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Abstract - Agroecology is a promising alternative to industrial agriculture, with the potential to avoid the
negative social and ecological consequences of input-intensive production. Transitioning to agroecological
production is, however, a complex project that requires diverse contributions from outside of scientific
Archived at http://orgprints.org/24082
institutions. Agroecologists therefore collaborate with tradtional producers and agroecological movements.
Permaculture is one such agroecological movement, with a broad international distribution and a unique approach
to system design. Despite a high public profile, permaculture has remained relatively isolated from scientific
research. Though the potential contribution of permaculture to agroecological transition is great, it is limited by
this isolation from science, as well as from oversimplifying claims, and the lack of a clear definition. Here we
review scientific and popular permaculture literature. A systematic review discusses quantitative bibliometric data,
including keyword analysis. A qualitative review identifies and asseses major themes, proposals and claims. The
manuscript follows a stratified definition of permaculture as design system, best practice framework, worldview,
and movement. The major points of our analysis are: 1) principles and topics largely complement and even extend
principles and topics found in the agroecological literature. 2) Distinctive approaches to perennial polyculture,
water management, and the importance of agroecosystem configuration, exceed what is documented in the
scientific literature, and thus suggest promising avenues of inquiry. 3) Discussions of practice consistently
underplay the complexity, challenges, and risks that producers face in developing diversified and integrated
production systems. 4) The movement is mobilizing diverse forms of social support for sustainabililty, in
geographically diverse locations. 5) Scholarship in permaculture has always been a diverse marginal sector, but is
growing.
Rafter Sass Ferguson & Sarah Taylor Lovell. Agronomy for Sustainable Development (in press).
Permaculture for Agroecology: Design, Practice, Movement, and Worldview. A Review.
CONTENTS
1. INTRODUCTION 3
2 BACKGROUND 4
2.1 Shifting Definitions 4
2.2 Historical Context 4
2.3 Conceptual Influences 5
2.3.1 Permanent as Sustainable and 5
Perennial 5
2.3.2 Systems Ecology 5
2.3.4 Keyline Planning 6
2.4 Permaculture and Agroecology 6
3 REVIEW METHODS 7
3.1 Systematic Review 7
3.1.1 Search Protocol 8
3.1.2 Bibliometric Analysis 8
3.1.3 Concept Network 9
3.2 Qualitative Review 10
4 RESULTS 10
4.1 Systematic and Bibliometric 10
Review 10
4.1.1 Publication Type 10
4.1.2 Geography of Publication and Topic 10
4.1.3 Concept Network 13
4.2 Qualitative Review 13
4.2.1 Design 14
4.2.2 Practice 20
4.2.3 Movement 22
4.2.4 Worldview 23
5 SYNTHESIS 24
5.1 Substantiation and Scholarship 24
5.1.1 Overreaching Claims 24
5.1.2 Isolation from Science 26
5.1.3 Permaculture Scholarship 27
5.2 Limitations of this Study 27
5.3 Future Directions 28
6 CONCLUSION 29
REFERENCES 30
Rafter Sass Ferguson & Sarah Taylor Lovell. Agronomy for Sustainable Development (in press).
Permaculture for Agroecology: Design, Practice, Movement, and Worldview. A Review.
(a) (b)
Figure 1. Examples of production and education in the permaculture movement. (a) Small farm with intercropped annuals
and perennials, worked partially with hand labor, (b) Workshop on the design and maintenance of perennial polycultures.
Rafter Sass Ferguson & Sarah Taylor Lovell. Agronomy for Sustainable Development (in press).
Permaculture for Agroecology: Design, Practice, Movement, and Worldview. A Review.
Rafter Sass Ferguson & Sarah Taylor Lovell. Agronomy for Sustainable Development (in press).
Permaculture for Agroecology: Design, Practice, Movement, and Worldview. A Review.
energy (Clark 1975), and planning settlements Geist and Lambin 2002). Examination of the British
(Alexander 1977). In parallel, and often intersecting and US literature on farming practices in the early
with, the proposals of environmental and social 1900s suggests that the “permanent” was used in an
movements, scientists and development professionals analogous fashion to the current use of the term
have proposed alternative frameworks for managing sustainable (King 1911; Howard 1940). With the
natural resources and fostering economic publication of J. Russell Smith's foundational
development. Through the 1970s and 1980s, agroforestry text Tree Crops: A Permanent
agroecology (Wezel and Soldat 2009), agroforestry Agriculture, "permanent" came to connote
(Nair 1993), ecological design (Todd 2006), and agricultural systems incorporating a high proportion
appropriate technology (Pursell 1993) emerged as of perennial species (Smith 1929). It is this concept
movements and disciplines of their own. Other and for which permaculture is named. Mollison and
older approaches, such as organic farming, Holmgren adopted Smith's emphasis on the
experienced rapid growth and widespread acceptance importance of tree crops for soil stabilization in
(Lockeretz 2008). Many of these alternative hillside agriculture, production of fodder, and
frameworks now approach the mainstream, through production of complementary and staple foods for
the incremental accumulation of scientific evidence, human consumption (Mollison and Holmgren 1978).
institutionalization, or as in the case of organic The portmanteau of "permanent agriculture" was later
farming, through certification and large-scale redefined as "permanent culture" as the scope of
commercialization. permaculture expanded from the design of
smallholder agriculture to encompass human
Permaculture was founded in the 1970s by Bill settlement more broadly (Mollison 1988).
Mollison and David Holmgren, and now has a
presence on every inhabited continent. Permaculture's 2.3.2 Systems Ecology
founders shared broad environmental concerns with Permaculture's emphasis on whole-systems
the movements described above, while focusing design is heavily influenced by the work of ecologist
specifically on the threat of energy scarcity for H.T. Odum (Holmgren 1992). Odum developed the
energy-intensive agricultural systems (Mollison and influential framework of systems ecology, a
Holmgren 1978). Mollison and Holmgren drew on thermodynamic perspective that regards ecosystems
many sources in their development of the as networks through which energy flows and is stored
permaculture framework, but were especially and transformed, which can be diagramed and
influenced by the British and US literature of modeled in a manner analogous to electronic circuits
permanent agriculture, and the systems ecology/ (Odum 1994). Odum referred to the applied form of
ecological engineering perspective of H.T. Odum systems ecology as ecological engineering, and this
(Mollison and Holmgren 1978; Holmgren 2004). design perspective would shape fundamental
components of the permaculture perspective
2.3 Conceptual Influences (Holmgren 2004). In the highly cited book
2.3.1 Permanent as Sustainable and Environment, Power, and Society (1971), Odum
Perennial proposes an approach to the design of novel and
The term permanent agriculture, from which the productive ecosystems in which species are regarded
word permaculture is derived, has multiple uses. as distinctive but interchangeable system components
Permanent agriculture is used to contrast sedentary, which should be selected from a global pool without
continuous agriculture with shifting cultivation in regard to place of origin. In this view, the distinctive
discussions of the latter (q.v. Rasul and Thapa 2003; inputs and outputs of each species will connect in
Rafter Sass Ferguson & Sarah Taylor Lovell. Agronomy for Sustainable Development (in press).
Permaculture for Agroecology: Design, Practice, Movement, and Worldview. A Review.
novel assemblages, and the exchanges of energy and and agricultural production, a normative orientation
resources between system components will substitute toward agroecological transition, and an association
for human labor and material inputs. Ecosystems with popular movements consisting largely of land
designers should therefore foster self-organization users. Despite these parallels, permaculture has
through the iterative “seeding” of diverse species received very little discussion in the agroecological
from the global species pool, in order to generate and literature. When permaculture is mentioned, it is
select ecosystems which produce yields for human frequently found as an item on a list of alternative
use with minimal labor input (Odum 1971, p. 280). agricultural frameworks, the value of which is either
The influence of this focus on functional relationships explicitly in question (Gomiero et al. 2011; Pretty
between components, the self-organization of 2006; Bavec et al. 2009; Pretty 2005), or positive but
systems, and species selection practices, is reflected nonspecific (Leakey 2012; Deb et al. 2008; Lovell et
throughout the permaculture literature (Mollison al. 2010). Permaculture is elsewhere associated
1978; Mollison 1988; Holmgren 2004; Hemenway positively, albeit in passing, with agroforestry,
2009). perennial polycultures, agroecosystem design,
ecosystem mimicry, and agrobiodiversity (Francis and
2.3.4 Keyline Planning Porter 2011; Torre Ugarte and Hellwinckel 2010).
Holmgren and Mollison were also informed by Substantive assessment of permaculture as an
the whole-landscape approach of the Australian approach to agriculture, positive and negative,
Keyline design system (Holmgren 2004). From the appears to be absent from the peer-reviewed
1950s to the 1970s, farmer and writer P.A. Yeomans literature.
developed a system that integrated novel methods for
landscape analysis with whole-farm water This absence is surprising in light of
management, agroforestry, soil building strategies permaculture's international public profile. Parallel
(using slightly-off-contour chisel plowing and queries of online databases for the terms
rotational grazing), and the development of new ‘permaculture' and ‘agroecology' can be used to
chisel plow designs for use in the system (Yeomans illustrate patterns in the relative prominence and
1954; Yeomans 1954; Yeomans 1971; Yeomans overlap of each field across sectors. This fairly crude
1981). Yeoman's Keyline system has received very comparison is presented here (Fig. 2) in a preliminary
little attention in the scientific literature. Keyline fashion, to demonstrate that the sparse representation
Planning is nevertheless an innovative application of of permaculture in the scientific literature is
design to agricultural landscapes, and shaped the incommensurate with a high level of general interest.
approach taken by Holmgren and Mollison (Mulligan The proportions of results returned for each term
and Hill 2001, p. 202), who adopted many of the varied widely across data sources. The scientific
concepts of the Keyline plan directly into the databases Web of Knowledge and Google Scholar
developing permaculture framework (Mollison and returned 21 and 6 times as many results for
Holmgren 1978; Mollison 1979). agroecology as for permaculture, respectively, while
general purpose internet search engines Google and
2.4 Permaculture and Agroecology Bing were skewed in the opposite direction, returning
In the past three decades, permaculture has grown 11 and 7 times as many results for permaculture as for
in parallel with agroecology, displaying overlapping agroecology, respectively. Multipurpose literature
concerns while developing different constituencies. databases for book sales were less asymmetrical, with
Permaculture shares with the discipline of approximately equal results for each term in Google
agroecology a focus on the intersection of ecology Books and twice the results for permaculture in
Rafter Sass Ferguson & Sarah Taylor Lovell. Agronomy for Sustainable Development (in press).
Permaculture for Agroecology: Design, Practice, Movement, and Worldview. A Review.
Google (7,468,000)
Bing (4,568,000
Amazon (652)
pdf.USAID.gov (645)
files.peacecorps.gov (42)
FAO.org (47,380)
Figure 2. Proportional results from parallel search queries for ‘agroecology’ (crosshatch), combined ‘agroecology’ +
‘permaculture’ (solid), and ‘permaculture’ (horizontals), to multiple online data sources, illustrating the uneven relative
prominence of agroecology and permaculture across different sectors. Numbers in parentheses indicate combined total
responses from each data source.
Amazon. Document archives of international project of agroecological transition. This conceptual
development organizations (US AID, Peace Corps, structure will be used to organize the examination and
and FAO) were highly and heterogeneously skewed, assessment of the permaculture literature.
respectively returning 3 times the results for
agroecology as for permaculture, 41 times the results 3 REVIEW METHODS
for permaculture, and 21 times the results for This study integrates multiple review methods to
agroecology. address the challenges of assessing and synthesizing a
large and diverse literature, much of which is
In addition to the parallels described above, intended for a popular audience. In the absence of any
permaculture shares with agroecology a complex previous reviews, it is useful to address quantitative
stratified definition. Recent scholarship has clarified questions of what has been published, in what form,
that agroecology simultaneously refers to a scientific where, and about what geographic regions.
discipline, a social movement, and a set of Qualitative review will then address questions of
agricultural practices (Wezel et al. 2009). Similarly, topic, theme, and assessment in terms of current
some of the confusion surrounding permaculture may scientific understanding, in order to evaluate the
be attributed to the use of the term to refer to a design actual and potential contributions of permaculture to
system, to an international movement, to the agroecological transition.
worldview carried by and disseminated by the
movement, and to the set of associated practices. 3.1 Systematic Review
Figure 3 is a conceptual map intended to clarify the A systematic review methodology used in
relationship among the different strata that make up numerous previous studies was adapted for
permaculture, each of which intersects with the application to the body of permaculture literature
Rafter Sass Ferguson & Sarah Taylor Lovell. Agronomy for Sustainable Development (in press).
Permaculture for Agroecology: Design, Practice, Movement, and Worldview. A Review.
Rafter Sass Ferguson & Sarah Taylor Lovell. Agronomy for Sustainable Development (in press).
Permaculture for Agroecology: Design, Practice, Movement, and Worldview. A Review.
journal article, graduate thesis, book chapter, between keywords as a network graph. This
conference proceeding, periodical article, or quantitative approach to text analysis allows for the
miscellaneous (Table 1). Journal articles included exploratory analysis of meaning, context, and change
peer-reviewed and non-peer reviewed works. over time, in large bodies of text, while providing an
Periodical articles included magazine, newspaper, and alternative or complement to qualitative coding (He
newsletter articles. Scholarly and technical 1999). Keyword text was analyzed in four time
publications were identified as a subset of total frames: the three sequences of 1978-1992,
publications. Peer-reviewed publications were 1993-2002, 2003-2013, and also as a complete
identified as a subset of scholarly publications. sequence 1978-2013. The text of each sequence was
submitted individually to the web-based analytical
For scholarly works (including refereed and non- engine Textexture (http://textexture.com/). Textexture
refereed publications), the discipline of the journal performs several pre-analysis processes, including the
(for articles), the academic program (for theses and removal of common and semantically trivial words
dissertations), or the conference (for proceedings) was (including articles, conjunctions, modifiers, etc.), and
determined. When the institutional discipline could stemming words using the Krovetz Stemmer
not be determined, the discipline of the author(s) or algorithm to reduce complexity and redundancy
the apparent discipline of the publication topic was between closely associated words (Paranyushkin
used. Disciplines were sorted into categories 2011). Once the text is prepared, Textexture performs
according to a three-tiered disciplinary taxonomy that a two-pass analysis to convert text into network data.
synthesizes seven other major disciplinary Scanning first in 2-word and then in 5-word units,
taxonomies (bepress 2010). Citation statistics were Textexture creates a node for each novel word it
recorded for each reference. As the majority of the encounters, and creates or strengthens links between
references in the bibliography appeared solely in the nodes each time words co-occur within a scanning
Google Scholar searches, citation statistics were unit (Paranyushkin 2011). Textexture provides its own
derived exclusively from Google Scholar queries. The visualization engine, but for the purposes of this
bibliography was analyzed for two geographic values: study, the graph data was downloaded as a Graph
place of publication, and place of topic. Place of Exchange XML Format (GEXF) file, and visualized
publication data was obtained for all references, and a using the open-source graphing software Gephi
place of topic was identified in 135 references. (Bastian et al. 2011). Once loaded into Gephi, each of
the four graph files was processed identically. Nodes
3.1.3 Concept Network were sized according to the betweenness centrality
Keywords for each reference were drawn from (BC) metric, which measures the number of node-
multiple fields to accommodate the diversity of pairs whose shortest connecting path passes through
publication types represented. Title keywords were the target node (Brandes 2001). Nodes were then
included for all publications, and author keywords clustered using a community detection algorithm
were included whenever present. Abstracts were based on modularity, which identifies groups of nodes
included for scholarly articles whenever available. whose mutual connections are denser than their
Jacket blurbs were included for books whenever connections to the rest of the network (Newman
available. Textual analysis was carried out with word 2006; Paranyushkin 2011). Each cluster was assigned
co-occurrence analysis (He 1999) using a concept random colors. Size of nodes therefore shows the
network approach (Popping 2003) that incorporates number of contexts in which each term appears, while
analysis of probabilistic word co-occurrence with color and grouping show the most significant contexts
relative word position, and represents relationships in which each term appears. Edge thickness was
Rafter Sass Ferguson & Sarah Taylor Lovell. Agronomy for Sustainable Development (in press).
Permaculture for Agroecology: Design, Practice, Movement, and Worldview. A Review.
The high level of redundancy in the permaculture The 122 scholarly publications in the
literature has been noted elsewhere (Scott 2010), such bibliography are distributed across a broad set of
that a significant portion of publications devote some natural and social scientific and professional
space to reiterating foundational material developed disciplines (Fig. 5). The most prevalent disciplinary
in a small number of key publications (Mollison and categories, in descending order, are Social and
Holmgren 1978; Mollison 1988; Mollison and Behavioral Sciences (41), Life Sciences (28),
Holmgren 1978; Holmgren 2004). Key publications Architecture (23), and Education (14).
will be cited when the intent is to clarify origins,
4.1.2 Geography of Publication and Topic
while multiple derivative publications will be cited
English-language permaculture literature
when the intent is to illustrate prevalence.
originates predominantly from the United States,
Australia, and the United Kingdom (Fig. 6a). The
4 RESULTS
geographic distribution of permaculture writing in the
4.1 Systematic and Bibliometric
bibliography has become more widely spread over
Review
time, from 49% Oceania (Australia and New Zealand)
In this section, the results of the systematic and
and 41% North America in 1978-1987, to 43% from
bibliometric analyses are presented, including
North America, 34% Europe, 9% Oceania, 6% Africa,
publication type, citations, publication and topic
and 9% Asia, in 2008-2013.
geography, scholarly discipline, and concept network.
Rafter Sass Ferguson & Sarah Taylor Lovell. Agronomy for Sustainable Development (in press).
Permaculture for Agroecology: Design, Practice, Movement, and Worldview. A Review.
Figure 4. Distribution of publication types in a 230-reference bibliography of permaculture, in 5 year increments except
for 2008-2013. (a) Distribution of publication types within the biography shows rapid growth in articles and theses since
2008. (b) Scholarly publications represent a growing share of the total bibliography over time, with peer-reviewed
publications growing at a slower pace.
Sixty percent of the references in the bibliography became more widely distributed over time (Fig. 6b).
could be determined to have a geographically specific In 2008-2013 period, 35% of publications in the
topic. As in the geographic distribution of the bibliography referred to North America, 8% to
publishing, the topics of permaculture publications Oceania, 22% to Europe, 18% to Africa, 6% to Latin
were initially confined to the US and Australia, and
Rafter Sass Ferguson & Sarah Taylor Lovell. Agronomy for Sustainable Development (in press).
Permaculture for Agroecology: Design, Practice, Movement, and Worldview. A Review.
America, 6% to South Asia, 4% to East Asia, and 2% examined topics in developed countries, and 2
to West Asia. examined topics in developing countries — with one
For references with geographically specific of the references dealing with topics in both a
topics, both country of publication and country of developed and a developing country. The country-by-
topic were classified as “Developed” or country relationship between publication and topic is
“Developing,” using the Human Development Index represented as a geographic network in Fig. 7, while
(Malik 2013). Countries in the “Very High Human the proportional distribution of geographic
Development” category were classified as publication-topic relationships is shown in Fig. 8.
“Developed,” and countries in the other three
categories were classified as “Developing.” Of the Queries to multiple language localizations of
135 references with geographically specific topics, 95 Google Scholar returned results concentrated in
were classified as domestic, with publication and English-language literature. With 7190 search results,
topic taking place in the same country, and 41 results in English represented 59% of the total results.
classified as international. Of domestic references, 76 In descending rank, returns for other languages were
were from the developed world and 19 from the Spanish (2190), Portuguese (1980), German (294),
developing world. Of the 37 international references French (267), Arabic (95), Japanese (44), and Russian
published in the developed countries, 17 dealt with (30). Past research has identified an English-language
topics in developed countries, while 21 examined bias in Google Scholar (Kousha and Thelwall 2008;
topics in developing countries. Of the 3 international Neuhaus et al. 2006). Interpretation of these results is
references published in the developing world, 2 therefore limited to the observation that a significant
Rafter Sass Ferguson & Sarah Taylor Lovell. Agronomy for Sustainable Development (in press).
Permaculture for Agroecology: Design, Practice, Movement, and Worldview. A Review.
1988-1997 (60)
1998-2007 (85)
2008-2013 (68)
1988-1997 (28)
1998-2007 (49)
2008-2013 (51)
Rafter Sass Ferguson & Sarah Taylor Lovell. Agronomy for Sustainable Development (in press).
Permaculture for Agroecology: Design, Practice, Movement, and Worldview. A Review.
4.2.1 Design
Published definitions of
permaculture emphasize its status as
a system for the design for human
settlements, with an emphasis on
productive landscapes (see Sec. 2.1
above). The concept network
analysis reinforces the importance
of design as a core component of
permaculture, as ‘design' is the most
central concept in each of the three
sequential analyses (1978-1992,
1993-2002, 2003-2013) and in the
complete sequence (1978-2013).
Figure
Figure 7. Network
7. Network representation
representation of country-by-country
of country-by-country relationships
relationships between place between
of place of publication and place of topic in
apublication
135 permaculture
and place publications.
of topic in a 135The network illustrates
permaculture a pattern
publications. in which
The network developed countries commonly study developing
illustrates
countries,
a pattern in and thedeveloped
which reverse countries
is seldomcommonly
true. Node size
study is scaledcountries,
developing to indicate the number of publications originating from that
and the
country.
reverse is seldom true. Node size is scaled to indicate the number of publications with topics specific to that country, with green
Node color is a heat map representing number of publications
indicating few that
originating from and country.
red indicating many.
Node color Links
is a heat mapbetween nodes
representing represent
number of publication/topic relationships, with number of
publications indicated by line weight.
publications with topics specific to that country, with green indicating few and red
indicating many. Links between nodes represent publication/topic relationships, with
number of publications
Rafter indicated by line weight.
Sass Ferguson & Sarah Taylor Lovell. Agronomy for Sustainable Development (in press).
Permaculture for Agroecology: Design, Practice, Movement, and Worldview. A Review.
Rafter Sass Ferguson & Sarah Taylor Lovell. Agronomy for Sustainable Development (in press).
Permaculture for Agroecology: Design, Practice, Movement, and Worldview. A Review.
Figure 9. Concept network maps of keywords from permaculture publications. Node size
denotes centrality of concepts, links represent concept co-occurrence, link width
represents co-occurrence frequency, and color denotes conceptual cluster of tightly
interlinked concepts. (a) Publications 1978-2002 (N=51); (b) Publications 1993-2002 (N
= 115). (Continued next page.)
Rafter Sass Ferguson & Sarah Taylor Lovell. Agronomy for Sustainable Development (in press).
Permaculture for Agroecology: Design, Practice, Movement, and Worldview. A Review.
Rafter Sass Ferguson & Sarah Taylor Lovell. Agronomy for Sustainable Development (in press).
Permaculture for Agroecology: Design, Practice, Movement, and Worldview. A Review.
Rafter Sass Ferguson & Sarah Taylor Lovell. Agronomy for Sustainable Development (in press).
Permaculture for Agroecology: Design, Practice, Movement, and Worldview. A Review.
Figure 10. A selection of permaculture principles and related principles in agroecology and allied disciplines, grouped by
themes. With the exception of the principles grouped under the theme of Creativity and Innovation, permaculture principles
have corrolaries in the scientific literature, but are articulated at a higher level of abstraction. PDM refers to Mollison 1988,
IPM to Mollison & Slay 1997, and PPBS to Holmgren 2004.
structures). Zones of Use is a concentric model of centers of activity (Mollison and Holmgren 1978;
land use planning intended to maximize farm labor Mollison 1988; Mars 2005; Holmgren 2004; Mars
productivity, by siting land uses that require frequent 2005; Bell 2005; Hemenway 2009; Bane 2012).
management or use closer to the home or other
Rafter Sass Ferguson & Sarah Taylor Lovell. Agronomy for Sustainable Development (in press).
Permaculture for Agroecology: Design, Practice, Movement, and Worldview. A Review.
Rafter Sass Ferguson & Sarah Taylor Lovell. Agronomy for Sustainable Development (in press).
Permaculture for Agroecology: Design, Practice, Movement, and Worldview. A Review.
Rafter Sass Ferguson & Sarah Taylor Lovell. Agronomy for Sustainable Development (in press).
Permaculture for Agroecology: Design, Practice, Movement, and Worldview. A Review.
positions on the native/invasive question are being concept network analysis reflects the importance of
articulated within the scientific community (Davis concepts of community and sociality in the
2009). In emerging discussions of novel ecosystems permaculture literature. The concepts ‘community'
(Seastedt et al. 2008; Buizer et al. 2012) and and ‘development' are present and closely related in
intervention ecology (Higgs 2012; Hobbs et al. 2011), all three sequential analyses, becoming more central
the value of native-oriented restoration efforts is over time. In the complete sequence (1978-2013), the
questioned in favor of management for ecosystem centrality of ‘community' is nearly equal to ‘design.'
services. These emerging perspectives on non-native
species and assemblages are consonant with the The focus on itinerant teachers has distinctively
moderate turn in permaculture, and more broadly, marked permaculture's development with high-profile
with that aspect of the permaculture worldview that professionals - ‘permaculture celebrities' whose
positions humans as ecosystem managers within, international travel is organized around invitations to
rather than separate from, nature (see Sec. 4.2.4 teach courses (organized by local conveners), and by
below). employment opportunities as designers and
consultants (Mollison 2003). The focus on traveling
4.2.3 Movement teachers likely played a significant role in the rapid
The permaculture movement communicates a expansion of the movement (Grayson 2010a). The
distinctive worldview to new and potential permaculture movement, however, displays
participants, and disseminates elements of practice significantly less organization and institutionalization
and design through networks of practitioners and than other international agroecological movements,
small institutes. The role of such popular movements e.g. La Via Campesina, Campesino à Campesino, or
and networks in advancing agroecological transition International Federation of Agricultural Producers
through the mobilization of social and political (Borras Jr et al. 2008; Rosset et al. 2011; Martínez-
support is increasingly acknowledged in the peer- Torres and Rosset 2010; q.v. Grayson 2010b). This
reviewed literature (Nelson et al. 2009; Ferguson and lack makes the coordination of action beyond the
Morales 2010; Rosset et al. 2011; Altieri and Toledo immediate community scale difficult or impossible,
2011). and thus limits the potential for mobilization of
political support for diversified farmers (de Molina
The growth and dissemination of permaculture is 2012).
built on two basic patterns: a widely-dispersed
network of ‘itinerant teachers' (Mollison 2003), and The distribution of permaculture publications has
local/regional organizing based around ‘bioregional' transitioned from sharply delimited to relatively
cultures and the development of alternative economic diverse. The initial geographic limitation can be
and social institutions (Mollison 1988; Holmgren traced to the English-language origin of the
2004). The bioregional organizing aspect of permaculture framework in Australia. Due to the
permaculture promotes ideas associated with English-language constraint of this study, results can
alternative institutions, and realized projects include be assumed to skew in the direction of publications
gardening organizations, farms, demonstration sites, from Oceania, the UK, and the USA, and that actual
credit unions, multi-issue community organizations, publishing is more geographically diverse than
numerous periodicals, campus greening and local reported here. The geographic relationships between
food initiatives, and a variety of accredited and place of publication, and place of topic, however,
unaccredited institutions of higher learning (Ochalla show a consistently low level of diversity that
2004; Grayson 2010a; Battisti 2008; Harb 2011). The parallels the ‘coloniality of knowledge' described in
Rafter Sass Ferguson & Sarah Taylor Lovell. Agronomy for Sustainable Development (in press).
Permaculture for Agroecology: Design, Practice, Movement, and Worldview. A Review.
the agroecological literature (Gómez et al. 2013), meet their needs while increasing ecosystem health
wherein writing on both the developed and the (this author, quoted in Toensmeier and Bates 2013).
developing world are published in highly developed
countries, and very few studies of developed The populist orientation in the permaculture
countries are published in the developing world. literature repeatedly (though not uniformly) portrays
the solutions to environmental and social crises as
4.2.4 Worldview both simple and known. Academic institutions and
The relevance of permaculture to agroecological researchers are common topics of criticism for
transition is driven in part by the worldview conservatism, the plodding pace of change, failure of
disseminated by the movement. The emerging focus vision, and for being beholden to corporate interests
in the agroecological literature on the ‘worldview (Mollison and Holmgren 1978; Mollison 1979;
challenge' acknowledges the importance of Holmgren 2004; Holzer 2011; Shepard 2013).
knowledge and beliefs for transition (Jordan et al. Mollison and Holmgren claim that permaculture
2008; Berkes et al. 2000). Any agricultural system is requires only the recombination of existing
not only set of practices, but also a framework of knowledge, rather than the generation of new
knowledge about how and when to apply any given knowledge (Mollison and Holmgren 1978), and one
technique, a belief system that proposes a mechanism of Mollison’s most widely quoted aphorisms is
of action, and a normative proposal about what “Though the problems of the world are increasingly
practices and land use goals are desirable and why complex, the solutions remain embarrassingly
(Norgaard 1984; Berkes et al. 2000). Agroecological simple” (Permaculture Institute 2013). Some recent
transition requires not only new techniques, but new permaculture authors, in contrast, do present their
stories to provide context and meaning for those proposals as hypotheses in need of testing (Jacke and
techniques (Sanford 2011). Toensmeier 2005).
Key elements of the permaculture worldview The emphasis on practice over theory, and on
include ideas about human-environment relations, a networks of practitioners, is reflected in a model of
populist orientation to practice, and a model of social social change that emphasizes individual personal
change. The permaculture literature expresses a responsibility and voluntary action, and a relative lack
theory of human-environment relations that highlights of interest in influencing policy or large institutions
the positive role of humans in the landscape, as (Mollison and Holmgren 1978; Holmgren 2004;
ecosystem managers. This perspective is expressed Shepard 2013). Mollison proposes a “prime directive”
through a literature-wide insistence on the need for that states “The only ethical decision is to take
holistic planning and design, and an optimistic responsibility for our own existence and that of our
assessment of what these styles of management can children's” (1988, p. 1). This focus on individuals as
achieve. This perspective on human-environment the locus of change is moderated by principles of
relations cuts against the grain of the dualistic cooperation at the level of the community or
worldviews of both growth-oriented development and bioregion (Mollison 1988; Holmgren 2004). In a
preservation-oriented conservation, each of which quotation that captures both the simplicity and the
describe a fundamental conflict between the needs of scale of permaculture's model of change, prominent
society and those of nature (Pálsson 1996; Strongman permaculturist Geoff Lawton uses the tagline “All the
2012). At the core of the permaculture worldview is world's problems can be solved in a garden” (Lawton
the idea that — with the application of ecologically- 2008).
informed holistic planning and design — humans can
Rafter Sass Ferguson & Sarah Taylor Lovell. Agronomy for Sustainable Development (in press).
Permaculture for Agroecology: Design, Practice, Movement, and Worldview. A Review.
Rafter Sass Ferguson & Sarah Taylor Lovell. Agronomy for Sustainable Development (in press).
Permaculture for Agroecology: Design, Practice, Movement, and Worldview. A Review.
Figure 11. Stratified definition of permaculture, expanded to incorporate distinctive themes relevant to
agroecological transition appearing in the permaculture literature, as addressed in this survey.
percentage of photosynthetic activity to structure than complex empirical question rather than a simple
annuals, and therefore have a slimmer margin for maxim. Anecdotal reports on the productivity of
export as edible tissue (Jordan 1971; Malézieux multi-strata silvopasture integrated with multi-species
2011), rendering the comparison of potential yields a rotational grazing are promising but unsubstantiated
Rafter Sass Ferguson & Sarah Taylor Lovell. Agronomy for Sustainable Development (in press).
Permaculture for Agroecology: Design, Practice, Movement, and Worldview. A Review.
(Shepard 2013) and point the way toward future downslope. The potential impacts of extensive
research. An additional example of the misapplication earthworks on catchment-scale hydrological
of ecological principles is the claim that complex processes are complex, and will likely include
shapes in fields, garden beds, and ponds, will increase consequences for both upstream and downstream
productivity (Mars 2005; Hemenway 2009; Bell landscapes and communities (Rockström et al. 2010).
2005). This claim is based on the permaculture
principle of Edge Effects, that was itself extrapolated 5.1.2 Isolation from Science
from the ecological characteristics of ecotones and This study underscores the observation that,
anecdotal reports of edge effects in grain cropping although permaculture emerged from an academic
systems (Mollison and Holmgren 1978; Mollison collaboration between professor (Mollison) and
1988). Some recent permaculture publications, student (Holmgren), the movement has been largely
however, have provided more complex and empirical isolated from scientific research. Most permaculture
descriptions of edge effects (Holmgren 2004; Jacke texts do not refer to contemporary scientific research
and Toensmeier 2006). (Scott 2010; Chalker-Scott 2010). In a reading list for
advanced study of permaculture, revised most
The permaculture literature often downplays or recently in 2003, the average publication date of the
ignores the risks and challenges of planning and 11 titles (excluding Mollison's own work) was 1964,
maintaining highly complex agroecosystems. and the most recent was 1985 (Mollison 2003).
Permaculture has been criticized for the increased Permaculture's lack of reference to contemporary
harvest labor associated with structural complexity science holds true even for fields that would seem to
(Reich 2010). Planning for diversified enterprises is have the most bearing on the core premises and
complex and challenging, and while there are signs of proposals of permaculture, such as agroecology and
change, currently the majority of planning and agroforestry. The permaculture literature assigns the
support resources are oriented toward simple non- blame for this isolation on the inability of scientists
diversified farming operations (McIntyre et al. 2009). and institutions to comprehend or appreciate the
Farmers utilizing complex polycultures and diverse radical proposals put forth by permaculture (Mollison
enterprises will likely face significant hurdles to attain and Holmgren 1978; Mollison 1979; Mollison 1988;
economic viability. In this, however, permaculture Holmgren 2004; Shepard 2013). The counter-example
does not differ from other approaches to farm of the Land Institute, however, and its project of
diversification and integration (Morris and Winter replacing annual staple crops with perennial grains in
1999; Tipraqsa et al. 2007; Amekawa et al. 2010; diverse prairie-mimic polycultures, illustrates the way
Kremen et al. 2012). in which radical proposals may be grounded in
rigorous empirical science, and be well-received by
The inattention to complexity and risk in the the scientific community (DeHaan et al. 2005; Cox et
permaculture literature may have serious al. 2006; Glover et al. 2010).
consequences on and beyond the farm. In the case of
water management, modification of existing natural While the increase in scholarly publications
grade and site hydrology may result in flooding, shown by the bibliometric analysis suggests that the
increased erosion, and loss of topsoil. For extensive situation may be changing, there are cumulative
and interlinked modifications that include effects from decades of relative isolation that go
impoundments, the risk is proportionally greater — beyond the lack of research on permaculture systems.
both to the landowner's investment in earthmoving, These include the lack of awareness, in the
and in potential damage to structures and fields permaculture literature, of contemporary
Rafter Sass Ferguson & Sarah Taylor Lovell. Agronomy for Sustainable Development (in press).
Permaculture for Agroecology: Design, Practice, Movement, and Worldview. A Review.
developments in relevant science, the accompanying work of Jacke and Toensmeier (2005) constitutes an
persistence of idiosyncratic or misleading exception to this pattern. The first volume of their
terminology, and the potential for influence of two-volume work on edible forest gardening is
pseudo-scientific theories. The idiosyncratic use of devoted entirely to a review of relevant scientific
scientific and scientific-sounding terms, together with theory, and both volumes draw heavily on the
permaculture's heterodox stance on issues such as scientific literature.
species selection, has persuaded some writers to label
permaculture as pseudo-science (Chalker-Scott 2010). Scholarship has historically comprised a marginal
but diverse sector within permaculture. Concepts
An example of idiosyncratic use of scientific associated with scholarship, including ‘study,'
terms in permaculture is the use of the term ‘guild' to ‘education,' ‘correlate,' and ‘paper,' have had a
refer to complementary, mutually beneficial plant consistent presence in the literature but have never
assemblages (Mollison et al. 1997; Holmgren 2004; approached the first or second quartile of centrality.
Bell 2005; Burnett and Strawbridge 2008; Hemenway The high level of abstraction at which the
2009; Bane 2012). This is nearly opposite of its permaculture design system is articulated appears to
scientific meaning, which describes a group of plants support engagement with topics beyond the strictly
that occupy a similar niche and make use of the same biophysical and agricultural, and to invite
resources — in other words, plants that are especially investigation from scholars from a diverse set of
unsuited to being grown in a polyculture assemblage analytical and methodological traditions. While
(Simberloff and Dayan 1991). Permaculture currently marginal, the historical isolation of
discussions of polyculture design also typically make permaculture from scientific research may be
use of the term “dynamic accumulators” to refer to diminishing — particularly if the significant growth
plants that draw nutrients from the subsoil and in graduate theses documented in this review
concentrate them in the topsoil, thereby continues.
simultaneously benefiting nearby plants (Whitefield
2004; Jacke and Toensmeier 2005; Bell 2005; Jacke 5.2 Limitations of this Study
and Toensmeier 2006; Hemenway 2009). The term This study is limited by its restriction to English-
does not appear in scientific literature, and its use is language literature. Both qualitative and quantitative
regarded as evidence that permaculture is pseudo- analyses are likely skewed in unknown ways by this
scientific (Chalker-Scott 2010). As there is ample restriction. Follow-up reviews of permaculture
support in the ecological literature for importance of literature in multiple languages should be carried out
plant processes in determining the vertical at the earliest opportunity. Additionally, this study
distribution of nutrients in the soil column (Jobbágy addresses only those aspects of permaculture most
and Jackson 2004; Callaway 1995; Porder and pertinent to the question of agroecological transition.
Chadwick 2009) — the less pejorative “folk science” This is a necessary constraint, with the stipulation that
may be a more appropriate label (q.v. Berkes 2008). this review should therefore not be read as a
comprehensive assessment of the breadth of
5.1.3 Permaculture Scholarship permaculture literature, as we are not concerned here
Even within the growing scholarly sector, most with numerous topics discussed in that literature,
authors are not from disciplines with close ties to including forest management, building techniques,
agroecology. Scholarly work on permaculture from settlement planning, and so on. Finally, by restricting
more closely related disciplines is often marked by this review to publications appearing in databases of
sparse citations of relevant scientific literature. The scientific research, scholarly and technical literature
Rafter Sass Ferguson & Sarah Taylor Lovell. Agronomy for Sustainable Development (in press).
Permaculture for Agroecology: Design, Practice, Movement, and Worldview. A Review.
are likely overrepresented in the bibliography, and Permaculture's distinctive aggressive emphases
therefore represent a smaller proportion of the total on perenniality and diversity are useful provocations
English-language permaculture literature than is to supporters and researchers of diversified
represented here. production systems. The potential of diverse perennial
systems, such as rotational silvopasture systems
5.3 Future Directions (Shepard 2013), for the production of staple and
Permaculture's integrated approach to complementary crops in temperate zones, has recently
agroecosystem design offers tools and suggests informed empirical field trials at a major agricultural
directions for future research. Until recently, there research university in the US (WPP Research 2013),
was no parallel discussion in the scientific literature and should inspire more.
on farm design, which has largely consisted of
computer modeling and simulation that are not well Permaculture continues to be hampered by
suited to complex diversified operations (Sterk et al. overreaching and oversimplifying claims made by
2006) and do not deal substantively with spatial advocates. The portrayal of the scientific community
relationships (Martin et al. 2012). The importance of as homogenous, too slow, or altogether reactionary,
the abundance and distribution of land uses to farm helped create a charismatic populist message in the
sustainability, and interest in the development of tools early years of permaculture. While this approach may
to support spatially-explicit farm design processes, have been important in rapidly disseminating
has only recently entered the scientific literature permaculture and creating an international movement,
(Benoit et al. 2012; Lovell et al. 2010; Sterk et al. it now limits the value of permaculture by rendering it
2006), and remains largely exploratory. more difficult to interface with the larger community
of researchers, institutions, and movements,
Themes for investigation identified in this study addressing the project of agroecological transition. It
include agroecosystem design and configuration, is important to note that sciences that were in their
perenniality, and diversity. The role of agroecosystem infancy at the time of permaculture's origins, have
configuration in driving multiple functions, including now matured and begun to exert increasing influence,
environmental functions, labor productivity, and land and that some of these sciences have a high degree of
productivity, is a pressing question that has bearing consonance with permaculture's aims and worldview
for all diversified farming systems. The development (e.g. agroecology, agroforestry, ecological
of design approaches to agroecosystem planning engineering). The value of permaculture for
could make valuable contributions in the context of agroecological transition can only be enhanced by
farmer-oriented participatory research. The role of building dialog and exchange with related disciplines.
principles and pattern (including natural pattern and
pattern languages) in supporting site analysis and The relevance of permaculture to agroecological
design solutions are also promising avenues of transition is not limited to issues of design and
investigation. The farmer-friendly articulation of the practice. The increasing interest within the
permaculture principles, and the incorporation of agroecological literature on issues of worldview and
principles meant to stimulate creative problem popular movements supports further investigation of
solving (e.g. “The Problem is the Solution”) represent the social aspects of permaculture. Like other
a potential contribution to participatory research and agroecological movements, the spread of
development. permaculture in the absence of significant scientific or
institutional support, points to the importance of
beliefs and norms for the adoption of new
Rafter Sass Ferguson & Sarah Taylor Lovell. Agronomy for Sustainable Development (in press).
Permaculture for Agroecology: Design, Practice, Movement, and Worldview. A Review.
agroecological frameworks. Permaculture's optimistic and production functions (cf. Lovell et al. 2010), and
focus on holistic and positive action, on personal (2) livelihoods-based research, including quality of
responsibility, and on the simplicity of needed life, to investigate the diversity of benefits and
solutions, are empowering for participants (Smith motivations for permaculture producers.
2002), and are likely significant drivers of the spread
of the movement. However, the portrayal of 6 CONCLUSION
agroecological transition as something that The project of agroecological transition is
individuals can contribute to, using simple techniques pressing and complex. Agroecologists must continue
at home, is a double-edged sword. While prioritizing to look outside the boundaries of their discipline in
the perspectives and capacities of land users is order to evaluate the resources and opportunities
important, it may also run the risk of depoliticizing presented by other disciplines and movements in
aspects of agroecological transition that are supporting that transition. Permaculture offers
fundamentally political (de Molina 2012; Lovell et al. distinctive resources for that project, but further
2010; Rosset and Martínez-Torres 2012) and research, development, and collaboration is required
trivializing the complexity of socio-ecological to assess and realize its full value. This review
processes and struggles. Investigating the conditions provides a needed foundation and framework for that
under which participation in the permaculture task.
movement informs changes in agricultural practice,
and mobilizes social and political support for If it were possible to distill the agroecological
diversified farming systems, will contribute to the content of the permaculture literature into a single
scientific and practical understanding of thesis, it might appear in this way: With systematic
agroecological transition. site design, emphasizing diversity at multiple scales,
integrated water management, and access to global
While the overlap in topic and orientation germplasm, we can increase the productivity
between permaculture and agroecology is clear, demonstrated by heritage agroecosystems – especially
assessing the value of permaculture to the task of labor productivity - while retaining their most
agroecological transition continues to be confounded desirable attributes of sustainability and
by gaps in our knowledge of the impacts of multifunctionality. This thesis is highly relevant to
permaculture design and practice. This broad the task of agroecological transition, and begs
overview of the permaculture literature is not numerous questions that can only be answered
exhaustive, and points toward the need for further and through a dedicated research program. It also suggests
more detailed systematic review of practices the beginnings of a framework for the further
advocated for in permaculture literature. integration of different sectors of agroecological
Opportunities for collaborative research and research, through the lens of integrated design of
documentation of permaculture sites, and field trials agroecosystems. This view toward integration and
of distinctive practices not reflected in the application may be the most significant benefit
agroecological literature, should be vigorously offered to agroecology by the rigorous analysis of
pursued. The impacts of the design and practice permaculture theory and practice.
aspects of permaculture should be assessed through
comparative analysis of agroecosystems where the
design framework has been implemented, focusing on
(1) spatio-functional analysis to assess the role of
configuration in determining production, ecological,
Rafter Sass Ferguson & Sarah Taylor Lovell. Agronomy for Sustainable Development (in press).
Permaculture for Agroecology: Design, Practice, Movement, and Worldview. A Review.
Rafter Sass Ferguson & Sarah Taylor Lovell. Agronomy for Sustainable Development (in press).
Permaculture for Agroecology: Design, Practice, Movement, and Worldview. A Review.
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