. EXPLAIN CURRENT OR RESONANT-PULSE COMMUTATED CHOPPER.(OR)

DISCUSS IN DETAIL ABOUT THE CURRENT COMMUTATION METHOD OF TURN-
OFF SCR.NOV/DEC-2015,April/May-18
 Here T1 is the main Thyristor

 The commutation circuit consists of auxiliary Thyristor T2, capacitor C, inductor L, diode D1
and D2.
 DF is the freewheeling diode and R is the charging resistor.
 The main SCR T1 is commutated by a current pulse generated in the commutation circuitry.
 The important feature of this type of chopper is that the reverse voltage across the device is
applied through a diode connected in antiparallel to the SCR
 The turn off time of SCR increases in comparison with the voltage commutations.
 Similar to voltage commutated chopper, the energy from the current commutation comes
from the energy stored in the capacitor.
 To start the circuit the capacitor is charged to a voltage Edc, through the path Edc+ - C - R –
Edc- .
 The main Thyristor T1 is triggered at t=t0, so the load voltage e0 = Edc and load current i0=I0m,
upto t=ti as shown in waveform
 The commutation process is divided into several modes. They are
Mode I operation
39
 At time t=t1, auxiliary SCR T2 is triggered to commutate the main Thyristor T1. When
E
Thyristor T2 is turned on an oscillatory current ic = ωdcL sinωr t is set up in the circuit
r
consisting of C, T2 and L.
 At t2, the capacitor current ic reverses, therefore SCR T2 gets turned off due to natural
commutation and at t2, Vc = -Edc
 In this mode the Thyristor T1 remains unaffected and hence load voltage and load current
remains Edc and I0mrespectively
Mode II operation
 Since T2 is turned off at t2, oscillatory current ic flows through C, L, D2, and T1
 After t2, current ic would flow through Thyristor T1 and not through D1, because D1 is
reverse biased by a small voltage drop across conducting Thyristor T1. Hence after t2, ic
would flow through T1 and not through D1. As current ic flows in the opposite direction
in T1, it decreases the current iT1
 At t3, ic = iT1 and so the net current through T1 is zero and it turns off. As the oscillatory
current through T1 turns it OFF, it is called as current commutated chopper. During this
mode load voltage Edc remains through T1
Mode III operation
 Since T1 is turned off at t3, ic becomes more than i0

 After t3, ic supplies load current i0 and diode D1 begins to conduct the current (ic-i0) and
the drop in D1 due to this current keeps the Thyristor T1 reverse biased for the time tq=(t4-
t3 )
Mode IV operation
 As shown in the waveform at t4, ic =i0 and iD1=0; therefore diode D1 is reverse biased.
After t4 a constant current equal to i0 flows through Edc – c – L – DL – load and therefore,
capacitor C is charged linearly to source voltage Edc at t5
 Therefore during (t4 – t5) ic = 0
 As D1 is turned off at t4 Vc = Et1. Now the load voltage e0 = Edc-Vc at t4 and at t5, Vc =
Edc. Hence at t5 load voltage become e0 = Edc-Edc = 0. During the interval (t4-t5) Vc
increases linearly and therefore load voltage e0 decreases to zero linearly during this
period.
Mode V operation
40
 At t6 capacitor is overcharged greater than Edc

 At t5 the freewheeling diode DF becomes forward biased and starts to conduct the load
current i0
 At t6, ic =0 and Vc becomes more than Edc
 During (t5-t6),i0=ic+iF and ic starts decreasing and IF builds
 At t6, iF=i0 and ic = 0. Commutation process is completed at t6 and commutation interval
is (t6-t7)
41
42
Application
 Traction cars
Advantage
 The capacitor is always charged with correct polarity
 Commutation is reliable
 T2 is naturally commutated
14. DRAW THE POWER CIRCUIT DIAGRAM OF A BUCK REGULATOR AND EXPLAIN
ITS OPERATION WITH EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT FOR DIFFERENT MODES AND
WAVEFORMS.MAY/JUNE-2013,Nov/Dec-17.
 The step-down dc-dc converter, commonly known as a buck converter, is shown in below. It
consists of dc input voltage source VS, controlled switch S, diode D, filter inductor L, filter
capacitor C, and load resistance R.
 Typical waveforms in the converter are shown in below under the assumption that the
inductor current is always positive.
43
 The state of the converter in which the inductor current is never zero for any period of
time is called the continuous conduction mode (CCM).
 It can be seen from the circuit that when the switch S is commanded to the on state, the
diode D is reverse-biased.
 When the switch S is off, the diode conducts to support an uninterrupted current in the
inductor.
 The relationship among the input voltage, output voltage, and the switch duty ratio D can
be derived, for instance, from the inductor voltage VL waveform (see Fig. 13.4b).
 According to Faraday’s law, the inductor volt-second product over a period of steady-
state operation is zero. For the buck converter
𝑉𝑆 − 𝑉0 𝐷𝑇 = −𝑉0 1 − 𝐷 𝑇
 Hence, the dc voltage transfer function, defined as the ratio of the output voltage to the
input voltage, is
𝑉𝑂
𝑀𝑉 = =𝐷
𝑉𝑆
 It can be seen from Eq. above that the output voltage is always smaller that the input
voltage. The dc-dc converters can operate in two distinct modes with respect to the
inductor current IL.
 Figure depicts the CCM in which the inductor current is always greater than zero. When
the average value of the output current is low (high R) and/or the switching frequency f is
low, the converter may enter the discontinuous conduction mode (DCM).
44
 In the DCM, the inductor current is zero during a portion of the switching period. The
CCM is preferred for high efficiency and good utilization of semiconductor switches and
passiveComponents.
 The DCM may be used in applications with special control requirements because the
dynamic order of the converter is reduced (the energy stored in the inductor is zero at the
beginning and at the end of each switching period).
 It is uncommon to mix these two operating modes because of different control
algorithms. For the buck converter, the value of the filter inductance that determines the
boundary between CCM and DCM is given by
(1 − 𝐷)𝑅
𝐿𝑏 =
2𝑓
 For typical values of D = 0.5, R =10 ohm, and f =100 kHz, the boundary is Lb =25 mH.
For L > Lb, the converter operates in the CCM.
 The filter inductor current IL in the CCM consists of a dc component IO with a
superimposed triangular ac component.
 Almost all of this ac component flows through the filter capacitor as a current ic . Current
ic causes a small voltage ripple across the dc output voltage VO.
 To limit the peak-topeak value of the ripple voltage below a certain value Vr , the filter
capacitance C must be greater than
(1 − 𝐷)𝑉0
𝐶𝑚𝑖𝑛 =
8𝑉𝑟 𝐿𝑓 2
 At D=0.5, Vr/Vo=1%, L=25 mH, and f=100 kHz, the minimum capacitance is Cmin=25
mF.Equations above are the key design equations for the buck converter.
 The input and output dc voltages (hence, the duty ratio D), and the range of load
resistances R are usually determined by preliminary specifications.
 The designer needs to determine values of passive components L and C, and of the
switching frequency f . The value of the filter inductor L is calculated from the
CCM/DCM condition using Eq. above.
 The value of the filter capacitor C is obtained from the voltage ripple condition Eq.
above. For the compactness and low conduction losses of a converter, it is desirable to
use small passive components.
 Equations above and above show that it can be accomplished by using a high switching
frequency f. The switching frequency is limited, however, by the type of semiconductor
switches used and by switching losses.
 It should also be noted that values of L and C may be altered by the effects of parasitic
components in the converter, especially by the equivalent series resistance of the
capacitor.
45
15. DISCUSS THE OPERATION OF DC-DC BOOST CONVERTER AND PROVE THAT ITS
OUTPUT VOLTAGE IS ALWAYS GREATER THAN INPUT VOLTAGE.NOV/DEC-
2012,MAY/JUNE-2012,APRIL/MAY-2011,18.
 Figure shows depict a step-up or a PWM boost converter. It consists of dc input voltage
source VS, boost inductor L, controlled switch S, diode D, filter capacitor C, and load
resistance R.
 The converter waveforms in the CCM arepresented in Fig. below. When the switch S is
in the on state, the current in the boost inductor increases linearly and the diode D is off
at that time.
 When the switch S is turned off, the energy stored in the inductor is released through the
diode to the output RC circuit.
 Using Faraday’s law for the boost inductorfrom which the dc voltage transfer function
turns out to be
𝑉𝑆 𝐷𝑇 = (𝑉0 − 𝑉𝑆 )(1 − 𝐷)𝑇
𝑉0 1
𝑀𝑉 = =
𝑉𝑆 1 − 𝐷
.
 As the name of the converter suggests, the output voltage is always greater than the input
voltage.
 The boost converter operates in the CCM for L > Lb where
(1 − 𝐷)2 𝐷𝑅
𝐿𝑏 =
2𝑓
46
D= 0.5, R =10 ohm, and f=100 kHz, the boundary value of the inductance is Lb=6.25 mH.
 As shown in Fig. above, the current supplied to the output RC circuit is discontinuous.
Thus, a larger filter capacitor is required in comparison to that in the buck-derived
converters to limit the output voltage ripple.
 The filter capacitor mustprovide the output dc current to the load when the diode D is off.
The minimum value of the filter capacitance that results in the voltage ripple Vr is given
by
𝐷𝑉0
𝐶𝑚𝑖𝑛 =
𝑉𝑟 𝑅𝑓
 At D=0.5, Vr/VO =1%, R . 10 ohm, and f =100 kHz, the minimum capacitance for the
boost converter is Cmin =50 mF. The boost converter does not have a popular transformer
(isolated) version.
16. EXPLAIN THE WORKING OF BUCK-BOOST CONVERTER WITH NEAT SKETCH

AND WAVEFORMS. NOV/DEC-2011,15, APR/MAY-2015,MAY/JUNE-16
 A no isolated (transformer less) topology of the buck-boost converter is shown in Fig.

The converter consists of dc input voltage source VS, controlled switch S, inductor L,
diode D, filter capacitor C, and load resistance R.
 With the switch on, the inductor current increases while the diode is maintained off.
When the switch is turned off, the diode provides a path for the inductor current.
47
 Note the polarity of the diode that results in its current being drawn from the output.
 The buck-boost converter waveforms are depicted in Fig. above. The condition of a zero
volt-second product for the inductor in steady state yields
𝑉𝑆 𝐷𝑇 = −𝑉0 (1 − 𝐷)𝑇
.
 Hence, the dc voltage transfer function of the buck-boost converter is
𝑉0 𝐷
𝑀𝑉 = =−
𝑉𝑆 1−𝐷
 The output voltage VO is negative with respect to the ground. Its magnitude can be either
greater or smaller (equal atD=0.5) than the input voltage as the name of the converter
implies The value of the inductor that determines the boundary between the CCM and
DCM is
(1 − 𝐷)2 𝑅
𝐿𝑏 =
2𝑓
 The structure of the output part of the converter is similar to that of the boost converter
(reversed polarities are the only difference).
 Thus, the value of the filter capacitor can be obtained from equation
48
17. DRAW THE POWER CIRCUIT DIAGRAM OF A CUK REGULATOR ANDEXPLAIN

ITS OPERATION WITH EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT FOR DIFFERENT MODES AND
WAVEFORMS. (May-2014)
 The circuit of the Cuk converter is shown below. It consists of dc input voltage source
VS, input inductor L1, controllable switch S, energy transfer capacitor C1, diode D, filter
inductor L2, filter capacitor C, and load resistance R.
 An important advantage of this topology is a continuous current at both the input and the
output of the converter. Disadvantages of the Cuk converter are a high number of reactive
components and high current stresses on the switch, the diode, and the capacitor C1.
 The main waveforms in the converter are presented in Figure. When the switch is on, the
diode is off and the capacitor C1 is discharged by the inductor L2 current.
 With the switch in the off state, the diode conducts currents of the inductors L1 and L2,
whereas capacitor C1 is charged byt he inductor L1 current.
49
 To obtain the dc voltage transfer function of the converter, we shall use the principle that
the average current through a capacitor is zero for steady-state operation.
 Let us assume that inductors L1 and L2 are large enough that their ripple current can be
neglected. Capacitor C1 is in steady state if
𝐼𝐿2 𝐷𝑇 = 𝐼𝐿1 1 − 𝐷 𝑇
For a lossless converter
𝑃𝑆 = 𝑉𝑆 𝐼𝐿1 = −𝑉𝑂 𝐼𝐿2 = 𝑃𝑂
 Combining these two equations, the dc voltage transfer function of the cuk converter is
𝑉𝑂 𝐷
𝑀𝑉 ≡ =−
𝑉𝑆 1−𝐷
 This voltage transfer function is the same as that for the buck-boost converter. The
boundaries between the CCM and DCM are determined by,
for L1 andfor L2.
(1 − 𝐷)𝑅
𝐿𝑏1 =
2𝐷𝑓
(1 − 𝐷)𝑅
𝐿𝑏2 =
2𝑓
50
 The output part of the Cuk converter is similar to that of the buck converter. Hence, the
expression for the filter capacitor C is
(1 − 𝐷)𝑉𝑂
𝐶𝑚𝑖𝑛 =
8𝑉𝑟 𝐿2 𝑓 2
 The peak-to-peak ripple voltage in the capacitor C1 can be estimated as
𝐷𝑉𝑂
𝑉𝑟1 =
𝐶1 𝑅𝑓
 A transformer (isolated) version of the Cuk converter can be obtained by splitting
capacitor C1 and inserting a high frequency transformer between the split capacitors.
18. DRAW AND EXPLAIN THE BLOCK SCHEMATIC OF SMPS AND MENTION ITS
ADVANTAGES OVER LINEAR POWER SUPPLY.MAY/JUNE-2013
(OR)
EXPLAIN WITH A NEAT CIRCUIT DIAGRAM ONE OF THE CONFIGURATION OF
SMPS. NOV/DEC-2013
(OR)
WRITE SHORT NOTE ON SWITCH MODE POWER SUPPLY. NOV/DEC-2014
D.C. to D.C. Converter: The block diagram of D.C. to D.C. converter (SMPS) is shown
here.
51
Flyback Converter (SMPS)

 The Flyback converter is the switched mode power supply (SMPS).
 It provides isolation between control switch and load through highfrequency
transformer.
Circuit Diagram and Waveforms of Flyback Converter
 In the above diagram the transformer is of high frequency having turns ratio
Np/NS The dc supply Vs is applied to the switching transistor through the transformer
primary.
 Note the 'dot' conventions on the transformerprimary and secondary.
Operation and Waveforms

The operation of the flyback converter can be explained with the help of following modes.
Mode-1, T1- on:

 In this mode transistor T1 is turned ON. Current starts flowing in the primary, the
equivalent circuit - I of Fig. 3.7.2, observe that secondary voltage reverse bias"
 Diode D1 when T1is conducting.
 Therefore load current is supplied by capacitor Q. In waveform of Fig. 3.7.2(b), observe
that current through transistor T1rises from 0 to , the transistor 1\ is turned off.
52
EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT-I EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT-II

Fig. 3.7.2 Waveforms and operation of flyback converter (continuous mode)
Mode-ll, T1 -OFF D2–conducts
 This mode starts when transistor is turned-off at t1. As shown in equivalent Circuit-II
of Fig. 3.7.2, the voltage polarity of the transformer secondary is inverted. This forward
biases diode D1and it starts conducting.
 Thus the transformer secondary supplies energy to the capacitor C1as well as load. Note
that this energy was stored in thetransformer when T1was conducting in mode-I.
 In the waveform of Fig. 3.7.2(d) observe that the transformer secondary voltage fluctuates
between ±V0. Fig. 3.7.2 (e) shows the waveform of transformer primary.
53
 When T1is ON the primary voltage is equal to supply voltage, Vs. When T1 is off the
primary voltage is equal to supply voltage, Vs. When T1 is off, the primary voltage is NP.
19. WRITE SHORT NOTE ON RESONANT SWITCHING.(NOV/DEC-2013)
 Prior to the availability of fully controllable power switches, thyristors was the major
power devices used in power electronic circuits.
 Each thyristor requires a commutation circuit, which usually consists of an LC resonant
circuit, for forcing the current to zero in the turn-off process. This mechanism is in fact a
type of zero-current turn-off process.
 With recent advancements in semiconductor technology, the voltage and current handling
capability and the switching speed of fully controllable switches have improved
significantly.
 In many high-power applications, controllable switches such as GTOs and IGBTs have
replaced thyristors.
 However, the use of a resonant circuit for achieving zerocurrent- switching (ZCS) and/or
zero-voltage-switching (ZVS) has also emerged as a new technology for power
converters.
 The concept of resonant switch to replace a conventional power switch is introduced in
this section. A resonant switch is a sub-circuit composed of a semiconductor switch S and
resonant elements Lr and Cr .
 Switch S can be implemented by a unidirectional or bidirectional switch, which
determines the operation mode of the resonant switch.
 Two types of resonant switches, including zero-current (ZC) resonant switch and zero-
voltage (ZV) resonant switches, are shown in Figure.
ZC RESONANT SWITCH
 In a ZC resonant switch, an inductor Lr is connected in series with a power switch S in
order to achieve zero-current-switching (ZCS). If the switch S is a unidirectional switch,
the switch current is allowed to resonate in the positive half-cycle only.
 The resonant switch is said to operate in half-wave mode. If a diode is connected in anti-
parallel with the unidirectional switch, the switch current can flow in both directions.
 In this case, the resonant switch can operate in full-wave mode. At turn-on, the switch
current will rise slowly from zero. It willthen oscillate because of the resonance between
Lr and Cr .
 Finally, the switch can be commutated at the next zero current duration. The objective of
this type of switch is to shape the switch current waveform during conduction time in
order to create a zero-current condition for the switch to turn off .
54
Two types of zero-current (ZC) resonant switch.
ZV RESONANT SWITCH
 In a ZV resonant switch, a capacitor Cr is connected in parallel with the switch S for
achieving zero-voltage-switching (ZVS).
 If the switch S is a unidirectional switch, the voltage across the capacitor Cr can oscillate
freely in both positive and negative half-cycle. Thus, the resonant switch can operate in
full-wave mode.
 If a diode is connected in anti-parallel with the unidirectional switch, the resonant
capacitor voltage is clamped by the diode to zero during the negative half-cycle. The
resonant switch will then operate in half-wave mode.
 The objective of a ZV switch is to use the resonant circuit to shape the switch voltage
waveform during off time in order to create a zerovoltage condition for the switch to turn
on .
Two types of zero-voltage (ZV) resonant switch.
Series Resonant Converter
 The series resonant converter consists of one or two half bridges forming a half or full
bridge converter. Between the output terminals, a series resonant circuit is connected.
 This series resonant circuit consists of an inductor, a capacitor and a resistor, with one or
more of these elements actually being part of the load. Usually, at least the resistor is part
of the load.However, for this basic circuit only AC-power can be delivered to the load,
due to the resonant behavior of the circuit.
55
 If a DC –load is used, the resistor can be replaced by a rectifier connected to the DC load
If the load is directly connected to the resonant circuit, i.e,without a rectifier in between it
is referred to as a series resonant DC to AC converter.
 If the load is connected to the converter via a rectifier, it is referred to as a series resonant
DC to DC converter. The series resonant circuit is operated well below resonant
frequency and with discontinuous resonant current.
.
Parallel Resonant converter
 The parallel load resonant converter is similar to series resonant converter. However, in
case of a parallel resonant converter, the output rectifier is connected in parallel with the
resonant capacitor.
 Since the resonant capacitor represents a voltage source to the rectifier, the output filter
of the rectifier must be a current source; i.e inductive. The rectifier represents a nonlinear
load in this case.
 Usually, a transformer is connected between the resonant circuit and the rectifier in order
to adapt the load voltage to the DC link voltage.
 Unlike the case with the series resonant converter, the resonant inductor current is not
determined by the rectifier output current for the parallel resonant converter. On the other
hand, the rectifier output voltage is dependent on the capacitor voltage for the parallel
resonant converter.
56
20. A Step-Down DC Chopper has input voltage of 230V with 10Ω load resistor
connected, voltage drop across chopper is 2V when it is ON. For a duty cycle of 0.5,
Calculate
(i) Average and RMS value of output voltage.
(ii) Power delivered to the load. (April/May 2017)
Given data: Vs=230V, R=10Ω, Vch=2V, α=0.5

Solution:
(i) (a) Average output voltage
Vo = α (Vs - Vch)
= 0.5 (230-2)
Vo = 114V
(b) RMS output voltage
𝑉0𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 𝛼 𝑉𝑠 − 𝑉𝑐ℎ
𝑉0𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 0.5 230 − 2
𝑉0𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 161.22 𝑉
(ii) Power delivered to the load
2
𝑉𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑠
𝑃𝑜 =
𝑅
161.222
𝑃𝑜 =
10
Po = 2599.18 W
57
PART-A
1. What is meant by forced commutation? NOV/DEC-2009
2. What is meant by dc chopper? MAY/JUNE-2012 ,NOV/DEC-2013
3. What are the applications of dc chopper? NOV/DEC-2009,NOV/DEC-14
4. Define the term duty-cycle in DC-DC converters. MAY/JUNE-2012 ,16,NOV-15
5. What are the two types of control strategies for chopper Circuit? MAY/JUNE-2013
6. What is meant by PWM control in dc chopper? NOV/DEC-2012,15
7. What is constant frequency of chopper.NOV/DEC-2012,MAY-16
8. What are the different types of chopper with respect to commutation process? NOV/DEC-
2009
9. What is the need for resonant converter?
10. Give the uses of resonant switching. MAY/JUNE-2013
11. What is meant by SMPS and mention its two advantages? APR/MAY-2011
12. What are the advantages of SMPS over phase controlled rectifiers? APR/MAY-2011
13. What is meant by time ratio control TRC? NOV/DEC-2013, APR/MAY-2015
14. What are the different circuit configurations used for SMPS? (May-2014)
15. What are the advantages and disadvantages of CUK converter? (May-2014)
16. Define Current Limit Control in DC-DC converter .APR/MAY-2015
PART-B
1) Explain the operation of step-up chopper and derive an expression for its output voltage.
(MAY/JUNE-2013NOV/DEC-14, Pg.No:15)
(OR)
Explain the principle of working of a step-up chopper with neat circuit diagram and necessary
waveforms. Derive an expression for its output voltage.(NOV/DEC-2013,APR/MAY-2015
Pg.No:15)
2) Draw the power circuit diagram of a buck regulator and explain its operation with equivalent
circuit for different modes and waveforms.MAY/JUNE-2013.PG.NO:42
3) Discuss the operation of dc-dc boost converter and prove that its output voltage is always
greater than input voltage.NOV/DEC-2012,MAY/JUNE-2012,APRIL/MAY-2011. Pg.No:44
4) Explain the working of buck-boost converter with neat sketch and waveforms.NOV/DEC-
2011,15,APR/MAY-2015,16.Pg.No:46
5) Draw and explain the block schematic of SMPS and mention its advantages over linear power
supply.MAY/JUNE-2013. Pg.No:49 (OR)
Explain with a neat circuit diagram one of the configuration of SMPS. (NOV/DEC-
2013,Pg.No:49) (OR)Write short note on switch mode power supply. Nov/dec-2014
6)Write Short Note On Resonant Switching.(NOV/DEC-2013, Pg.No:52)
58
7) Explain the operation of Class C and Class D types of two quadrant choppers. (May-2014)
(Refer: Q.No. 5.3 & 5.4, Pg.No.21 & Pg.No.23)
8) Draw the power circuit diagram of a CUK regulator and explain its operation with equivalent
circuit for different modes and waveforms. (May-2014 ,Pg.No:47)
9) Discuss in detail about the current commutation method of turn-off scr. Nov/dec-
2015.Pg.No.37
10) Discuss the principle of operation of dc-dc step down chopper with suitable waveform.derive
an expression for its average dc output voltage.Nov/dec-15.pg.no.7
11)A dc chopper in figure 19 has a resistive load of R  10 and input voltage of V = 200 V.
When chopper is ON, its voltage drop is 2 V and the chopping frequency is 1 kHz. If the duty
cycle is 60%, determine Average output voltage RMS value of output voltage Effective input
resistance of chopper Chopper efficiency.NOV/DEC-15.PG.NO:29
12)Explain Voltage Or Impulse Commutated Chopper May/June-16
59
POWER ELECTRONICS-EE6503 - UNIT-IV
TWO MARKS
1.What is meant by inverter?

A device that converts dc power into ac power at desired output voltage and frequency is called
an Inverter.
2.What are the applications of an inverter? MAY/JUNE-16

a) Adjustable speed drives
b) Induction heating
c) Stand-by aircraft power supplies
d) UPS
e) HVDC transmission
3.What are the main classifications of inverter?

a) Voltage Source Inverter
b) Current Source Inverter
4.Why thyristors are not preferred for inverters? (APR / MAY 2017)
Thyristors require extra commutation circuits for turn off which results in increased complexity
of the circuit. For these reasons thyristors are not preferred for inverters.
5.How output frequency is varied in case of a thyristor?

The output frequency is varied by varying the turn off time of the thyristors in the inverter
circuit, i.e. the delay angle of the thyristors is varied.
6.Give two advantages of CSI. APRIL/MAY-2011

a) CSI does not require any feedback diodes.
b) Commutation circuit is simple as it involves only thyristors.
7.What is the main drawback of a single phase half bridge inverter?

It requires a 3-wire dc supply.
8.Why diodes should be connected in antiparallel with the thyristors in inverter circuits?
state the necessity of return current diodes in inverter.Nov/Dec-17
what is the function of feedback diodes in bridge inverter ? Nov/Dec-17
For RL loads, load current will not be in phase with load voltage and the diodes connected in
antiparallel will allow the current to flow when the main thyristors are turned off. These diodes
are called feedback diodes.
1
9.What types of inverters require feedback diodes?

VSI with RL load.
10. What is meant a series inverter?(OR) why is the series inverter called so? Nov/Dec-2011.
An inverter in which the commutating elements are connected in series with the load is called a
Series inverter.
11. What is the condition to be satisfied in the selection of L and C in a series inverter?
R2< 4LC
12. What is meant a parallel inverter?

An inverter in which the commutating elements are connected in parallel with the load is called
a parallel inverter.
13. What are the applications of a series inverter?

The thyristorised series inverter produces an approximately sinusoidal waveform at a high
output frequency, ranging from 200 Hz to 100kHz.It is commonly used for fixed output
applications such as
a) Ultrasonic generator.
b) Induction heating.
c) Sonar Transmitter
d) Fluorescent lighting.
14. How is the inverter circuit classified based on commutation circuitry?

a) Line commutated inverters.
b) Load commutated inverters.
c) Self commutated inverters.
d) Forced commutated inverters.
15. What is meant by McMurray inverter?

It is an impulse commutated inverter which relies on LC circuit and an auxiliary thyristor for
commutation in the load circuit.
16. What are the applications of a CSI? (Nov/Dec 2016)

a) Induction heating
b) Lagging VAR compensation
c) Speed control of ac motors
d) Synchronous motor starting.
17. What is meant by PWM control?

In this method, a fixed dc input voltage is given to the inverter and a controlled ac output
voltage is obtained by adjusting the on and off periods of the inverter components. This is the
2
most popular method of controlling the output voltage and this method is termed as PWM
control.
18. What are the advantages of PWM control? NOV/DEC-2012, NOV/DEC-2013, MAY-14.(or)
What is harmonic elimination by PWM?APRIL/MAY-2015.
a) The output voltage can be obtained without any additional components.
b) Lower order harmonics can be eliminated or minimized along with its output voltage
control. As the higher order harmonics can be filtered easily, the filtering requirements are
minimized.
19. What are the disadvantages of the harmonics present in the inverter system? (NOV / DEC
2017)
a) Harmonic currents will lead to excessive heating in the induction motors. This will reduce
the load carrying capacity of the motor.
b) If the control and the regulating circuits are not properly shielded, harmonics from power
ride can affect their operation and malfunctioning can result.
c) Harmonic currents cause losses in the ac system and can even some time produce resonance
in the System. Under resonant conditions, the instrumentation and metering can be affected.
d) On critical loads, torque pulsation produced by the harmonic current can be useful.
20. What are the methods of reduction of harmonic content?

a) Transformer connections
b) Sinusoidal PWM
c) Multiple commutation in each cycle
d) Stepped wave inverters
21. Compare CSI and VSI.NOV/DEC-2012,15,MAY/JUNE-2012, MAY-14 MAY/JUNE-16,18

S. No. VSI CSI
1. Input voltage is maintained constant Input current is constant but adjustable
2. The output voltage does not depend on the The output current does not depend on
load the load
3. The magnitude of the output current and its The magnitude of the output voltage
waveform depends on the nature of the load and its waveform depends on the nature
impedance of the load impedance
4. It requires feedback diodes It does not requires feedback diodes
5. Commutation circuit is complicated i.e.it Commutation circuit is simple i.e. it
contains capacitors and inductors. contains only capacitors.
22. What are the disadvantages of PWM control?

SCRs are expensive as they must possess low turn-on and turn-off times.
3
23. Define the term inverter gain.MAY/JUNE-2012

The inverter gain may be defined as ratio of the ac output (rms) voltage to dc input voltage.
24. What is CSI? NOV/DEC-2012, NOV/DEC-2011
A current source inverter accepts input from a power supply that acts as a current source rather
than a voltage source. Within some limits, a DC current source delivers a set current to a load
without regard to the impedance of the load or the voltage required. Most DC power sources,
such as generators and batteries, are voltage sources that deliver a set voltage to the load
regardless of the current drawn by the load within some limits.
25. What are the PWM methods for voltage control within the inverter? April/may-2011
a) Single pulse-width modulation (SPWM)
b) Multiple or uniform pulse-width modulation (UPWM)
c) Sinusoidal pulse-width modulation (sin-PWM).
d) Modified Sinusoidal pulse-width modulation (MSPWM).
26.What is space vector? May/June-2013,18.

The 3-phase quantities are linearly dependent and can be transformed to a 2-phase orthogonal
system commonly called the αβ system. Quantities in the αβ system can be represented by
complex numbers and as two-dimensional vectors in a plane, called space vectors.
27. In a CSI, if frequency of output voltage is ‘F’ Hz, what is the frequency of input voltage to
CSI? May/June-2013.
Zero, because input of the CSI is DC voltage.
28. What is the advantages of 1200 mode of inverter operation over 1800 mode?NOV/DEC-
2013.
a) Since it has 600 space interval for every mode, overlap of conducting devicessince it has can
be avoided.
b) Short circuit current can be eliminated.
29. Write the advantages or uses of resonant converter or switching? NOV/DEC-2014,

NOV/DEC-2015
i) It reduces electromagnetic interference
ii) It reduces the power losses
iii) Compact in size
30. What is meant by voltage source inverter? NOV/DEC-2014
A voltage-source inverter (VSI)is one in which the dc input voltage is essentially constant
and independent of the load current drawn. The inverter specifies the load voltage while the
drawn current shape is dictated by the load.
4
31. Draw the circuit diagram and waveform of single phase current source
inverter.APRIL/MAY-2015.
32. Define modulation index and what is its use. (Nov/Dec 2016)
It is defined as the ratio between the reference voltage to the carrier voltage.
It used to obtain the desired output voltage for the inverter by varying the pulse width of control
signal.
PART-B
1. Explain The Operation Of Single-Phase Voltage-Source Inverter Bridge.
Inverter is the conversion of dc power to ac power at a desired output voltage or current and
frequency. The term voltage-fed and current-fed are used in connection with the output from
inverter circuits.
A voltage-source inverter (VSI)is one in which the dc input voltage is essentially constant
and independent of the load current drawn. The inverter specifies the load voltage while the
drawn current shape is dictated by the load.
A current-source inverter (CSI)is one in which the source, hence the load current is
predetermined and the load impedance determines the output voltage. The supply current cannot
change quickly. This current is controlled by series dc supply inductance which prevents sudden
changes in current. The load current magnitude is controlled by varying the input dc voltage to
the large inductance; hence inverter response to load changes is slow.
Voltage control may be required to maintain a fixed output voltage when the dc input
voltage regulation is poor, or to control power to a load. The inverter and its output can be
single-phase, three-phase or multi-phase.
5
Variable output frequency may be required for ac motor speed control where, in conjunction
with voltage or current control, constant motor flux can be maintained. Inverter output
waveforms (either voltage or current) are usually rectilinear in nature and as such contain
harmonics which may lead to reduced load efficiency and performance.
Load harmonic reduction can be achieved by either filtering, selected harmonic-reduction
chopping or pulse-width modulation.The quality of an inverter output is normally evaluated in
terms of its harmonic factor(ρ), distortion factor(μ), and total harmonic distortion(THD).
Figure 1.a shows an H-bridge inverter (VSI) for producing an ac voltage and employing
switches which may be transistors (MOSFET or IGBT), or at high powers, thyristors (GTO or
GCT).
Figure 1.a Single phase H-bridge inverter (VSI)
Device conduction patterns are also shown in figure 1.b. With inductive loads (not purely
resistive), stored energy at turn-off is fed through the bridge reactive feedback or freewheel
diodes D1 to D4. These four diodes clamp the load voltage to within the dc supply voltage rails
(0 to Vs).
Fig 1.b Device conduction patterns waveform with square wave output voltage
6
Figure 1.b shows waveforms for a square-wave output (2t1 = t2) where each device
is turned on as appropriate for 180°, (that is π) of the output voltage cycle (state sequence 10,
01, 10, ..). The load current iLgrows exponentially through T1 and T2 (state 10) according to
𝑑𝑖𝐿
𝑉𝑆 = 𝐿 + 𝑖𝐿 𝑅 − − − (1)
𝑑𝑡
When T1 and T2 are turned off, T3 and T4 are turned on (state 01), thereby reversing the
load voltage polarity. Because of the inductive nature of the load, the load current cannot
reverse instantaneously and load reactive energy flows back into the supply via diodes D3 and
D4 (which are in parallel with T3 and T4 respectively) according to
𝑑𝑖𝐿
−𝑉𝑆 = 𝐿 + 𝑖𝐿 𝑅
𝑑𝑡
The load current falls exponentially and at zero, T3 and T4 become forward-biased and
conduct load current, thereby feeding power to the load. The output voltage is a square wave of
magnitude ± Vs, figure 1.b, has an rms value of Vs.
For a simple R-L load, with time constant τ = L /R, during the first cycle with no initial load
current, solving equation (1) yields a load current
𝑉𝑆 −𝑡
𝑖𝐿 𝑡 = (1 − 𝑒 𝜏 )
𝑅
Under steady-state load conditions, the initial current is Ias shown in figure 1.b, and equation
(1) yields
𝑉𝑆 𝑉𝑆 −𝑡 1
𝑖𝐿 𝑡 = − −𝐼 𝑒𝜏 0 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 𝑡2 = 𝑇
𝑅 𝑅 2
2. Explain The Methods Of Voltage Control Of Inverters.
An inverter may require voltage control to:

 Cope with the variations in the input dc voltage
 Compensate the voltage regulation of the inverter switches and transformer
 Provide variable or adjustable voltage to the load.
Certain loads, such as variable frequency induction motor drive, require simultaneous
control of frequency and voltage. Controlling the conduction intervals of the inverter switches
can control frequency of the inverter output.
Voltage control may be done by any of the following techniques:
1. Control of input dc voltage
2. External control of inverter ac output voltage
3. Internal control of inverter.
CONTROL OF INPUT DC VOLTAGE:
7
The output voltage of an inverter may be controlled by controlling the input dc voltage
supplied to the inverter.
Fig 2.1 Inverter voltage control by control of dc input voltage.
Figure 2.1 shows the various schemes used to control the input dc voltage. If the basic
source is dc, variable dc voltage may be obtained using a chopper or a dc-to-dc converter, as
shown in Fig. 2.1(a).
If the basic source is ac, variable dc voltage may be obtained using any of the schemes
shown in Fig. 2.1(b),In the scheme, the input ac voltage is first converted into a variable ac
voltage using an ac voltage controller and then it is converted into dc with the help of an
uncontrolled rectifier. In this system, variable voltage, variable frequency ac is obtained after
three conversion stages. Obviously, efficiency of the system is poor. Moreover, the input power
factor becomes poor at low voltages.
Figure 2.1.c shows an improved scheme. In this scheme, variable dc voltage is obtained
using a controlled rectifier. As only two conversion stages are required, the efficiency of system
is better than that for the previous scheme. At low output voltages, the input power factor is
poor.
Another drawback of the scheme is that the output of the controlled rectifier contains
appreciable amount of low-frequency harmonics. Therefore, large size filter components are
required. This makes the system response sluggish.
Drawbacks of the system of Fig.2.1(c) are removed in the system shown in Fig. 2.1(d). This
system converts the input voltage into dc using an uncontrolled rectifier. The constant dc
voltage is then converted into a variable dc using a high-frequency (dc-to-dc converter). As the
chopper operates at a high frequency, its output contains harmonics at very high frequencies.
Thus the size of filter components is reduced.
8
Moreover, the fundamental input power factor remains unity under all conditions of
operation. However, losses in the system increase due to use of an additional converter.
EXTERNAL CONTROL OF AC OUTPUT VOLTAGE:
The constant ac output voltage (rms) from an inverter may be controlled using an ac
regulator (ac phase control). This method introduces a large harmonic content in the output
voltage. Moreover, the method can be used only for small power applications.
Figure 2.2 Series-connected inverters.

For high-power applications, two square-wave inverters may be connected in series to
variable ac voltage, as shown in Fig. 6.
 The output voltages of the inverter I and inverter II are given to the primaries of the two
transformers, whose secondary windings are connected in series.
 The output voltages of the two transformers, v01 and v02 have same magnitude. The phase
angle between v01 and v02 , , can be controlled by controlling the phase angle between the
control signals of the two inverters.
 The resultant output voltage (v0) has a constant magnitude 2V (double the peak of v01 and
v02) and a variable pulse width, π-, as shown in Fig.2.3.
 By varying  from 0 to π, the width of output pulses may be varied from π to 0 and hence
the output voltage may be controlled from 2V to zero.
 At low voltages, it becomes a thin pulse, the harmonic contents in the output voltage
become large. Therefore, this method of voltage control is used for voltage control (lower side)
up to 25 to 30 per cent of the rated voltage.𝜑𝜔ω
Figure 2.3 Waveforms of series-connected inverters.

9
INTERNAL CONTROL OF INVERTERS:
In this technique, the voltage control is obtained within the inverter. The output of the
inverter is in the form of a pulse width modulated wave. Controlling the width of output pulses,
controls the output voltage.
This method not only provides variable output voltage but also eliminates certain low
frequency harmonics, which are responsible for poor performance.
This method is therefore, the most popular method of voltage control of inverter. Depending
on the required range of voltage control and required performance, a suitable PWM technique
may be used.
3. Explain In Detail, The Various Types Of PWM Methods Employed In An Inverter.

Nov/Dec-2012
(OR)
What is the need for controlling the output voltage of inverters? Classify the various
technique adopted to vary the inverter gain and brief on sinusoidal PWM.May/june-2012
(OR)
Explain different PWM techniques in detail.MAY-14
(OR)
Briefly Discuss The Different Types Of PWM Schemes Available For Voltage Control In
An Inverter.Apr/May 2017,NOV/DEC-2014, NOV/DEC-2015
The square-wave inverters suffer from two major drawbacks:

1. For fixed-source voltage, the output voltage of the inverter cannot be controlled. To
achieve voltage control, the inverter must be fed either from a controlled ac-dc or dc-dc
converter.
2. The output voltage contains appreciable harmonics (low-frequency range). THD is also
very high (48.34%).
To achieve voltage control within the inverter and to reduce the harmonic contents in the
output voltage, pulse-width modulated (PWM) inverters are used. In PWM inverters, widths of
output pulses are modulated to achieve the voltage control.
Among the large number modulation techniques, simple modulation techniques are:
(a) Single pulse-width modulation (SPWM)
(b) Multiple or uniform pulse-width modulation (UPWM)
(c) Sinusoidal pulse-width modulation (sine-PWM).
SINGLE PULSE WIDTH MODULATION:

10
 In single-pulse width modulation control, there is only one pulse per half-cycle and the width
of the pulse is varied to control the inverter output voltage.
 The generation of gating signals and output voltage of single-phase full bridge inverters is
shown in Fig. 3.1, the gating signals are generated by comparing a rectangular reference signal of
amplitude.ER, with a triangular carrier wave of amplitude Ec.
 The fundamental frequency of output voltage is determined by the frequency of the reference
signal. The pulse-width, P, can be varied from 0° to 180° by varying ERfrom 0 to Ec.
 The ratio of ERto Ecis the control variable and is defined as the amplitude modulation
index. The amplitude modulation index, or simply modulation index is
𝐸𝑅
𝑚=
𝐸𝐶
Fig 3.1 Single pulse-width modulation
The following fourier series describes the waveform of EL as
11
∞ ∞
𝐸𝐿 = 𝐴𝑛 sin 𝑛𝜔𝑡 + 𝐵𝑛 sin 𝑛𝜔𝑡

𝑛=1,3,5,…. 𝑛=1,3,5,….
Where
𝜋
2
𝐴𝑛 = 𝐸𝑑𝑐 sin 𝑛𝜔𝑡 𝑑 𝜔𝑡
𝜋 0
𝜋
2 2+𝑝
= sin 𝑛𝜔𝑡 𝑑(𝜔𝑡)
𝜋 𝜋
2−𝑝
4𝐸𝑑𝑐 𝑛𝑝
= 𝑠𝑖𝑛
5𝜋 2
And,
(𝜋+𝑝/2)
2𝐸𝑑𝑐
𝐵𝑛 = cos 𝑛 𝜔𝑡 𝑑 (𝜔𝑡)
𝜋 (𝜋−𝑝)/2
∞ 4𝐸𝑑𝑐 𝑛𝑝
Thus, EL= 𝑛=1,3,5 𝑛𝜋 sin sin n 𝜔𝑡
2
When pulse-width P is equal to its maximum value of 7t radians, then the fundamental
component
of output voltage EL, from Eq. (9.33), has the peak value of
The RMS output voltage can be found from

1
(𝜋+𝑝/2) 2
2 2
𝐸𝐿𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 𝐸𝑑𝑐 𝑑(𝜔𝑡)
𝜋
(𝜋−𝑝/2)
𝑝
= 𝐸𝑑𝑐 . − − − (9.35)
𝜋
The peak value of the nth harmonic component from eqn. 9.33 is given by
4𝐸𝑑𝑐 𝑛𝑝
𝐸𝐿𝑟𝑚𝑠 = sin − − − −(9.36)
𝑛𝜋 2
ELnm sin np /2
From Eqs (9.34) and (9.36), = − − − − − −(9.37)
ELlm n
The ratio as given by Eq. (9.37) is plotted in Fig. 3.2 for n = 1, n = 3, n = 5 for different pulse
12
Fig 3.2 Graph for the ratio ELnm / ELlm
From these curves it may be observed that when the fundamental component is reduced to
Nearly0.33, the amplitude of the third harmonic is also 0.33.
When fundamental component is reduced to about 0.143, all the three harmonics (3, 5, 7)
become almost equal to the fundamental.
This shows that in this type of voltage control scheme, as great deal of harmonic content is
introduced in the output voltage, particularly at low output voltage levels.
MULTIPLE PULSE WIDTH MODULATION: MAY/JUNE-2013,APRIL/MAY-2015
 In this method of pulse-width modulation, the harmonic content can be reduced using
several pulses in each half-cycle of output voltage.
 By comparing a reference signal with a triangular carrier wave, the gating signals are
generated for turning-on and turning-off of a thyristor, as shown in Fig.3.3.
 The carrier frequency, fc, determines the number of pulses per half-cycle, m, whereas the
frequency of reference signal sets the output frequency.
 The modulation index controls the output voltage. This type of modulation is also known as
symmetrical pulse width modulation (SPWM). The number of pulses N per half-cycle is found
from the expression
𝑓𝑐 𝑚𝑓 𝑓𝑐
Np= 2 𝑓𝑜 = where mf = 𝑓𝑜 is the frequency modulation ratio.
2
 The variation of modulation index (M) from 0 to 1 varies the pulse width from 0 to
πlNPand the output voltage from 0 to Edc.
13
Output voltage :
Fig 3.3 Multiple-pulse width modulation
If P is the width of each pulse, the RMS output voltage can be obtained from the following
expression:
1
(𝜋 𝑁𝑃 +𝑃)/2 2
2𝑁𝑝 2
𝑁𝑝 . 𝑃
𝐸𝐿𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 𝐸𝑑𝑐 𝑑(𝜔𝐿) = 𝐸𝑑𝑐 − − − −(9.39)
2𝜋 𝜋
(𝜋 𝑁𝑃 −𝑃 )/2
With this method, since voltage control is achieved with a simultaneous reduction of
lower order harmonics, this scheme is comparatively advantageous over single-pulse
modulation,
However, due to larger number of pulses per half-cycle, frequent turning-on andturning-off
of
thyristors is required which increases the switching losses. Also, for this scheme inverter-grade
thyristors are required which are costly.
14
SINUSOIDAL PULSE WIDTH MODULATION: -MAY/JUNE-2013,18, NOV/DEC-2013
 In this method of modulation, several pulses per half-cycle are used

 The width of each pulse is varied proportional to the amplitude of a sine-wave evaluated at
the centre of the same pulse.
 By comparing a sinusoidal reference signal with a triangular carrier wave of frequency fc,
the gating signals are generated, as shown in Fig. 3.5(a).
 The frequency of reference signal determine the inverter output frequencyf0, and its peak
amplitude, Encontrols the modulation index, A and then in turn the RMS output voltage, EL.
 The number of pulses per half-cycle depends on the carrier frequency. Within the constraint
that two thyristors of the same arm (T1, T4) cannot conduct at the same time, the instantaneous
output voltage is shown in Fig.3.5(a).
 The same gating signals can be generated using unidirectional triangular carrier-wave as
shown in Fig. 3.5(b).
 By varying the modulation index M, the RMS output voltage can be varied. If Pmis the width
of the mth pulse, Eq. (9.39) can be extended to find the rms output voltage
𝑁𝑝 1/2
𝑃𝑚
𝐸𝐿 = 𝐸𝑑𝑐 − − − − − − − − − − − (9.42)
𝜋
𝑚 =1
Harmonic analysis of the output modulated voltage wave reveals that SPWM has the following
important features:
(i) For modulation index less than one, the largest harmonic amplitudes in the output voltage
are associated with harmonics of order fc/fr± 1 or 2Np ± 1, where Npis the number of pulses per
half-cycle.
By increasing the number of pulses per half-cycle, the order of dominantHarmonic
frequency can be raised, which can then be filtered out easily.
For Np = 5, harmonics of the order of 9 and 11 become significant in the output voltage. It may
be noted that the highest order of significant harmonic of modulated voltage-wave is centered
around the carrier frequency, fc.
(ii) For modulation index greater than one, lower order harmonics appear.
modulation index greater than one, pulse width is no longer a sinusoidal function of
the angular position of the pulse.
15
Fig 3.5 Sinusoidal pulse – width modulation
16
4. With A Neat Sketch And Output Voltage Waveforms, Explain The Working Of Three
Phase Bridge Inverter In 180 Degree Mode Of Operation. Nov/Dec-2016, Nov/Dec-
2011,Nov/Dec-2013,17,14,APRIL/MAY-2015. MAY/JUNE-16
Three-phase inverters are used for high-power applications such as ac motor drives, induction
heating, uninterruptive power supplies. A three-phase inverter circuit changes DC input voltage to
a three-phase variable frequency, variable-voltage output.
The input DC voltage can be from a DC source or a rectified AC voltage. A three-phase bridge
inverter can be constructed by combining three-single-phase half-bridge inverters.
(b) Star-connected load (c) Delta-connected load
Fig.4.1Three-phase full-bridge inverter
 it consists of six power-switches with six associated Freewheeling diodes. The switches are
opened and closed periodically in the proper output frequency of the inverter.
 Basically, there are two possible schemes of gating the devices. In one scheme, each device
(switch) conducts for 180° and in the other scheme, each device conducts for 120°.
17
 But in both these schemes, gating signals are applied and removed at 60°intervals of the output
voltage waveform.
180° CONDUCTION:
 In this control scheme, each switch conducts for a period of 180° or half-cycle electrical.
Switches are triggered in sequence of their numbers with an interval of 60°.
 At a time, three switches (one from each leg) conduct. Thus, two switches of the same leg are
prevented from conducting simultaneously. Theswitches are conducting—two from upper group
and one from the lower group and vice-versa.
 One complete cycle is divided into six modes, each of 60° intervals. The operation of the circuit
can be understood from the waveforms shown in Fig.4.3 and the operation Table 4.2
 Switch pair in each leg, i.e. S1, S4, S3 S6, and S5, S2are turned-on with a time interval of 180°. It
means that switch S1conducts for 180° and switch S4 for the next 180° of a cycle.
 Switches, in the upper group, i.e. S1, S3, 55 conduct at an interval of 120°. It means that if 5] is
fired at 0°, then—S3 must be triggered at 120° and S5at 240°. Same is true for lower group of
switches.
Table 4.2Operation Table
The following points can be noted from the wave forms and the operating Table
(i) Each switch conducts for a period of 180°.
(ii) Switches are triggered in the sequence 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6.
(iii) Phase shift between triggering the two adjacent switches is 60°.
(iv) From table, it is observed that in every step of 60° duration, only three
(v) The output voltage waveforms (EAB, EBC, ECA) are quasi-square-wave with a peak-value
of Edc. The three-line voltages are mutually phase-shifted by 120°.
(vi) The three-phase-voltages EAN, EBN, and ECN are six-step saves, with step
heights Edc.
18
(vii) Line voltage EAB is leading the phase-voltage EAN by 30°.In Fig.4.3, phase voltages
EAN, EBN and ECN have also been drawn for star Connected resistive load. For a star
connected
load, the line-to-neutral voltages must be determined to find the line or phase currents.
Fig. 4.3Voltage waveforms for 180° conductio

19
There are three modes of operation in a half-cycle and the equivalent circuits are shown in Fig.4.4
for a star-connected load.
(i) During interval I for𝟎 ≤ 𝝎𝒕𝝎 < 𝜋/3

𝑅𝑒𝑞 = 𝑅𝐵 + (𝑅𝐴 𝐼𝐼 𝑅𝐶 )
20
𝑅 3𝑅
=𝑅+ = 𝑆𝐼𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑅𝐴 = 𝑅𝐵 = 𝑅𝐶
2 2
𝐸𝑑𝑐 2𝐸𝑑𝑐
𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡, 𝐼1 = =
𝑅𝑒𝑞 3𝑅
𝐼1 𝑅 𝐸𝑑𝑐
𝑁𝑜𝑤, 𝐸𝐴𝑁 = 𝐸𝐶𝑁 = = − − − − − (9.68)
2 3
−2𝐸𝑑𝑐
𝐴𝑙𝑠𝑜, 𝐸𝐵𝑁 = −𝐼1 𝑅 =
3
𝜋
(ii) During intervalII for 3 ≤ 𝜔𝑡 < 2𝜋/3
𝑅 3𝑅
𝑅𝑒𝑞 = 𝑅 + =
2 2
𝑅𝑒𝑞 3𝑅
2𝐸𝑑𝑐
𝐸𝐴𝑁 = 𝐼2 𝑅 =
3
−𝐼2 𝑅 −𝐸𝑑𝑐
𝐸𝐵𝑁 = 𝐸𝐶𝑁 = =
2 3
2𝜋
(iii) During interval III for ≤ 𝜔𝑡 < 𝜋.
3
𝑅 3𝑅
𝑅𝑒𝑞 = 𝑅 + =
2 2
𝑅𝑒𝑞 3𝑅
𝐼3 𝑅 𝐸𝑑𝑐
𝐸𝐴𝑁 = 𝐸𝐵𝑁 = =
2 3
−2𝐸𝑑𝑐
𝐸𝐶𝑁 = −𝐼3 𝑅 =
3
The line voltage EAB = EAN– EBN is obtained by reversing EBN and adding it to EAN as shown
in Fig 4.3. Similarly, line voltages EBC = EBN – ECN and ECA = ECN - EAN .
It can be observed from Fig.4.3 that phase voltages have six steps per cycle and line voltages
have one positive pulse and one negative pulse (each of 120° duration) per cycle. The phase as
well as line-voltages is out of phase by 120°.
21
The instantaneous line-to-line voltage, EAB can be expressed in a Fourier-series, recognizing that
EAB is shifted by Π / 6 and even harmonics are zero,
∞
4𝐸𝑑𝑐 𝑛𝜋
𝐸𝐴𝐵 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 sin 𝑛(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜋 6) − − − − − (9.71)
𝑛𝜋 6
𝑛=1,3,5,….
𝐸𝐵𝐶 𝑎𝑛𝑑𝐸𝐶𝐴 𝑐𝑎𝑛 𝑏𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑒𝑞𝑛 9.71 𝑏𝑦 𝑝𝑕𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑠𝑕𝑖𝑓𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐸𝐴𝐵 𝑏𝑦 120° 𝑎𝑛𝑑 240° 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒; 𝑦
∞
𝐸𝐵𝐶 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 sin 𝑛 𝜔𝑡 − 𝜋 2 − − − − − − − −(9.72)
𝑛𝜋 6
𝑛=1,3,5,….
∞
𝐸𝐶𝐴 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 sin 𝑛(𝜔𝑡 − 7𝜋 6) − − − − − −(9.73)
𝑛𝜋 6
𝑛=1,3,5,….
𝑛𝜋
For n=3,9,15,……cos 6 = 0
Hence it is noted from eqn (9.71), (9.72) and (9.73) that the triple harmonics would be zero in the
line to line voltages
The line to line rms voltage can be found from
2𝜋/3 1/2
2 2
𝐸𝐿 = 𝐸𝑑𝑐 2 𝑑(𝜔𝑡) = 𝐸 − − − − − − − (9.74)
𝜋 3 𝑑𝑐
0
4𝐸𝑑𝑐
𝐸𝐿𝑛 = cos⁡
(𝑛𝜋/6)
2𝑛𝜋
Which for n=1
𝜋 4𝐸𝑑𝑐
𝐸𝐿1 = cos
= 0.7797𝐸𝑑𝑐
2𝜋 6
𝑇𝑕𝑒 𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑛𝑒𝑢𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑐𝑎𝑛 𝑏𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒𝑠
𝐸𝐿 2𝐸𝑑𝑐
𝐸𝑝 = = = 0.4714𝐸𝑑𝑐
3 3
22
5. With neat diagram and waveforms explain 3phase VSI using transistors operating in 120
degree conduction mode. Also obtain the expression for rms value of output voltage.
Apr/May 2017, May/june-2013.
(OR)
Discuss in detail about the functioning of 3 phase VSI in 120 degree operating mode.
Nov/dec-2012,15, April/may-201 ,MAY-14,18.
 In this type of conduction mode, each switch conducts for 120°. At any instant of time, only
two switches remain on. Here also gate pulse indicates the conduction period of each switch.
 In this case also, six commutations per cycle are required. The gating signals and various
voltage waveforms of three-phase bridge inverters with 120° conduction for each switch is shown
in Fig.
 One period of inverter operation has been divided into six intervals. The firing sequence of six
switches is prepared, as shown in Table 5.1.
 Like 180° mode, 120° mode inverter also requires six steps, each of 60° duration, for
completing one cycle of the output a.c. voltage.
Following points can be noted from the waveforms and the operating Table:
(i) The base drives of two switches in the same-half-bridge have an inherent dead band of
60°. Hence, there is no possibility of cross conduction or shoot-through fault.
(ii) Conduction period for each switch is 120°.
(iii)The phase-shift between the triggering of every two adjacent switches is 60°.
(iv) Three line voltages, EAB, EBC and ECA are six-step waves, with step heights, Edc/2
and Edc. The three-line voltages are mutually phase shifted by 120°.
(v) The three-phase voltages EAN ,EBN and ECN are quasi-square-waves with peak values
of Edc/2. They are also mutually phase-shifted by 120°.
(vi) The line-voltage EABis leading the phase-voltage EAN by 30°. From Fig.5.2 and 5.1
it is observed that two switches conduct at a time, one from the upper group and the
other from the lower group.
(vii) There are three modes of operation in one half-cycle and the equivalent circuits for a
star-connected load are shown in Fig.5.3.
23
During interval I, 0 ≤ ωt < π/3, switches S1 and S6 conduct.

𝐸𝐷𝐶 −𝐸𝐷𝐶
𝐸𝐴𝑁 = , 𝐸𝐵𝑁 = , 𝐸𝐶𝑁 = 0
2 2
Fig 5.2 Gating signals and voltage waveform for 120° conduction
24
During interval II, for π/3 ≤ ωt ≤ 2π/3, switches S1 and S2 conduct.

𝑬𝒅𝒄 −𝑬𝒅𝒄
𝑬𝑨𝑵 = , 𝑬𝑩𝑵 = 𝟎, 𝑬𝑪𝑵 = − − − − − − − (𝟗. 𝟖𝟗)
𝟐 𝟐
(iii) During interval III (for 2π/3 ≤ ωt ≤ 3π/3) switches S2 and S3 conducts
𝑬𝒅𝒄 −𝑬𝒅𝒄
𝑬𝑨𝑵 = 𝟎, 𝑬𝑩𝑵 = , 𝑬𝑪𝑵 = − − − − − (𝟗. 𝟗𝟎)
𝟐 𝟐
𝑰𝒏 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒇𝒊𝒈 𝟗. 𝟐𝟖 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒆 𝒕𝒐 𝒏𝒆𝒖𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒏 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒕𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝒂𝒓𝒆 𝒔𝒉𝒐𝒘𝒏, 𝒘𝒉𝒊𝒄𝒉 𝒄𝒂𝒏 𝒃𝒆 𝒆𝒙𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒅 𝒊𝒏
𝒇𝒐𝒖𝒓𝒊𝒆𝒓 𝒔𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒆𝒔
∞
𝐸𝐴𝑁 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 sin 𝑛(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜋 6) − − − − − −(9.91)
𝑛𝜋 6
𝑛 =1,3,5,….
∞
𝐸𝐵𝑁 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 sin 𝑛(𝜔𝑡 − 𝜋 2) − − − − − (9.92)
𝑛𝜋 6
𝑛 =1,3,5,….
∞
𝐸𝐶𝑁 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 sin 𝑛(𝜔𝑡 − 7 𝜋 6) − − − − − (9.93)
𝑛𝜋 6
𝑛=1,3,5,….
The line voltage, EAB=√3 EANwith a phase advance S4of 30°. There is a delay of π/6 between
the turning-off of S1 and turning-on of S4. Thus, there should be no circuit of the d.c. supply
through one upper and one lower switch.
25
At any-time, two load terminals are connected to the d.c. supply and the third one remains
open. The potential of this open terminal will depend on the load characteristics and would be
unpredictable.
6. Explain the Concept Space Vector Modulation.
 This method has become extremely popular for 3-phase inverters in the low-to-medium power
range. For 3-phase systems with no zero-sequence component,
𝑣𝐴𝑁 + 𝑣𝐵𝑁 + 𝑣𝐶𝑁

𝑣𝑧 = =0
3
 The 3-phase quantities are linearly dependent and can be transformed to a 2-phase orthogonal
system commonly called the αβ system.
 Quantities in the αβ system can be represented by complex numbers and as two-dimensional
vectors in a plane, called space vectors. The transformation from the abc to αβ quantities is given
by
𝑗 2𝜋 𝑗 4𝜋
𝑣𝛼𝛽 𝑡 = 𝑣𝛼 𝑡 + 𝑗. 𝑣𝛽 𝑡 = 𝑒 𝑗 0 . 𝑣𝑎 𝑡 + 𝑒 3 . 𝑣𝑏 𝑡 + 𝑒 3 . 𝑣𝑐 (𝑡)
 With negative sequence components absent, α and β components of steady-state sinusoidal

abc quantities are also sinusoids with constant amplitude and a 90 degree phase difference
between them.
 Under transient conditions they are arbitrary time-varying quantities. Thus, for balanced
sinusoidal conditions, the space vector V αβ(t) rotates in counter clockwise direction with angular
frequency equal to frequency of the abc voltages, and a circle of radius (3/2) ˆVph,
ˆVph = the peak of the phase voltage.
6.1 a) 3 Phase converter
26
 The instantaneous output voltages of the 3-phase inverter shown in Fig.6.1.a can assume eight
different combinations based on which of the six MOSFETs are on.
 The space vectors for these eight combinations are shown in Fig 6.1b. For example, vector V4
denoted by (100) corresponds to switch states VAN=Vin, VBN= 0, and VCN= 0. The vectors V0(000)
and V7(111) have zero magnitude and are called zero vectors.
 Synthesis utilizing the idea of space vectors is done by dividing one switching time period
intoseveral time intervals, for each of which a particular voltage vector is the output by the
inverter.
 The time period is equal to the desired output voltage vector. For the reference voltage vector
ref ,shown in Fig.6.1b, the nonzero vectors adjacent to it (V1 and V3), and the zero vectors (V0
and V7) are utilized as shown in Fig.6.1c.
 Relative values of time intervals t1 and t3 determine the direction, while ratio of t0 to the
switching time period determines the magnitude of the output vector synthesized.
 The maximum obtainable average vector lies along the hexagon connecting the six nonzero
vectors.
 As stated earlier, balanced 3-phase sinusoidal quantities describe a circle in the αβ plane.
Thus, to synthesize distortion-free and balanced 3-phase sinusoidal voltages the circle must be
contained within the hexagon, that is, with a maximum radius of 3/2.Vin.
6.2 b) output voltage vector
 This gives the maximum peak value of line-to-line voltage obtained with SVM as VLL=Vin.
This is significantly higher than that obtained using sine triangle PWM: 3/2.Vin.
27
 Further, the sequence and choice of vectors applied can be optimized to minimize number of
switching’s and ripple in the resulting currents. There are several variations of SVM, each suited
to a different application.
 Space vector modulation can be easily implemented digitally using microcontroller and digital
signal processor (DSPs), and is extremely advantageous in control of 3-phase ac machines
strategies using vector control and directtorque control(DTC).
Fig 6.1, (c) Instantaneous waveforms.

7. Discuss The Different Modes Of Operation Of Series Resonant Inverter With
Unidirectional Switch With Neat Circuit Diagram And Waveforms. Nov/Dec-
2011,May/June-12
(OR)
Explain the working of series inverter with the aid of circuit diagram. MAY-14,Nov/Dec-17
In some inverters, the commutating elements may come in series with the load or
in parallel with the load during operation.
In this type of inverters, as indicated by the name, the commutating elements, viz. L and C are
connected in series with the load. This constitutes a series R-L-C resonant circuit.
If the load is purely resistive, it only has resistance in the circuit. In case of load being
inductive or capacitive in nature, its inductance or capacitance part is added to the commutating
elements(beinginseries).Thistypeofthyristorisedinverterproducesanapproximatelysinusoidal
waveform at a high output frequency , rangingfrom200 Hz to 100 kHz.
And is commonly used in relatively fixed output applications such as ultrasonic generators,
induction heating, sonar transmitter, fluorescent lighting, etc. Due to the high-switching
frequency, the size of commutating components is small.
28
Basic Series Inverter:
Figure 7.1(a) shows the circuit diagram of basic series inverter. Two thyristors T1 and T2are
used to produce the two halves (positive and negative respectively) in the output.
The commutating elements L and C are connected in series with the load R to form the series
R-L-C circuit. The values of E and C are chosen such that, they form an under damped circuit. This
is necessary to produce the required oscillations. This condition is fulfilled by selecting L and C
The operation of a basic series inverter circuit can be divided into following three operating
modes
Mode 1:
 This mode begins when a d.c. voltage Edc is applied to the circuit and thyristor T1is triggered by
giving external pulse to its gate.
 As soon as SCR T1is triggered, it starts conducting and resulting in some current to flow
through the R-L-C series circuit. Capacitor C gets charged up to voltage, say, Ec, with positive
polarity on its left plate and negative polarity on its right plate.
 The load current is of alternating nature. This is due to the underdamped circuit formed by the
commutating elements.
 It starts building up in the positive half, goes gradually to its peak-value, then starts returning
and again becomes zero, as shown in Fig.7.2 (b).
 When the current reaches its peak-value, the voltage across the capacitor is approximately the
supply voltage Edc. After this, the current starts decreasing but the capacitor voltage still increases
and finally the current becomes zero but the capacitor retains the highest voltage, i.e. (Edc + Ec),
Ecis the initial voltage across the capacitor at the instant SCR r, was turned-on.
29
 At P, SCR T1 is automatically turned-off because the current flowing through it becomes zero.
Mode 2:
 During this mode, the load current remains at zero for a sufficient time (Toff). Therefore, both
the thyristors T1and T2are OFF. During this period PQ, capacitance voltage will be held constant.
Fig. 7.2 b Voltage and current waveforms of Series inverter
Mode3:
 Since the positive polarity of the capacitor C appears on the anode of SCR T2, it is in
conducting mode and hence triggers immediately.
30
 At Q, SCR T2 is triggered. When SCR T2starts conducting, capacitor C gets discharged through
it. Thus, the current through the load flows in the opposite direction forming the negative
alternation. This current builds up to the negative maximum and then decreases to zero at point R.
 SCR T2will then be turned-off. Now, the capacitor voltage reverses to some value depending
upon the values of R, L and C.
 Again, after some time delay (Toff), SCR T1, is triggered and in the same fashion other cycles are
produced. This is a chain of process giving rise to alternating output almost sinusoidal in nature.
 One important point to be noted here is that the supply from the d.c. source is intermittent in
nature. Positive alternation of the a.c. output is drawn from the d.c. input source, whereas for the
negative alternation the current is drawn from the capacitor.
 It is necessary to maintain a time delay between the point when one SCR is turned-off and
other SCR is triggered. If this is not done, both the SCRs will start conducting simultaneously
resulting in a short circuit of the d.c. input source. This time delay (TOFF) must be more than the
turn-off time of the SCRs. The output frequency is given by
1
𝐹= 𝐻𝑧
𝑇
2 + 𝑇𝑜𝑓𝑓
WhereT is the time period for oscillations and is given by

𝑇 𝜋
=
2 1
− 𝑅 2 /4𝐿2
𝐿𝐶
ToSis the time-delay between tum-off of one SCR and turn-on of the other SCR.
Thus, by changing the value of Toff, frequency can be changed without changing the commutating
elements.
The basic series inverter has the following drawbacks:
1. The load voltage waveform has more distortion due to the time delay.
This distortion is specially high for frequencies less than the resonance
frequency.
2. The maximum inverter frequency is limited to a value that is slightly less

than the circuit ringing frequency. If the inverter frequency exceeds the
circuit ringing frequency, the d.c. source will be short-circuited.
3. The commutating element must have high rating because these compo-
nents carry the load current continuously and the capacitor supplies the
load current in every alternate half-cycle.
31
4. Load current is drawn from the d.c. source only during one half-cycle
and this increases the peak current rating of the d.c. source. Since the
current drawn from the d.c. source is not continuous in nature, more
ripples are present in it.
5. The peak amplitude and duration of the load current in each half-cycle
depends on load parameters, resulting in poor output regulation for the
inverter.
8. Describe the operation of single-phase auto sequential commutated current source inverter
with power circuit and waveforms. April/may-2011, May/june-12
(OR)
Write short on current source inverter.nov/dec-2013MAY/JUNE-16
A single-phase, controlled current-sourced bridge is shown in figure 8.1a and its near square-
wave output current is shown in figure 8.1b. No freewheel diodes are required and the thyristors
required forced commutation and have to withstand reverse voltages.
An inverter current path must be maintained at all times for the source controlled current.
Consider thyristors T1 and T2 on and conducting the constant load current. The capacitors are
charged with plates X and Y positive as a result of the previous commutation cycle.
MODE I:
 Thyristors T1 and T2 are commutated by triggering thyristors T3 and T4. The capacitors
impress negative voltages across the respective thyristors to be commutated off, as shown in
figure 8.2b.
 The load current is displaced from T1 and T2 via the path T3-C1-D1, the load and D2-C2-T4.
The two capacitors discharge in series with the load, each capacitor reverse biasing the thyristor to
be commutated, T1 and T2 as well as diodes D3 to D4. The capacitors discharge linearly (due to
the constant current source).
32
Figure 8.1.Single-phase controlled-current sourced bridge inverter:

(a) bridge circuit with a current source input and (b) load current waveform.
MODE II:
 When both capacitors are discharged, the load current transfers from D1 to D2 and from D3 to
D4, which connects the capacitors in parallel with the load via diodes D1 to D2. The plates X and
Y now charge negative, ready for the next commutation cycle, as shown in figure 8.2b.
 Thyristors T1 and T2 are now forward biased and must have attained forward blocking ability
before the start of phase 2.
 The on-going thyristor automatically commutates the outgoing thyristor. This repeated
commutation sequencing is a processed termed auto-sequential thyristor commutation.
33
Figure 8.2. Controlled-current sourced bridge inverter showing commutation of T1 and T2

by T3 and T4: (a) capacitors C1 and C2 discharging and T1, T2, D3, and D4 reversed biased
and(b) C1, C2, and the load in parallel with C1 and C2 charging.
Fig. Voltage and current waveforms

 The load voltage is load dependent and usually has controlled voltage spikes during
commutation. Since the GTO and GCT both can be commutated from the gate, the two
commutation capacitors C1 and C2 are not necessary. Commutation overlap is still essential.
 Also, if the thyristors have reverse blocking capability, the four diodes D1 to D4 are not
necessary. IGBTs require series blocking diodes, which increases on-state losses.
 In practice, the current source inverter is only used in very high-power applications (>1MVA),
and the ratings of the self-commutating thyristor devices can be greatly extended if the simple
external capacitive commutation circuits shown in figure are used to reduce thyristor turn-off
stresses.
34
9. EXPLAIN HARMONIC CONTROL OF INVERTER?
Harmonic reduction by Transformer connection
To get net output voltage with reduced harmonic content,
 Output voltage from two or more inverters can be obtained by means of transformers.
 The essential conditions of this scheme is that the output voltage waveforms from the
inverter must be similar but phase shifted from each other
 The below Fig. shows a scheme for connecting two inverters and two transformers for
harmonic elimination
Their output voltage VL1 from inverter 1 and VL2 from inverter 2 are shown in waveform
VL2 is phase shifted by π/3 radians with respect to VL1
By adding the magnitudes the resultant waveform is obtained
The absence of third harmonic in the output waveform VL can be explained by writing the fourier
series for VL1 and VL2
𝑉𝐿1 = 𝐴1 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡 + 𝐴3 sin 3𝜔𝑡 + 𝐴5 sin 5𝜔𝑡 + ⋯
π π π
𝑉𝐿2 = 𝐴1 sin⁡
(𝜔𝑡 − ) + 𝐴3 sin 3(𝜔𝑡 − ) + 𝐴5 sin 5(𝜔𝑡 − ) + ⋯
3 3 3
The resultant voltage VL is obtained by vector addition

VL=VL1+VL2
π π
𝑉𝐿 = 3 𝐴1 sin 𝜔𝑡 − + A5 sin 5 𝜔𝑡 + +⋯
6 6
35
π
From the above expression of VL, it is observed that with the phase shifting of and combining
3
rd
voltages by transformer connection it is possible to eliminate 3 Harmonics.
Also multiples of 3rd harmonics such as 9,12 , harmonics also eleimnated
Drawbacks: Needs more number of inverter and transformerof similar rating
HARMONIC REDUCTION BY MULTIPLE COMMUTATION IN EACH HALF CYCLE
This method is explained with respect to a single phase inverter.

Normally there is one commutation per half cycle at the end of each half cycleand this produces a
square wave output
Instead of having commutation at the end of half cycle some more commutation can be created in
the half cycle and the waveform is as shown
By properly selecting the values of delay angle α1 and α2, any two unwanted lower order
harmonics can be eliminated
Here waveform are drawn for single phase half bridge inverter
It employs 4 extra commutations per cycle instead of one
𝛼1 𝛼2 𝜋/2
4𝑉𝑆
𝐵𝑛 = sin 𝑛𝜔𝑡 𝑑 𝜔𝑡 − sin 𝑛𝜔𝑡 𝑑 𝜔𝑡 + sin 𝑛𝜔𝑡 𝜔𝑡
𝜋 0 𝛼1 𝛼2
4𝑉𝑆 1 − 2𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑛𝛼1 + 2𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑛𝛼2

=
𝜋 𝑛
If the 3rd and 5th order harmonics are to be eliminated

Substituting n=3 and 5 in above eqn.
36
4𝑉𝑆 1 − 2𝐶𝑜𝑠3𝛼1 + 2𝐶𝑜𝑠3𝛼2

𝐵3 = =0
𝜋 3
4𝑉𝑆 1 − 2𝐶𝑜𝑠5𝛼1 + 2𝐶𝑜𝑠5𝛼2

𝐵5 = =0
𝜋 5
Or the numerators should be equal to zero
1 − 2𝐶𝑜𝑠3𝛼1 + 2𝐶𝑜𝑠3𝛼2 = 0 and

1 − 2𝐶𝑂𝑆5𝛼_1 + 2𝐶𝑂𝑆5𝛼_2 = 0
The above 2 simultaneous equations can be solved numerically to calculate α1 and α2 under the
condition that 0<α1<90°
Whcich gives α1=23.62° and α2=33.6°
Similarly any 2 harmonics can be eliminated by calculating values of α1 and α2
Dis advantage
1. The inverter is derated by 16.1%
2. Need for additional 4 commutations per cycle, resulting in switching losses and hence
efficiency
37
HARMONIC REDUCTION USING STEPPED WAVE INVERTER
This method is also called as wave-stepping in which pulses of different widths and heights are
added to produce a resultant stepped wave with reduced harmonic content
Fig 1 shows 2 stepped wave inverters fed from a common dc input voltage.These inverters are
connected to a common load through transformers having turn ratio of 1:3 and 1:1 respectively
The inverter 1 is so operated that its output voltage is VL1 as shown
The output voltage level is either zero or positive during the first half cycle
38
During second half cycle the output voltage would be either zero or negative. This type of
modulation in which the output voltage has only two levels during any half cycle is called as two
level modulations
The inverter II is so operated that its output voltage is VL2 as shown
Here the output voltage is positive , zero and negative during first half cycle. Therefore the
inverter II is operated with three level modulation
The resultant waveform is obtained by adding the magnitudes as shown in the waveform
By this method 3rd, 5th, and 7th harmonics can be decreases considerably
TWO MARKS
1. What is meant by inverter?
2. What are the applications of an inverter?
3. What are the main classifications of inverter?
4. Why thyristors are not preferred for inverters?
5. How output frequency is varied in case of a thyristor?
6. Give two advantages of CSI. APRIL/MAY-2011
7. What is the main drawback of a single phase half bridge inverter?
8. Why diodes should be connected in antiparallel with thethyristors in inverter circuits?
9. What types of inverters require feedback diodes?
10. What is meant a series inverter?(OR) why is the series inverter called so? NOV/DEC-2011
11. What is the condition to be satisfied in the selection of L and C in a series inverter?
12. What is meant a parallel inverter?
13. What are the applications of a series inverter?
14. How is the inverter circuit classified based on commutation circuitry
15. What is meant by McMurray inverter?
16. What are the applications of a CSI?
17. What is meant by PWM control?
18. What are the advantages of PWM control? NOV/DEC-2012, 2013, MAY-14.(OR)
What is harmonic elimination by PWM.APRIL/MAY-2015
19. What are the disadvantages of the harmonics present in the inverter system?
20. What are the methods of reduction of harmonic content?
21. Compare CSI and VSI.NOV/DEC-2012,15,MAY/JUNE-2012, MAY-14,16.
22. What are the disadvantages of PWM control?
23. Define the term inverter gain.MAY/JUNE-2012
24. What Is CSI? NOV/DEC-2012, NOV/DEC-2011
39
25. In a CSI, if frequency of output voltage is ‘F’ Hz, what is the frequency of input voltageTo
CSI? MAY/JUNE-2013.
26. What is space vector? MAY/JUNE-2013.
27. What are the PWM methods for voltage control within the inverter? APRIL/MAY-2011
28. What is the advantages of 1200 mode of inverter operation over 1800 mode? NOV/DEC-
2013.
29. Write the advantages of resonant converter? NOV/DEC-2014,15
30. What is meant by voltage source inverter? NOV/DEC-2014
31. Draw the circuit diagram and waveform of single phase current sourceinverter. APRIL/MAY-
2015.
32.What are the applications of an inverter? MAY/JUNE-16
PART-B
1) Explain in detail, the various types of PWM methods employed in an inverter.DEC-
12.PG.NO:07
(OR)
Explain different PWM techniques in detail. MAY-14.PG.NO:09 (OR)
Briefly Discuss The Different Types Of PWM Schemes Available For Voltage Control In An
Inverter.NOV/DEC-2014,15
2) What is the need for controlling the output voltage of inverters? Classify the various techniques
adopted to vary the inverter gain and brief on sinusoidal pwm.MAY/JUNE-2012- PG.NO:9
3) Multiple pulse width modulation-MAY/JUNE-2013 -PG.NO:12,APRIL/MAY-2015.
4) Write Short on Sinusoidal Pulse Width Modulation. JUNE-2013, DEC-2013. PG.NO:9
5) With a neat sketch and output voltage waveforms, explain the working of three phase bridge
inverter in 180 degree mode of operation. NOV/DEC-2011, NOV/DEC-2013,14,
APRIL/MAY-2015,16.PG.NO:17
6) With neat diagram and waveforms explain 3phase VSI using transistors operating in 120
degree conduction mode.Also obtain the expression for rms value of output voltage.JUNE-
13.,PG.NO:22
7) Discuss in detail about the functioning of 3 phase VSI in 120 degree operating mode.
NOV/DEC-2012,15, APRIL/MAY-2011- PG.NO:22
(OR)
Discuss in detail about the functioning of 3 phase VSI in 120 degree operating mode. Nov/dec-
2012,15, April/may-2011, MAY-14.
40
8) Discuss the different modes of operation of series resonant inverter with unidirectional
Switch with neat circuit diagram and waveforms. DEC-2011, MAY/JUNE-12- PG.NO:28(OR)
Explain the working of series inverter with the aid of circuit diagram.MAY-14.
9) Describe the operation of single-phase auto sequential commutated current source inverter
With power circuit and waveforms.APRIL/MAY-2011.,MAY/JUNE-12,16-PG.NO:32
(OR)
Write Short on Current Source Inverter.NOV/DEC-2013, PG.NO:32
41
POWER ELECTRONICS-EE6503 - UNIT-V
TWO MARKS
1. What does ac voltage controller mean?
It is device which converts fixed alternating voltage into a variable voltage without
change in frequency.
2. What are the applications of ac voltage controllers? NOV/DEC-2012,April/May-18

a. Domestic and industrial heating
b. Lighting control
c. Speed control of+ single phase and three phase ac motors
d. Transformer tap changing
3. What are the advantages of ac voltage controllers?

a. High efficiency
b. Flexibility in control
c. Less maintenance
4. What are the disadvantages of ac voltage controllers?

The main drawback is the introduction of harmonics in the supply current and the load
voltage waveforms particularly at low output voltages.
5. What are the two methods of control in ac voltage controllers? MAY/JUNE-2016

a. ON-OFF control
b. Phase control
6. What is the difference between ON-OFF control and phase control? (OR)
what is the principle of on-off control of ac controller? APR/MAY-2015, Nov/Dec-2016,
APR/MAY-2017
ON-OFF control: In this method, the thyristors are employed as switches to connect the
load circuit to the source for a few cycles of the load voltage and disconnect it for another few
cycles. Phase control: In this method, thyristor switches connect the load to the ac source for a
portion of each half cycle of input voltage.
7. What is the advantage of ON-OFF control? NOV/DEC-2008
Due to zero-voltage and zero current switching of thyristors, the harmonics generated by
the switching action are reduced.
8. What is the disadvantage of ON-OFF control? NOV/DEC-2008

This type of control is applicable in systems that have high mechanical inertia and high
thermal time constant.
9. What is the duty cycle in ON-OFF control method?

Duty cycle K = n/ (n + m), where n = no. of ON cycles, m = no. of OFF cycles.
10. What is meant by unidirectional or half-wave ac voltage controller?
1
Here the power flow is controlled only during the positive half- Cycle of the input voltage.
11. What are the disadvantages of unidirectional or half-wave ac voltage controller?
Why is half wave,ACloltage regulator not used. Nov/Dec-17
a. Due to the presence of diode on the circuit, the control range is limited and the
effective RMS output voltage can be varied between 70.7% and 100%.
b. The input current and output voltage are asymmetrical and contain a dc
component. If there is an input transformer, saturation problem will occur
c. It is only used for low power resistive load.
12. What is meant by bidirectional or half-wave ac voltage controller?
Here the power flow is controlled during both cycles of the input voltage.
13. What is the control range of firing angle in ac voltage controller with RL
load?MAY-14
The control range is <<180, where  = load power factor angle.
14. What type of gating signal is used in single phase ac voltage controller with RL
load?
High frequency carrier gating signal is used for single phase ac voltage controller with
RL load.
15. What are the disadvantages of continuous gating signal?

a. More heating of the SCR gate.
b. Increases the size of pulse transformer.
c.
16. What is meant by high frequency carrier gating?
Thyristor is turned on by using a train of pulses from  to. This type of signal is called
as high frequency carrier gating.
17. What is meant by sequence control of ac voltage regulators? Nov/Dec-17

It means that the stages of voltage controllers in parallel triggered in a proper sequence
one after the other so as to obtain a variable output with low harmonic content.
18. What are the advantages of sequence control of ac voltage regulators?

a. System power factor is improved.
b. Harmonics are reduced in the source current and the load voltage.
19. What is meant by cyclo-converter? (OR)write the principle ofOperation of

cycloconverter. (NOV/DEC-2012), (NOV/DEC-2016)
It converts input power at one frequency to output power at another frequency with one-
stage conversion. Cycloconverter is also known as frequency changer.
20. What are the two types of cyclo-converters? APR/MAY-2011

a. Step-up cyclo-converters
b. Step-down cyclo-converters
2
21. What is meant by step-up cyclo-converters?

In these converters, the output frequency is less than the supply frequency.
22. What is meant by step-down cyclo-converters?
In these converters, the output frequency is more than the supply frequency.
23. What are the applications of cyclo-converter?DEC-08,11,13
a. Induction heating
b. Speed control of high power ac drives
c. Static VAR generation
d. Power supply in aircraft or ship boards
24. What is meant by positive converter group in a cycloconverter?
The part of the cycloconverter circuit that permits the flow of current during positive half cycle
of output current is called positive converter group.
25. What is meant by negative converter group in a cycloconverter?

The part of the cycloconverter circuit that permits the flow of current during negative
half cycle of output current is called negative converter group.
26. What is matrix converter? APRIL/MAY-2017, APRIL/MAY-2011,JUNE-

2013,NOV/DEC-13,MAY-14
The matrix converter is a static frequency converter, which is the main feature of the
conventional rectifier converters - UPS. It helps to have many phase output voltage variable
amplitude and frequency from an input of a system of many phase voltages fixed supply
network.
27. What Is Integral Cycle Control in AC voltage controllers? NOV/DEC-2011,14,15
MAY/JUNE-2012 MAY/JUNE-2016
The thyristor switches T1 and T2 are turned on by applying appropriate gate trigger pulses
to connect the input ac supply to the load for ‘n’ number of input cycles during the time interval
tON . The thyristor switches T1 and T2 are turned off by blocking the gate trigger pulses for ‘m’
number of input cycles during the time interval tOFF . The ac controller ON time tON usually
consists of an integral number of input cycles.
28. What are types of ac voltage controller? MAY/JUNE-2013
3
The ac voltage controllers are classified into two types based on the type of input ac
supply applied to the circuit.
 Single Phase AC Controllers.
 Three Phase AC Controllers.
29. Draw Matrix Converter Circuit. APRIL/MAY-2015
30.Write the output RMS voltrage for single phase AC voltage controller with resistive
load.NOV/DEC-15
1 1
𝜋
1 2 𝛼 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝛼 2
𝑉0 = 2𝑉𝑠2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜔𝑡 𝑑(𝜔𝑡) = 𝑉𝑠 1 − +
𝜋 𝛼 𝜋 2𝜋
31.Mention the advantages of matrix converter over conventional converter.April/May-18
The matrix converter has several advantages over traditional rectifier-inverter type power
frequency converters. It provides sinusoidal input and output waveforms, with minimal higher
order harmonics and no subharmonics; it has inherent bi-directional energy flow capability; the
input power factor can be fully controlled. Last but not least, it has minimal energy storage
requirements, which allows to get rid of bulky and lifetime-limited energy-storing capacitors
4
AC VOLTAGE CONTROLLER
INTRODUCTION
 AC voltage controllers (ac line voltage controllers) are employed to vary the RMS
value of the alternating voltage applied to a load circuit by introducing Thyristors
between the load and a constant voltage ac source.
 The RMS value of alternating voltage applied to a load circuit is controlled by
controlling the triggering angle of the Thyristors in the ac voltage controller
circuits.
 In brief, an ac voltage controller is a type of thyristor power converter which is
used to convert a fixed voltage, fixed frequency ac input supply to obtain a
variable voltage ac output.
 The RMS value of the ac output voltage and the ac power flow to the load is
controlled by varying (adjusting) the trigger angle ‘’
V0(RMS)
AC Vs AC Variable AC
Input Voltage RMSO/P Voltage
Voltage fs Controller
fs fS
Fig.1
TYPE OF AC VOLTAGE CONTROLLER
 The ac voltage controllers are classified into two types based on the type of input ac
supply applied to the circuit.
 Single Phase AC Controllers.
 Three Phase AC Controllers.
 Single phase ac controllers operate with single phase ac supply voltage of 230V RMS at
50Hz in our country.
 Three phase ac controllers operate with 3 phase ac supply of 400V RMS at 50Hz supply
frequency.
 Each type of controller may be sub divided into
 Uni-directional or half wave ac controller.
 Bi-directional or full wave ac controller.
 In brief different types of ac voltage controllers are
 Single phase half wave ac voltage controller (uni-directional controller).
 Single phase full wave ac voltage controller (bi-directional controller).
 Three phase half wave ac voltage controller (uni-directional controller).
 Three phase full wave ac voltage controller (bi-directional controller).
5
AC VOLTAGE CONTROL TECHNIQUES
 There are two different types of thyristor control used in practice to control the ac power
flow
 Phase control
 On-Off control
 These are the two ac output voltage control techniques.
 In On-Off control technique Thyristors are used as switches to connect the load circuit to
the ac supply (source) for a few cycles of the input ac supply and then to disconnect it
for few input cycles.
 The Thyristors thus act as a high speed contactor (or high speed ac switch).
PART-B
1) EXPLAIN THE PHASE CONTROL TECHNIQUE.
 In phase control the Thyristors are used as switches to connect the load circuit to
the input ac supply, for a part of every input cycle.
 That is the ac supply voltage is chopped using Thyristors during a part of each
input cycle.
 The thyristor switch is turned on for a part of every half cycle, so that input
supply voltage appears across the load and then turned off during the remaining
part of input half cycle to disconnect the ac supply from the load.
 By controlling the phase angle or the trigger angle ‘’ (delay angle), the output
RMS voltage across the load can be controlled.
 The trigger delay angle ‘’ is defined as the phase angle (the value of t) at
which the thyristor turns on and the load current begins to flow.
 Thyristor ac voltage controllers use ac line commutation or ac phase
commutation.
 Thyristors in ac voltage controllers are line commutated (phase commutated)
since the input supply is ac.
 When the input ac voltage reverses and becomes negative during the negative half
cycle the current flowing through the conducting thyristor decreases and falls to
zero.
 Thus the ON thyristor naturally turns off, when the device current falls to zero.
6
 Phase control Thyristors which are relatively inexpensive, converter grade

Thyristors which are slower than fast switching inverter grade Thyristors are
normally used.
 For applications up to 400Hz, if Triacs are available to meet the voltage and
current ratings of a particular application, Triacs are more commonly used.
 Due to ac line commutation or natural commutation, there is no need of extra
commutation circuitry or components and the circuits for ac voltage controllers
are very simple.
 Due to the nature of the output waveforms, the analysis, derivations of
expressions for performance parameters are not simple, especially for the phase
controlled ac voltage controllers with RL load.
 But however most of the practical loads are of the RL type and hence RL load
should be considered in the analysis and design of ac voltage controller circuits.
Fig.: Halfwave AC phase controller (Unidirectional Controller)
EQUATIONS:
 Input AC Supply Voltage across the Transformer Secondary Winding:
7
vs  Vm sin  t
Vm
VS  Vin RMS   = RMS value of secondary supply voltage.
2
 Output Load Voltage:
vo  vL  0 ; for t  0 to 
vo  vL  Vm sin  t ; for t   to 2 .
 Output Load Current:
vo Vm sin  t
io  iL   ; for t   to 2 .
RL RL
io  iL  0 ; for t  0 to  .
TO DERIVE AN EXPRESSION FOR RMS OUTPUT VOLTAGE: VO RMS 
2
1  
   Vm sin  t.d  t  
2 2
VO RMS 
2   
2
Vm 2   1  cos 2 t  
VO RMS      .d  t  
2    2  
2
Vm 2  
VO RMS     1  cos 2 t  .d  t  
4   
Vm  2 2

VO RMS    d  t    cos 2 t.d t 
2    
2 2
Vm   sin 2 t  
VO RMS     t    
2     2   
2
sin 2 t 
 2     
Vm
VO RMS   
2   2  
8
sin 4 sin 2 
 2     
Vm
VO RMS     ;sin 4  0
2   2 2 
Vm sin 2
VO RMS    2    
2  2
Vm sin 2
VO RMS    2    
2 2 2
Vm 1  sin 2 
VO RMS     2    
2 2  2 
1  sin 2 
VO RMS   Vi RMS    2    
2  2 
1  sin 2 
VO RMS   VS   2    
2  2 
Vm
Where, Vi RMS   VS  = RMS value of input supply voltage (across the transformer
2
secondary winding).
Note: Output RMS voltage across the load is controlled by changing ' ' as indicated by
the expression for VO RMS 
TO CALCULATE THE AVERAGE VALUE (DC VALUE) OF OUTPUT VOLTAGE:

2
1
VO dc   V sin  t.d  t 
2
m

2
Vm
VO dc  
2  sin t.d t 

2
V  
VO dc   m   cos  t 
2   
Vm
VO dc     cos 2  cos   ; cos2  1
2
9
Vm
Vdc   cos   1 ; Vm  2VS
2
2VS
Hence Vdc   cos   1
2
Vm
When ' ' is varied from 0 to  . Vdc varies from 0 to

Problem.1
 A single phase half-wave ac voltage controller has a load resistance R  50 , input ac
supply voltage is 230V RMS at 50Hz. The input supply transformer has a turns ratio of
1:1. If the thyristor T1 is triggered at   600 . Calculate
 RMS output voltage.
 Output power.
 RMS load current and average load current.
 Input power factor.
 Average and RMS thyristor current.
GIVEN:
V p  230V , RMS primary supply voltage.

f  Input supply frequency = 50Hz.
RL  50

  600  radians.
3
VS  RMS secondary voltage.
10
Vp Np 1
  1
VS NS 1
Therefore Vp  VS  230V
Where, N p = Number of turns in the primary winding.
N S = Number of turns in the secondary winding.
TO FIND:
 RMS output voltage.

 Output power.
 RMS load current and average load current.
 Input power factor.
 Average and RMS thyristor current.
SOLUTION:
 RMS Value of Output (Load) Voltage VO RMS 
2
1
VO RMS   V
2
sin 2  t.d  t 
2
m

We have obtained the expression for VO RMS  as
1 sin 2
VO RMS   VS  2     
2 2
1     sin1200
VO RMS   230  2   
2  3   2
1
VO RMS   230 5.669  230  0.94986
2
VO RMS   218.4696 V  218.47 V
 RMS Load Current I O RMS 
11
VO RMS  218.46966

I O RMS     4.36939 Amps
RL 50
 Output Load Power PO

PO  I O2  RMS   RL   4.36939   50  954.5799 Watts
2
PO  0.9545799 KW
 Input Power Factor

PO
PF 
VS  I S
VS = RMS secondary supply voltage = 230V.
I S = RMS secondary supply current = RMS load current.
 I S  IO RMS   4.36939 Amps
954.5799 W
 PF   0.9498
 230  4.36939  W
 Average Output (Load) Voltage
2
1  
VO dc     Vm sin  t.d  t  
2   
We have obtained the expression for the average / DC output voltage as,
Vm
VO dc   cos   1
2
2  230
 cos  600   1 
325.2691193
VO dc     0.5  1
2 2
325.2691193
VO dc    0.5  25.88409 Volts
2
 Average DC Load Current

VO dc  25.884094
I O dc     0.51768 Amps
RL 50
 Average & RMS Thyristor Currents
12
iT1
Im
 2 3
 (2+) t


Fig.: Thyristor Current Waveform
Referring to the thyristor current waveform of a single phase half-wave ac voltage controller
circuit, we can calculate the average thyristor current IT  Avg  as

1  
IT  Avg     I m sin  t.d  t  
2  

Im  
IT  Avg     sin  t.d  t  
2  

I  
IT  Avg   m   cos  t  
2  
Im
IT  Avg     cos    cos  
2 
Im
IT  Avg   1  cos  
2
Vm
Where, I m  = Peak thyristor current = Peak load current.
RL
2  230
Im 
50
I m  6.505382 Amps
Vm
IT  Avg   1  cos  
2 RL
2  230
IT  Avg   1  cos  600  
2  50  
13
2  230
IT  Avg   1  0.5
100
IT  Avg   1.5530 Amps
 RMS thyristor current IT  RMS  can be calculated by using the expression


1  2 2 
IT  RMS     I m sin  t.d t  
2  
I m2  1  cos 2 t 


IT  RMS    .d  t  
2  2 
 
I m2  
IT  RMS        cos 2 t.d  t  
d  t 
4   
 
1   sin 2 t  
IT  RMS   I m   t    
4    2  
1  sin 2  sin 2 
IT  RMS   I m        
4   2 
1  sin 2 
IT  RMS   I m      
4  2 
Im 1  sin 2 
IT  RMS        
2 2  2 
6.50538 1    sin 120  

0
IT  RMS        
2 2  3 2 

1  2  0.8660254 
IT  RMS   4.6  
2  3  2 

IT  RMS   4.6  0.6342  2.91746 A
IT  RMS   2.91746 Amps
14
2) EXPLAIN THE PRINCIPLE OF ON-OFF CONTROL TECHNIQUE

(INTEGRALCYCLE CONTROL) MAY/JUNE-2013, NOV/DEC-2013.
(OR)
EXPLAIN THE OPERATION OF SINGLE PHASE FULL WAVE AC VOLTAGE
CONTROLLER WITH R LOAD.MAY-14, NOV/DEC-15.
 The basic principle of on-off control technique is explained with reference to a single
phase full wave ac voltage controller circuit shown below.
 The thyristor switches T1 and T2 are turned on by applying appropriate gate trigger pulses
to connect the input ac supply to the load for ‘n’ number of input cycles during the time
interval tON .
 The thyristor switches T1 and T2 are turned off by blocking the gate trigger pulses for ‘m’
number of input cycles during the time interval tOFF .
 The ac controller ON time tON usually consists of an integral number of input cycles.
R  RL = Load Resistance
Fig.2: Single phase full wave AC voltage controller circuit
15
Vs n m
wt
Vo
io
wt
ig1 Gate pulse of T1
wt
ig2 Gate pulse of T2
wt
Fig.3: Waveforms
Example
 Referring to the waveforms of ON-OFF control technique in the above diagram,
n  Two input cycles. Thyristors are turned ON during tON for two input cycles.
m  One input cycle. Thyristors are turned OFF during tOFF for one input cycle
Fig.4: Power Factor
 Thyristors are turned ON precisely at the zero voltage crossings of the input supply.
16
 The thyristor T1 is turned on at the beginning of each positive half cycle by applying the
gate trigger pulses to T1 as shown, during the ON time tON .
 The load current flows in the positive direction, which is the downward direction as
shown in the circuit diagram when T1 conducts.
 The thyristor T2 is turned on at the beginning of each negative half cycle, by applying
gating signal to the gate of T2 , during tON .
 The load current flows in the reverse direction, which is the upward direction when T2
conducts.
 Thus we obtain a bi-directional load current flow (alternating load current flow) in a ac
voltage controller circuit, by triggering the thyristors alternately.
 This type of control is used in applications which have high mechanical inertia and high
thermal time constant (Industrial heating and speed control of ac motors).
 Due to zero voltage and zero current switching of Thyristors, the harmonics generated by
switching actions are reduced.
 For a sine wave input supply voltage,
vs  Vm sin t  2VS sin t
Vm
VS  RMS value of input ac supply = = RMS phase supply voltage.
2
 If the input ac supply is connected to load for ‘n’ number of input cycles and
disconnected for ‘m’ number of input cycles, then
tON  n  T , tOFF  m  T
1
Where T  = input cycle time (time period) and
f
f = input supply frequency.
tON = controller on time = n  T .
tOFF = controller off time = m  T .
TO = Output time period =  tON  tOFF    nT  mT  .
tON t
 We can show that, Output RMS voltage VO RMS   Vi RMS   VS ON
TO TO
17
Where Vi RMS  is the RMS input supply voltage = VS .
TO DERIVE AN EXPRESSION FOR THE RMS VALUE OF OUTPUT VOLTAGE, FOR

ON-OFF CONTROL METHOD:
t
1 ON 2 2
V Sin  t.d  t 
TO t0 m
 Output RMS voltage VO RMS  
 tON
Vm 2
VO RMS    Sin 2 t.d  t 
TO 0
1  Cos 2
 Substituting for Sin 2 
2
 tON
Vm 2 1  Cos 2 t 
VO RMS  
TO   2  d  t 
0
Vm 2  tON  tON

VO RMS     d   t    Cos 2 t.d  t  
2TO  0 0 
 tON  tON
Vm 2  Sin2 t 
VO RMS     t   
2TO  0
2 0 
Vm 2  sin 2 tON  sin 0 

VO RMS     tON  0   
2TO  2 
Now tON = An integral number of input cycles; Hence
tON  T , 2T ,3T , 4T ,5T ,..... &  tON  2 , 4 , 6 ,8 ,10 ,......
 Where T is the input supply time period (T = input cycle time period). Thus we
note that sin 2 tON  0
Vm 2  tON Vm tON
VO RMS   
2  TO 2 TO
tON t
VO RMS   Vi RMS   VS ON
TO TO
18
Vm
 Where Vi RMS    VS = RMS value of input supply voltage;
2
tON tON nT n
    k = duty cycle (d).
TO tON  tOFF nT  mT  n  m 
n
VO  RMS   VS V k
m  n S
PERFORMANCE PARAMETERS OF AC VOLTAGE CONTROLLERS:
1. RMS Output (Load) Voltage:

1
 n
2
 2
VO RMS    Vm 2 sin 2  t.d  t  

 2  n  m  0 
Vm n
VO RMS   V k  VS k
2  m  n  i RMS 
VO RMS   Vi RMS  k  VS k
Where VS  Vi RMS  = RMS value of input supply voltage
2. Duty Cycle:
t tON nT
k  ON  
TO  tON  tOFF   m  n  T
n
Where, k  = duty cycle (d).
 m  n
3. RMS Load Current:
VO RMS  VO RMS 
I O RMS    ; for a resistive load Z  RL .
Z RL
4. Output AC (Load) Power:

PO  I O2  RMS   RL
5. Input Power Factor:

P output load power P
PF  O   O
VA input supply volt amperes VS I S
19
I O2  RMS   RL
PF  ; I S  I in RMS   RMS input supply current.
Vi RMS   I in RMS 
 The input supply current is same as the load current I in  I O  I L
 Hence, RMS supply current = RMS load current; I in RMS   I O RMS  .
I O2  RMS   RL VO RMS  Vi RMS  k

PF     k
Vi RMS   I in RMS  Vi RMS  Vi RMS 
n
PF  k 
mn
6. The Average Current of Thyristor : IT  Avg 

Waveform of Thyristor Current
iT m
n
Im
0  2 3 t

n
I m sin t.d t 
2  m  n  0
IT  Avg  

nI m
sin  t.d t 
2  m  n  0
IT  Avg  

nI m  
IT  Avg     cos  t 
2  m  n   0
nI m
IT  Avg     cos   cos 0
2  m  n 
nI m
IT  Avg      1  1
2  m  n  
n
IT  Avg    2I m 
2  m  n 
20
Imn k .I
IT  Avg    m
  m  n 
tON n
k  duty cycle  
 tON  tOFF   n  m 
Imn k .I
IT  Avg    m,
  m  n 
Vm
Where I m  = maximum or peak thyristor current.
RL
7. RMS Current of Thyristor IT  RMS 

1
 n

 2
IT  RMS   mI 2
sin 2
 t .d   t  
 2  n  m  0 
1
 nI m2

 2
IT  RMS    sin 2  t.d  t  

 2  n  m  0 
1
 nI m2

1  cos 2 t  d  t  2
IT  RMS     
 2  n  m  0
2 
1
 nI m2  
 2
IT  RMS     d  t    cos 2 t.d  t   

 4  n  m   0 0  
1
 nI m2  
 sin 2 t 

 2
IT  RMS    t    
 4  n  m   0  2  
0 
1
 nI m2   sin 2  sin 0   
2
IT  RMS     0     
 4  n  m    2  
1
 nI m2  2
IT  RMS     0  0
 4  n  m  
21
1 1
 nI m2  2
 nI m2  2
IT  RMS     
 4  n  m    4 n  m 
Im n I
IT  RMS    m k
2 m  n 2
Im
IT  RMS   k
2
PROBLEM 1

A single phase full wave ac voltage controller working on ON-OFF control technique has
supply voltage of 230V, RMS 50Hz, load = 50. The controller is ON for 30 cycles and
off for 40 cycles. Calculate
1. ON & OFF time intervals.
2. RMS output voltage.
3. Input P.F.
4. Average and RMS thyristor currents.NOV/DEC-12
GIVEN:
F=50Hz, R= 50. Vin RMS   230V , m  40 n  30 .
TO FIND:
1. ON & OFF time intervals.
2. RMS output voltage.
3. Input P.F.
4. Average and RMS thyristor currents
SOLUTION:
Vin RMS   230V , Vm  2  230V  325.269 V, Vm  325.269V ,
1 1
T   0.02sec , T  20ms .
f 50 Hz
n = number of input cycles during which controller is ON; n  30 .
m  number of input cycles during which controller is OFF; m  40 .
tON  n  T  30  20ms  600ms  0.6sec
tON  n  T  0.6sec = controller ON time.
tOFF  m  T  40  20ms  800ms  0.8sec
tOFF  m  T  0.8sec = controller OFF time.
22
n 30
Duty cycle k    0.4285
 m  n   40  30 
RMS output voltage:
n
VO RMS   Vi RMS  
m  n
30 3
VO RMS   230V   230
 30  40  7
VO RMS   230V 0.42857  230  0.65465
VO RMS   150.570V
VO RMS  VO RMS  150.570V

I O RMS      3.0114 A
Z RL 50
PO  I O2  RMS   RL  3.01142  50  453.426498W
Input Power Factor: P.F  k
n 30
PF    0.4285
 m  n  70
PF  0.654653
Average Thyristor Current Rating:
Im  n  k  Im
IT  Avg    
  m  n  
Vm 2  230 325.269
where Im   
RL 50 50
I m  6.505382 A = Peak (maximum) thyristor current.
6.505382  3 
IT  Avg    
 7
23
IT  Avg   0.88745 A
RMS Current Rating of Thyristor:
Im n I 6.505382 3
IT  RMS    m k 
2 m  n 2 2 7
IT  RMS   2.129386 A
PROBLEM 2
A Single phase full wave AC voltage controller has an input voltage of 230V, 50Hz, and it is feeding
resistive load of 10 Ω. If firing angle of thyristor is 110degree. Find the output rms voltage, Input Power
Factor and Average current of thyristor. NOV/DEC-14
GIVEN:
V S =230 V, f = 50 HZ , α=110o, R=10Ω
TO FIND:
The output rms voltage, Input Power Factor and Average current of thyristor.
SOLUTION:
A Single phase full wave AC voltage controller V S =230 V, f = 50 HZ , α=110o, R=10Ω
1. RMS output voltage ( V (rms) )

o
sin 2 1 / 2
V (rms)  V [1 /  (    )]
o S 2
1/ 2
 sin 2(110) 
 230 1 /  (  11  )  
 18 2 
1/ 2
= 230  1 ( 7  )  (0.3214)
  18 
 230[0.3889  0.3214]1/ 2
 230(0.0675)1/ 2
24
RMS output voltage, V (rms)  59.76V

o
2. Input Power Factor (PF)
V (rms) 59.76
I (rms)  o 
o R 10
RMS Load Current, I (rms)  5.98A

o
Po  I
2
( rms).R
o
= (5.98)2  10
Po  357.6W
Since , input current is the same as the load current , the input V-A rating
VA  Vs I s  VS I O  230  5.98  1375.4W
The input power factor,
1
P V  Sin2 
PF  o  o  1 /  (    ) 2
VA VS  2 
 [0.3889  0.3214] 1  0.2598 ( Lagging)

2
3. Average current of thyristor


1
2R 
I  2 V Sintd (t )
A s
Vs 2
IA  (cos  1)
2R
2 230
  (cos110  1)
2 10
I A  3.41A
25
3. Explain Phase Controlled Single-Phase AC Voltage Controller with RL

load. APRIL/MAY-2015 & MAY/JUNE-16
The basic power circuit of a single-phase ac-ac voltage controller, as shown in Fig. 16.1a, is
composed of a pair of
SCRs connected back-to-back (also known as inverse-parallel or antiparallel) between the ac

supply and the load. This connection provides a bidirectional full-wave symmetrical control and
the SCR pair can be replaced by a Triac (Fig. 16.1b) for low-power applications. Alternate
arrangements are as shown in Fig. 16.1c with two diodes and two SCRs to provide a common
cathode connection for simplifying the gating circuit without needing isolation, and in Fig. 16.1d
with one SCR and four diodes to reduce the device cost but with increased device conduction
loss. An SCR and diode combination, known as a thyrode controller, as shown in Fig. 16.1e,
provides a unidirectional half-wave asymmetrical voltage control with device economy but
introduces a dc component and more harmonics and thus is not very practical to use except for a
very low power heating load. With phase control, the switches conduct the load current for a
chosen period of each input cycle of voltage and with on=off control the switches connect the
load either for a few cycles of input voltage and disconnect it for the next few cycles (integral
cycle control) or the switches are turned on and off several times within alternate half-cycles of
input voltage (ac chopper or PWM ac voltage controller).
26
Phase-Controlled Single-Phase AC Voltage Controller

For a full-wave, symmetrical phase control, the SCRs T1 and T2 in Fig. 16.1a are gated at α and
π+α, respectively, from the zero crossing of the input voltage and by varying α, the power flow
to the load is controlled through voltage control in alternate half-cycles. As long as one SCR is
carrying current, the other SCR remains reverse-biased by the voltage drop across the conducting
SCR. The principle of operation in each half-cycle is similar to that of the controlled half-wave
rectifier and one can use the same approach for analysis of the circuit.
Operation with R-load. Figure 16.2 shows the typical voltage and current waveforms for the
single-phase bidirectional phase-controlled ac voltage controller of Fig. 16.1a with resistive load.
The output voltage and current waveforms have half-wave symmetry and thus no dc component.
𝐼𝑓 𝑉𝑠 = 2𝑉𝑠 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡
27
is the source voltage, then the rms output voltage with T1 triggered at a can be found from the
half-wave symmetry as
1 1
𝜋
1 2 2
2 𝛼 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝛼 2
𝑉0 = 2𝑉𝑠 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔𝑡 𝑑(𝜔𝑡) = 𝑉𝑠 1 − +
𝜋 𝛼 𝜋 2𝜋
Note that Vo can be varied from Vs to 0 by varying α from 0 to π. The rms value of load current:
𝑉0
𝐼0 =
𝑅
The input power factor:

1
𝑉0 𝑉0 𝛼 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝛼 2
= = 1− +
𝑃𝐴 𝑉𝑠 𝜋 2𝜋
The average SCR current:

𝜋
1
𝐼𝐴,𝑆𝐶𝑅 = 2𝑉𝑠 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡 𝑑(𝜔𝑡)
2𝜋𝑅 𝛼
As each SCR carries half the line current, the rms current in each SCR is
𝐼0
𝐼0,𝑆𝐶𝑅 =
2
Operation with RL Load.

Figure 16.3 shows the voltage and current waveforms for the controller in Fig. 16.1a with RL
load. Due to the inductance, the current carried by the SCR T1 may not fall to zero at wt=α
when the input voltage goes negative and may continue until wt=β, the extinction angle, as
shown. The conduction angle
Ө=𝛽−𝛼
of the SCR depends on the firing delay angle a and the load impedance angle .
28
4.Explain Three-Phase AC to AC Voltage Controllers?
Phase-Controlled Three-Phase AC Voltage Controllers
Various Configurations. Several possible circuit configurations for three-phase phase-controlled

ac regulators with staror delta-connected loads are shown in Fig. 16.11a–h. The configurations in
Fig. 16.11a and b can be realized by three single-phase ac regulators operating independently of
each other and they are easy to analyze.
In Fig. 16.11a, the SCRs are to be rated to carry line currents and withstand phase voltages,
whereas in Fig. 16.11b they should be capable of carrying phase currents and withstand the line
voltages. Also, in Fig. 16.11b the line currents are free from triplen harmonics while these are
present in the closed delta.
The power factor in Fig. 16.11b is slightly higher. The firing angle control range for both these
circuits is 0 to 1800for R-load. The circuits in Fig. 16.11c and d are three-phase three-wire
circuits and are difficult to analyze. In both these circuits, at least two SCRs—one in each
phase—must be gated simultaneously to get the controller started by establishing a current path
between the supply lines.
This necessitates two firing pulses spaced at 600apart per cycle for firing each SCR. The
operation modes are defined by the number of SCRs conducting in these modes. The firing
control range is 0 to 1500.
The triplen harmonics are absent in both these configurations. Another configuration is shown in
Fig. 16.11e when the controllers are delta connected and the load is connected between the
supply and the converter.
29
Here, current can flow between two lines even if one SCR is conducting, so each SCR requires
one firing pulse per cycle. The voltage and current ratings of SCRs are nearly the same as those
of the circuit in Fig. 6.11b.
It is also possible to reduce the number of devices to three SCRs in delta as shown in Fig. 16.11f
connecting one source terminal directly to one load circuit terminal. Each SCR is provided with
gate pulses in each cycle spaced 1200 apart. In both Figs. 16.11e and f each end of each phase
must be accessible.
The number of devices in Fig. 16.11f is fewer but their current ratings must be higher. As in the
case of the single-phase phase-controlled voltage regulator, the total regulator cost can be
reduced by replacing six SCRs by three SCRs and three diodes, resulting in threephase half-wave
controlled unidirectional ac regulators as shown in Fig. 16.11g and h for star- and delta-
connected loads.
The main drawback of these circuits is the large harmonic content in the output voltage,
particularly the second harmonic because of the asymmetry. However, the dc components are
0
absent in the line. The maximum firing angle in the half-wave controlled regulator is 210 .
30
31
Fully Controlled Three-Phase Three-Wire AC Voltage Controller Star-

Connected Load with Isolated Neutral
The analysis of operation of the full-wave controller with isolated neutral as shown in Fig.
16.11c is, as mentioned, quite complicated in comparison to that of a single-phase controller,
particularly for an RL or motor load.
As a simple example, the operation of this controller is considered here with a simple star-
0
connected R-load. The six SCRs are turned on in the sequence 1-2-3-4-5-6 at 60 intervals and
the gate signals are sustained throughout the possible conduction angle.
0
The output phase voltage waveforms for 30, 75, and 120 for a balanced three-phase R-load are
shown in Fig. 16.12. At any interval, either three SCRs or two SCRs, or no SCRs may be on and
the instantaneous output voltages to the load are either line-to-neutral voltages (three SCRs on),
or one-half of the line-to-line voltage (two SCRs on) or zero (no SCR on). Depending on the
firing angle a, there may be three
operating modes.
0 0
Mode I (also known as Mode 2=3): 0 and 60 . There are periods when three SCRs are
conducting, one in each phase for either direction and periods when just two SCRs conduct. For
0 0
example, with 30 in Fig. 16.12a, assume that at 0 , SCRs T5 and T6 are conducting, and the
0
current through the R-load in a-phase is zero making van 0 At 30 , T1 receives a gate pulse and
starts conducting; T5 and T6 remain on and van . vAN.
0
The current in T5 reaches zero at 60 , turning T5 off. With T1 and T6 staying on, van . 1=2v AB.
0
At 90 , T2 is turned on, the three SCRs T1, T2, and T6 are then conducting and van . v AN. At
0
120 , T6 turns off, leaving T1 and T2 on, so vAN . 1=2vAC. Thus with the progress of firing in
0
sequence until 60 , the number of SCRs conducting at a particular instant alternates between two
and three.
0 0.
Mode II (also known as Mode 2/2): 60 to 90 Two SCRs, one in each phase, always conduct.
0 0
For 75 as shown in Fig. 16.12b, just prior to a 75 , SCRs T5 and T6 were conducting and van 0
0
At 75 , T1 is turned on, T6 continues to conduct while T5 turns off as vCN is negative; van .
0
1=2vAB. When T2 is turned on at 135 , T6 is turned off and van . 1=2vAC. The next SCR to turn
on is T3, which turns off T1 and van . 0. One SCR is always turned off when another is turned on
in this range of a and the output is either one-half line-to-line voltage or zero.
32
Mode III (also known as Mode 0/2): 900 to1500. When none or two SCRs conduct.
For 1200 (Fig. 16.12c), earlier no SCRs were on and van 0. At 1200 SCR T1 is
given a gate signal while T6 has a gate signal already applied. As v AB is positive,
T1 and T6 are forward-biased and they begin to conduct and van . 1=2vAB. Both T1
and T6 turn off when vAB becomes negative. When a gate signal is given to T2, it
turns on and T1 turns on again. For a > 1500, there is no period when two SCRs are
conducting and the output voltage is zero at 1500.Thus, the range of the firing angle
control is 00 to 1500. For star-connected R-load, assuming the instantaneous phase
voltages as
𝑉𝐴𝑁 = 2𝑉𝑠 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡
(𝜔𝑡-1200 )
𝑉𝐵𝑁 = 2𝑉𝑠 sin⁡
33
(𝜔𝑡-2400 )
𝑉𝐶𝑁 = 2𝑉𝑠 sin⁡
The expressions for the rms output phase voltage 𝑉0 can be derived for the three modes as
1
0 3𝛼 3 2
0≤ α ≤ 60 𝑉0 = 𝑉𝑠 1 − 2𝜋
+ 4𝜋
𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝛼
1
1 3 3 2
600 ≤ α ≤ 900 𝑉0 = 𝑉𝑠 2
(2𝛼 + 600
+ 4𝜋 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝛼 + 4𝜋 sin⁡
1
5 3 3 2
900 ≤ α ≤ 1500 𝑉0 = 𝑉𝑠 4
(2𝛼 + 600
− 2𝜋 + 4𝜋 sin⁡
For star-connect pure L-Load the effective control starts at α>900 and the expression for two
ranges of α are
1
0 0 5 3𝛼 3 2
90 ≤ α ≤ 120 𝑉0 = 𝑉𝑠 − + sin⁡
(2𝛼)
2 𝜋 2𝜋
1
0 0 5 3𝛼 3 0 2
120 ≤ α ≤ 150 𝑉0 = 𝑉𝑠 − + sin⁡
(2𝛼 + 60
2 𝜋 2𝜋
34
CYCLOCONVERTERS
 It is defined as conversion of fixed AC power into variable AC power with
change in frequency.
 Traditionally, ac-ac conversion using semiconductor switches is done in two
different ways:
1) In two stages (ac-dc and then dc-ac) as in dc link converters or
2) In one stage (ac-ac) cycloconverters (Fig. 1).
 Cycloconverters are used in high power applications driving induction
and synchronous motors.
 They are usually phase-controlled and they traditionally use thyristors
due to their ease of phase commutation.
Fig.1 Block diagram of a cycloconverter
35
 There are other newer forms of cycloconversion such as ac-ac matrix converters
and highfrequency ac-ac (hfac-ac) converters and these use self-controlled
switches. These converters,however, are not popular yet.
CYCLOCONVERTERS:
 cycloconverter is another class of ac to ac converters. output frequency can also
be varied.
 It is possible to obtain 3 phase to 1 phase regulator. in this section we will study
some of these aspects.
TYPES OF CYCLOCONVERTER:
i) single phase cycloconverter
a) Step-up Cycloconverter
b) Step-down Cycloconverter
ii) 3 phase to 1 phaseCycloconverter
iii) 3 phase to 3 phaseCycloconverter
5) EXPLAIN THE PRINCIPLE OF SINGLE-PHASE TO SINGLE-PHASE (1 Ф -1 Ф)

CYCLOCONVERTER WITH POWER CIRCUIT AND WAVEFORMS.APRIL-
11,15.Nov/Dec-17
(OR)
WRITE SHORT NOTE ON STEP-UP CYCLOCONVERTER NOV/DEC-2013.
 When the frequency of the output is higher than the frequency of input, then it is
called step-up cycloconverter.
 Fig. 5.8.1 shows the midpoint type step-up cycloconverter.
Midpoint type cycloconverter
36
 The waveforms of this converter are shown in Fig. 5.8.2. In the positive half cycle, T1
conducts from 0 to t1, hence output voltage is positive.
 At t1, T1 is forced commutated and T4 is triggered. Hence load voltage becomes

negative as shown in Fig.
 Then at t2, T4 is forced commutated and T1is turned-on again. Therefore output voltage
is again positive.
 At t3, T4 is turned-on and T1 is forced commutated. Hence output voltage is negative.

At п, T3 is turned on.
 Therefore output voltage is positive. At t4,T3 is forced commutated and T2 is triggered.

Hence the load voltage is negative.
 This sequence continues. Observe that output voltage waveform has the frequency of,
 This frequency is higher than supply frequency.
Waveforms of step-up cycloconverter
6) STEP-DOWN CYCLOCONVERTER (OR)
DESCRIBE THE BASIC PRINCIPLE OF WORKING OF 1Ф-1Ф STEP DOWN

CYCLOCONVERTER FOR A BRIDGE TYPE CONVERTER.ASSUME BOTH
DISCONTINUOUS AND CONTINUOUS CONDUCTION CONDUCTION AND DRAW
THE LOAD CURRENT AND LOAD VOLTAGE WAVEFORMS FOR BOTH THE
CASES.MARK THE CONDUCTION OF VARIOUS THYRISTORS.NOV/DEC-13
 In the step-down cycloconverter, the output frequency is less than supply frequency.
 The midpoint cycloconverter of Fig. 5.8.1 can be operated as step-down cycloconverter.

Fig. 5.8.3 shows the waveforms of this converter.
37
 These waveforms are shown for highly inductive load with continuous output current.
Output voltage is also controlled by varying the firing angle 'α'.
 Consider that, the period of input supply is T. The period of output is 4T. Four cycles
of supply voltage make one cycle of output. The dotted line shows equivalent output
voltage waveform.
 Thus the supply frequency is divided by four. T1 and T3 are triggered to obtain
 Positive cycle of the output voltage. Similarly, T 2 and T4 are triggered to obtain
Negative half cycle of the output voltage.
1 Ф to 1 Ф Cycloconverters
The output and input, both are 1Фfor such converters. The cycloconvertersdiscussed in
previous two subsections are also 1Ф to 1Фcycloconverters. Fig. 5.8.4 shows the circuit diagram
of bridge type 1 Ф to 1 Ф cycloconverter.
38
Fig. 5.8.4 1 Ф to 1 Ф bridge type cycloconverter
 Output waveform of the above cycloconverter will be similar to that of Fig. 5.8.3
for inductive load and continuous output current.
 Fig.5.8.5 shows the waveform ofabove converter for resistive load.
Fig. 5.8.5 Waveforms of 1 Ф to 1 Ф cycloconverter for resistive load
 Output voltage is positive, when SCRs of P-converter are conducting. Similarly the
output voltage is negative when SCRs of N-converter are conducting.
 The firing angle of the SCRs is varied to control the output voltage. Above
waveforms are shown for step-down operation.
 Step-up operation is also possible in this converter. Four cycles of input make
one cycle of output. Hence output frequency is,
fo = 1/To = 1/4T =f/4
7) EXPLAIN THE OPERATION OF THREE-PHASE TO SINGLE-PHASE (3Ф-1Ф)

CYCLOCONVERTER WITH NEAT CIRCUIT DIAGRAM AND
39
WAVEFORMS.NOV/DEC-2017, NOV/DEC-2012,NOV/DEC-2011,2014,15, MAY/JUNE-

2012, MAY-14&MAY/JUNE-16, NOV/DEC-2016.
 There are two kinds of three-phase to single-phase (3Ф-1Ф)cycloconverters: (3Ф-
1Ф) half-wave cycloconverter (Fig. 4) and (3Ф-1Ф) bridge cycloconverter (Fig.
5).
 Like the (1Ф-1Ф) case, the (3Ф-1Ф)cycloconverter applies rectified voltage to the
load.
 Both positive and negative converters can generate voltages at either polarity, but
the positive converter can only supply positive current and the negative converter
can only supply negative current.
 Thus, the cycloconverter can operate in four quadrants: (+v, +i) and (-v, -i)
rectification modes and (+v, -i) and (-v, +i) inversion modes.
 The modulation of the output voltage and the fundamental output voltage are
shown in Fig. 6.
 Note that sinusoidally modulated over the cycle to generate a harmonically
Optimum output voltage.
Fig. 4. 3 Ф -1 Ф half-wave cycloconverter
Fig. 5 3 Ф -1 Фbridge cycloconverter
40
Fig. 6. 3 Ф -1 Фhalf-wave cycloconverter waveforms
a) + converter output voltage

b) cosine timing waves
c) – converter output voltage
 The polarity of the current determines if the positive or negative converter should
be supplying power to the load.
 Conventionally, the firing angle for the positive converter is named +P, and that
of the negative converter is named -N.
 When the polarity of the current changes, the converter previously supplying the
current is disabled and the other one is enabled.
 The load always requires the fundamental voltage to be continuous. Therefore,
during the current polarity reversal, the average voltage supplied by both of the
converters should be equal.
 Otherwise, switching from one converter to the other one would cause an
undesirable voltage jump.
 To prevent this problem, the converters are forced to produce the same average
voltage at all times.
 Thus, the following condition for the firing angles should be met.
𝛼𝑃 + 𝛼𝑁 = 𝜋
 The fundamental output voltage in Fig. 6 can be given as:
𝑉0 (𝑡) = 2𝑉0 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔0 𝑡
where Vo is the rms value of the fundamental voltage
 At a time to the output fundamental voltage is
𝑉0 ( 𝑡0 ) = 2𝑉0 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔0 𝑡0
 The positive converter can supply this voltage if satisfies the following condition.
41
𝑉0 𝑡0 = 2𝑉0 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔0 𝑡0 = 𝑉𝑑𝑏 cos 𝛼𝑃

Where
𝑃 𝜋
𝑉𝑑𝑏 = 2𝑉0 sin (𝑝 = 3 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑕𝑎𝑙𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑛𝑑 6 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑏𝑟𝑖𝑑𝑔𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑒𝑟)
𝜋 𝑃
 From the condition (3)
𝑣01 = 𝑉𝑑0 cos 𝛼𝑃 = −𝑉𝑑0 sin 𝛼𝑁
 The firing angles at any instant can be found from (6) and (7).The operation of the 3 Ф -1
Ф bridge cycloconverter is similar to the above 3 Ф -1 Ф half-wave cycloconverter.
 Note that the pulse number for this case is 6.
8) EXPLAIN THE OPERATION OF THREE-PHASE TO THREE-PHASE (3 Ф -3 Ф)

CYCLOCONVERTER.April/May-18
 If the outputs of 3 3Ф-1 Ф converters of the same kind are connected in wye or
delta and if the output voltages are 2π/3 radians phase shifted from each other, the
resulting converter is a threephase to three-phase (3 Ф -3 Ф) cycloconverter.
 The resulting cycloconverters are shown in Figs. 7 and 8 with wye connections. If
the three converters connected are half-wave converters, then the new converter is
called a 3 Ф -3 Ф half-wave cycloconverter.
 If instead, bridge converters are used, then the result is a 3 Ф -3 Ф bridge
cycloconverter. 3 Ф -3 Ф half-wave cycloconverter is also called a 3-pulse
cycloconverter or an 18-thyristor cycloconverter.
 On the other hand, the 3 Ф -3 Ф bridge cycloconverter is also called a 6-pulse
cycloconverter or a 36-thyristor cycloconverter.
 The operation of each phase is explained in the previous section.
42
Fig. 7. 3 Ф -3 Ф half-wave cycloconverter
Fig. 8. 3 Ф -3 Ф bridge cycloconverter
 The three-phase cycloconverters are mainly used in ac machine drive systems

running three phase synchronous and induction machines.
 They are more advantageous when used with a synchronous machine due to their
output power factor characteristics.
 A cycloconverter can supply lagging, leading, or unity power factor loads while
its input is always lagging.
 A synchronous machine can draw any power factor current from the converter.
This characteristic operation matches the cycloconverter to the synchronous
machine.
 On the other hand, induction machines can only draw lagging current, so the
cycloconverter does not have an edge compared to the other converters in this
aspect for running an induction machine.
 However, cycloconverters are used in Scherbius drives for speed control purposes
driving wound rotor induction motors.
 Cycloconverters produce harmonic rich output voltages, which will be discussed
in the following sections.
 When cycloconverters are used to run an ac machine, the leakage inductance of
the machine filters most of the higher frequency harmonics and reduces the
magnitudes of the lower order harmonics.
Blocked Mode and Circulating Current Mode:
 The operation of the cycloconverters is explained above in ideal terms. When the
load current is positive, the positive converter supplies the required voltage and
the negative converter is disabled.
 On the other hand, when the load current is negative, then the negative converter
supplies the required voltage and the positive converter is blocked.
 This operation is called the blocked mode operation, and the cycloconverters
using this approach are called blocking mode cycloconverters.
43
 However, if by any chance both of the converters are enabled, then the supply is
short-circuited.
 To avoid this short circuit, an intergroup reactor (IGR) can be connected between
the convertersas shown in Fig. 9.
 Instead of blocking the converters during current reversal, if they are both
enabled, then a circulating current is produced.
 This current is called the circulating current. It is unidirectional because the
thyristors allow the current to flow in only one direction.
 Some cycloconverters allow this circulating current at all times. These are called
circulating current cycloconverters.
Fig. 9 Circulating current and IGR
Blocking Mode Cycloconverters:

 The operation of these cycloconverters was explained briefly before. They do not
let circulating current flow, and therefore they do not need a bulky IGR.
 When the current goes to zero, both positive and negative converters are blocked.
 The converters stay off for a short delay time to assure that the load current
ceases.
 Then, depending on the polarity, one of the converters is enabled. With each zero
crossing of the current, the converter, which was disabled before the zero
crossing, is enabled.
 A toggle flip-flop, which toggles when the current goes to zero, can beused for
this purpose.
 The operation waveforms for a three-pulse blocking mode cycloconverter are
given in Fig. 10.
 The blocking mode operation has some advantages and disadvantages over the
circulating mode operation.
 During the delay time, the current stays at zero distorting the voltage and current
waveforms.
44
 This distortion means complex harmonics patterns compared to the circulating

mode cycloconverters.
 In addition to this, the current reversal problem brings more control complexity.
 However, no bulky IGRs are used, so the size and cost is less than that of the
circulating current case.
Fig. 10 Blocking mode operation waveforms

 Another advantage is that only one converter is in conduction at all times rather
than two.
 This means less losses and higher efficiency.

b) – converter output voltage
c) load voltage
Circulating Current Cycloconverters:

 In this case, both of the converters operate at all times producing the same
fundamental output voltage.
 The firing angles of the converters satisfy the firing angle condition (Eq. 3), thus
when one converter is in rectification mode the other one is in inversion mode and
vice versa.
 If both of the converters are producing pure sine waves, then there would not be
any circulating current
 Because the instantaneous potential difference between the outputs of the
converters would be zero.
 In reality, an IGR is connected between the outputs of two phase controlled
converters (in either rectification or inversion mode). The voltage waveform
across the IGR can be seen in Fig.11d.
45
 This is the difference of the instantaneous output voltages produced by the two
converters.
 Note that it is zero when both of the converters produce the same instantaneous
voltage.
 The center tap voltage of IGR is the voltage applied to the load and it is the mean
Fig.11.circulating mode operation waveforms

of the voltages applied to the ends of IGR, thus the load voltage ripple is reduced.
b) – converter output voltage
c) load voltage
d) IGR voltage
 The circulating current cycloconverter applies a smoother load voltage with less
harmonics compared to the blocking mode case.
 Moreover, the control is simple because there is no current reversal problem.
However, the bulky IGR is a big disadvantage for this converter.
 In addition to this, the number of devices conducting at any time is twice that of
the blocking mode converter.
 Due to these disadvantages, this cycloconverter is not attractive. The blocked
mode cycloconverter converter and the circulating current cycloconverter can be
combined to give a hybrid system, which has the advantages of both.
 The resulting cycloconverter looks like a circulating mode cycloconverter circuit,
but depending on the polarity of the output current only one converter is enabled
and the other one is disabled as with the blocking mode cycloconverters.
 When the load current decreases below a threshold, both of the converters are
enabled.
46
 Thus, the current has a smooth reversal. When the current increases above a
threshold in the other direction, the outgoing converter is disabled.
 This hybrid cycloconverter operates in the blocking mode most of the time so a
smaller IGR can be used.
 The efficiency is slightly higher than that of the circulating current cycloconverter
but much less than the blocking mode cycloconverter.
 Moreover, the distortion caused by the blocking mode operation disappears due to
the circulating current operation around zero current.
 Moreover, the control of the converter is still less complex than that of the
blocking mode cycloconverter.
9) EXPLAIN THE MATRIX CONVERTERS FOR POWER FACTOR

CONTROL.NOV/DEC-13,NOV/DEC-14,15,17.
Principle: The matrix converter uses the matrix of switches so that any of the input phase
voltage can be connected to any of the output load phase. There is exactly one switch for each of
the possible connections between supply and load.
Circuit diagram and operation
• As shown in this circuit diagram, SRR, SYRand SBr are the switches that
Circuit diagram of matrix converter
connect any of the input to load phase r. Similarly the switches SRY, SYY and SByconnect any of
the input to load phase y. And the switches SRB, SYB, and SBBconnect any of the input to load
phase b.
 The input LC filter is used to eliminate harmonic currents in the input side.
 The switches 29 = 512 combinations but only 9 combinations are used.
47
 The switches are controlled in such a way that there is no short circuit of the input
supply. The load voltages vRvY, vB,are related to supply voltages VR, VYand
VBby following matrix equation
𝑉𝑟 𝑆𝑅𝑟 𝑆𝑌𝑟 𝑆𝐵𝑟 𝑉𝑅

𝑉𝑏 = 𝑆𝑅𝑦 𝑆𝑌𝑦 𝑆𝐵𝑦 = 𝑉𝑌
𝑉𝑦 𝑆𝑅𝑏 𝑆𝑌𝑏 𝑆𝐵𝑏 𝑉𝐵
The maximum voltage transfer ratio is 0.866
Advantages:
1. Inherent bidirectional power flow control.
2. Input-output waveforms are sinusoidal.
3. No dc-link is required, hence it is compact.
4. Power factor is controlled by independent control of load current.
Disadvantages:
1. The switches are not available for high powers.
2. Implementation is complex.
3. The maximum voltage transfer ratio is limited.
4. The switches required protection and commutation circuits which makes the
converter bulley.
Applications:
1. Matrix converters are used for low power 3Ф AC controllers.
2. It is used for power factor control.
10) EXPLAIN ABOUT MULTI-STAGE SEQUENCE CONTROL OF VOLTAGE

CONTROLLERS.MAY/JUNE-2013. (OR)DISCUSS THE WORKING OF 2 STAGE
SEQUENCE CONTROL OF VOLTAGE CONTROLLERS.NOV/DEC-
2017, NOV/DEC-2011,APRIL/MAY-2011, MAY/JUNE-2012,18, NOV/DEC-2013, NOV/DEC-
2016.
Principle: Multiple bidirectional voltage controllers are employed in parallel. Each is fed from
the multiple tap transformers. Depending upon the desired output voltage, particular controllers
are triggered.
48
Circuit diagram and operation
Multistage sequence controller
The circuit diagram of multistage sequence controller is shown in Fig. 5.6.1. The secondary
of the transformer have 'n taps. Each tap has the output voltage of VS/n.When SCR pair 1 is
triggered, the load voltage will be maximum, i.e. Vs. This is because voltages of all the taps are
added. When the output voltage variation is required between and Vsthen SCR
Pair 2 is triggered at zero firing angle. This gives the load voltage of …and the Variation
above this voltage uptoVsis obtained by controlling the firing angle of SCR pair 1. Thus other
pairs can be selected depending upon required output voltage.
Advantages
i) Because of multistage output control, the amplitude variations in output are reduced.
ii) Harmonic content is reduced.
iii) Failure of particular pair does not stop the operation completely, since other pairs keep on
Working.
49
11) EXPLAIN THE POWER FACTOR CONTROL IN AC VOLTAGE

REGULATION.MAY-14
 The power factor of a nonlinear deserves a special discussion. Fig.2 shows the
supply voltage and the non-sinusoidal load current.
 The fundamental load/supply current lags the supply voltage by the φ 1,

'Fundamental Power Factor' angle.
 Cosφ1 is also called the 'Displacement Factor'. However this does not account for
the total reactive power drawn by the system.
 This power factor is inspite of the actual load being resistive! The reactive power
is drawn also y the trigger-angle dependent harmonics. now
𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑃
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 = =
𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑠 𝑉𝐼𝐿
𝑉𝐼𝐿1 cos ф1
=
𝑉𝐼 𝐿
𝐼𝐿1
𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 =
𝐼𝐿
 The Average Power, P drawn by the resistive load is

2𝜋
1
𝑃= 𝑉𝑖𝐿 𝑑𝜔𝑡
2𝜋 0
𝜋
1 2𝑉 2
= 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝜔𝑡
𝜋 𝛼 𝑅
2𝑉 2 𝛼 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝛼
= 𝜋− +
𝑅𝜋 2 2
The portion within square brackets in Eq is identical to the first part of the expression

within brackets in Eq., which is called the Fourier coefficient 'B1
'
The rms load voltage can also be similarly obtained by integrating between α and π and the result
can be combined with Eq to give
50
Fig.1 Variation of various performance parameters with triggering angle
Fig. 2 Operation of a Phase Angle Controlled AC-AC converter with a resistive load
51
TWO MARKS
1. What are the applications of ac voltage controllers? NOV/DEC-2012

2. What is the advantage of ON-OFF control? NOV/DEC-2008
3. What is the disadvantage of ON-OFF control? NOV/DEC-2008
4. What is meant by cyclo-converter? (OR) write the principle of Operation of
cycloconverter.NOV/DEC-2012,14,NOV/DEC-2009,MAY/JUNE-2012.
5. What are the two types of cyclo-converters? APR/MAY-2011
6. What are the applications of cyclo-converter? NOV/DEC-2008, 2011,2013
7. What is matrix converter? APRIL/MAY-2011, MAY/JUNE-2013, DEC-13, MAY-14
8. What Is Integral Cycle Control in AC voltage controllers? NOV/DEC-2011,14,15
MAY/JUNE-2012,16.
9. What are types of ac voltage controller? MAY/JUNE-2013
10. What is the control range of firing angle in ac voltage controller with RL load?MAY-14
11. Draw Matrix Converter Circuit. APRIL/MAY-2015
12. What is the principle of on-off control of ac controller? APR/MAY-2015
13.What are the two methods of control in ac voltage controllers? MAY/JUNE-2016
14.Write the output RMS voltrage for single phase AC voltage controller with resistive
load.NOV/DEC-15
PART-B
1) Explain the Principle Of On-Off Control Technique (Integralcycle Control) May/June-2013-Pg.No.15
2) Explain the Principle Of Single-Phase To Single-Phase Cycloconverter With Power Circuit And
Waveforms. April/May-2011,15 Pg.No.29
3) Explain The Operation Of Three-Phase To Single-Phase Cycloconverter With Neat Circuit Diagram
And Waveforms. Nov/Dec-2012,2014,15,Nov/Dec-2011, May/June-2012, May-14,16 Pg.No.33
4) Explain About Multi-Stage Sequence Control of Voltage Controllers. May/June-2013. (Or)Discuss The
Working Of 2 Stage Sequence Controls Of Voltage Controllers. Nov/Dec-2011,April/May-
2011.May/June-2012- Pg.No.42
5) Write Short Note On Step-Up Cycloconverter Nov/Dec-2013. Pg.No.29
6) Write Short Note On Multi-Stage Sequence Control .Nov/Dec-2013. Pg.No.42
7) Write Short Note On Matrix Converters.Dec-13 ,NOV/DEC-14,15. Pg.No.41
8) Describe The Basic Principle Of Working Of 1ф-1ф Step Down Cycloconverter For A Bridge Type
Converter. Assume Both Discontinuous And Continuous Conduction Conduction And Draw The Load
Current And Load Voltage Waveforms For Both The Cases. Mark The Conduction Of Various
Thyristors. Nov/Dec-13,APR/MAY-2015 Pg.No.29
9) Explain the Operation of Single Phase Full Wave Ac Voltage Controller.NOV/DEC-15,May-14.
Pg.No.15
10) Explain the Power Factor Control In Ac Voltage Regulation.May-14. Pg.No.44
11) A Single phase full wave AC voltage controller has an input voltage of 230V, 50Hz, and it is feeding
resistive load of 10 Ω. If firing angle of thyristor is 110degree. Find the output rms voltage, Input Power
Factor and Average current of thyristor. NOV/DEC-14 ,Pg.No.23
12) Explain Phase Controlled Single-Phase AC Voltage Controller with RL load.APRIL/MAY-
2015,MAY/JUNE-16. Pg.No.25
52
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MAILAM ENGINEERING COLLEGE-EEE-EE6503-POWER ELECTRONICS

POWER ELECTRONICS-EE6503 - UNIT-I

What are the advantages of IGBTs ? Nov/Dec-17

 Lower gate requirements

SL.No Power diode Signal diode

Constructed with n-layer, called drift region

The voltage, current and power ratings are

Operates at higher switching

4. IGBT is a voltage controlled device. Why?

8. How can a Thyristor turned off?

10. Define holding current. MAY/JUNE-14, NOV/DEC-2015, MAY/JUNE-16

 Forward conduction losses

 Loss due to leakage current during forward and reverse blocking.

 Switching losses at turn-on and turn-off.

 Gate triggering loss.

13. Define hard-driving or over-driving.

 Elimination of commutation of commutating components in forced commutation,

 Reduction in acoustic noise and electromagnetic noise due to elimination of commutation

 Faster turn-off, permitting high switching frequencies.

 Improved efficiency of the converters.

19. What is pinch off voltage?MAY/JUNE-2012

 Switching losses will be high

22. Compare power MOSFET and BJT? MAY/JUNE-2014

S.NO. BJT MOSFET

1. This is bipolar device This is majority carrier device

2. Controlled by base Controlled by gate

3. Current controlled device Voltage controlled device

4. Negative temperature co-effiecent Positive temperature co-effiecent

5. Parelleling of BJT is difficult Parelleling of MOSFET is simple

6. Losses are low Losses are higher than BJT

7. Drive circuit is complex Drive circuit is simple

Switching frequency is lower than Switching frequency is high

23. Distinguish between SCR and TRIAC. NOV / DEC-2014

S.NO. SCR TRIAC

The SCR is unidirectional device The TRIAC conducts in both the

The symbol of SCR The symbol of

Only one mode of operation is Operation in four different mode is

7. The realiability is more The realiability is less

8. Avialable in large ratings Not avialable in large ratings

Unijuntion Transistor (UJT) is used The DIAC is used for triggering

11. Suitable for AC to AC power control Suitable for AC to DC power control

24. What is meant by current commutation of SCR? NOV / DEC-2014,April/May-18

25. Draw TRIAC characteristic. APRIL/MAY-2015.

26. Draw switching times characteristic of BJT. APRIL/MAY-2015.

27. Draw the two transistor model of SCR? MAY/JUNE-2016

29.Why Triac not popular compared to SCR?Justify. Nov/Dec-17

30.Mention the advantages of RC triggering over R triggering.April/May-18

1. EXPLAIN THE CONSTRUCTION, VI & SWITCHING CHARACTERISTICS OF

Fig1.1: NPN Transistor Fig1.2: Input Characteristic

Fig:1.3 Output / Collector Characteristics

Fig: Switching Transistor in CE Configuration

The turn-on time depends on

Fig: Switching Times of Bipolar Junction Transistor

2. Explain the construction, operation & static characteristics of triac? NOV/DEC-2015.

Fig.2.1 TRIAC Structure Fig.2.2 Triac Symbol

3. TRIGGERING MODES OF TRIAC

MODE 1 : MT2 positive, Positive gate current ( I  mode of operation)

MODE 2 : MT2 positive, Negative gate current ( I  mode of operation)

MODE 3 : MT2 negative, Positive gate current ( III  mode of operation)

MODE 4 : MT2 negative, Negative gate current ( III  mode of operation)

Fig.3.6: Triac Characteristic

4. EXPLAIN THE CONSTRUCTION & OPERATION OF POWER MOSFET?

Fig.4.1 : n-channel depletion type MOSFET

Fig.4.2 : P-channel depletion type MOSFET