EXPERIMENT 3

1. AIM

To verify Law of Malus.

2. OBJECTIVE
(i) Differentiate polarized and unpolarized light.
(ii) Observe and measure the change in light intensity passing through analyzer for various
angles between the axes of the polarizer.
(iii) Plot the intensity (I) as a function of the angle of rotation (θ) and compare it to Malus’
law.
(iv) Identify polarization as evidence that electromagnetic waves are transverse waves.

3. APPARATUS USED

1. Light source
2. Two Polaroid (Polarizer and Analyzer)
3. Lux meter
4. Optical Bench

4. Formula Used: I=I0 cos2 Ѳ

Where I0 =Intensity of Light from Ist Polaroid (Polarizer)

I= Intensity of Light from IInd Polaroid (Analyzer)
θ= Angle between the transmission axes of Polarizer and Analyzer

5. THEORY

Malus's Law and its Derivation

According to Malus, when completely plane polarized light is incident on the analyzer, the
intensity I of the light transmitted by the analyzer is directly proportional to the square of the
cosine of angle between the transmission axes of the analyzer and the polarizer.

i.e. I α cos2θ

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Refer Fig 1(b), suppose the angle between the transmission axes of the analyzer and the
polarizer is θ. The completely plane polarized light form the polarizer is incident on the
analyzer. If E0 is the amplitude of the electric vector transmitted by the polarizer, then
intensity I0 of the light incident on the analyzer is –

I α E0 2

The electric field vector E0 can be resolved into two rectangular (perpendicular) components
i.e. E0 cosθ and E0 sinθ. The analyzer will transmit only the component (i.e. E 0 cosθ) which
is parallel to its transmission axis. The component E0 sinθ will be absorbed by the analyzer.
Therefore, the intensity I of light transmitted by the analyzer is-

I α ( E0 x cos θ )2

I / I0 = ( E0 x cos θ )2 / E02 = cos2 θ

I = I0 x cos2θ

Therefore, I α cos2θ. This proves law of Malus.

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Practical understanding:

Refer Fig. 1 (a), on rotating the analyzer with respect to the polarizer we obtain two position of
maximum intensity and two positions of zero intensity. This indicates that the light incident on the
analyzer is plane/linearly polarized light.

Ist Quadrant: In between the position of θ= 00 to θ= 900 the intensity of light reduces from
maximum (I1) to minimum (zero intensity).

IInd Quadrant: In between the position of θ= 90 0 to θ= 1800 the intensity of light increases from
minimum (zero intensity) at 900 to maximum intensity (I1) at 1800.

IIIrd Quadrant: In between the position of θ=180 0 to θ=2700 the intensity of light reduces from
maximum (I1) to minimum (zero intensity).

IVth Quadrant: In between the position of θ= 270 0 to θ=3600 the intensity of light increases from
minimum (zero intensity) to maximum intensity (I1).

Above can be summarized as-

Case I: If θ= 00 axes of polarizer and analyzer are parallel (parallel position) then I=I0

Case II: If θ= 900 axes of polarizer and analyzer are perpendicular (crossed position) then I=0

Case III: If θ=1800 axes of polarizer and analyzer are parallel (parallel position) then I=I0

Case IV: If θ=2700 axes of polarizer and analyzer are perpendicular (crossed position) then I=0

ANALYSIS AND & DISCUSSION

The two Polaroid are used, one Polaroid acts as a polarizer and another Polaroid acts as an
analyzer. Thus on rotating the analyzer (0 0 to 3600) with respect to the polarizer the intensity of
light varies from maximum to minimum. We obtain two position of maximum intensity at (θ=0 0 and
θ=1800) and two positions of zero intensity (θ=90 0 and θ=2700). This indicates that the light
incident on the analyzer is plane/linearly polarized light since a linearly/plane polarized
light has light vectors vibrating only in one direction.
It is observed that when unpolarized light of intensity I0 passes through a polarizer, the
intensity of the transmitted light will be exactly half of the incident light (I o/2):

Since: I = Io cos2θ (Law of Malus)

In unpolarized light all the values of θ starting from 0 to 2π are equally probable.

Thus I = Io cos2θ
𝐼 2𝜋
= 2𝜋
0
∫0 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 2 𝑑𝜃

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 𝐼0 2𝜋 1+𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝜃
= 2
∫0 2
𝑑𝜃

𝐼 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2𝜃 2𝜋
= 4𝜋0 [(𝜃)2𝜋
0 +( 2
) ]
0

𝐼0
I= 2

6. PROCEDURE

Referring to Fig. 2, which is the image of Malus Law set up available in Laboratory follow the steps
in procedure-

i. The experimental set up is arranged as shown in the Fig. 2. In this arrangement, the source S,
Polarizer P, Analyzer A and the Luxmeter should be at the same height.
ii. Now switch on the incandescent bulb. Light from the source S is allowed to fall on polarizer P.
iii. For any orientation of the polarizer P, the polarized light passes through analyzer A.

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iv. The analyzer A is rotated till there is maximum deflection in the Luxmeter. The position of
analyzer is noted on the circular scale. The corresponding intensity of light is also recorded
in the Luxmeter (which should probably be the maximum intensity). This position of analyzer
corresponds to θ = 0 (here θ is the angle between Planes of transmission of polarizer and
analyzer.)
v. The analyzer A is rotated through a small angle, say 10 o and then the corresponding intensity
of light is also recorded in the Luxmeter.
vi. The experiment is repeated by rotating the analyzer through 10 o degree each time and noting
down the corresponding intensity of light in the Luxmeter till it become practically zero.

7. OBSERVATIONS

1. Least count of circular scale on polarizer and analyzer = 10

2. Readings of Ist Polaroid (polarizer) θ1 = 400
3. Readings of Lux meter (maximum) after Ist Polaroid P (I0) = 22 Lux

TABLE:

To measure the intensity of light at various positions of analyzer; Maximum intensity of light →
Minimum intensity of light

S. Readings of Readings Difference in angle cos θ cos 2θ

No Analyzer θ2 of between Polarizer and
Luxmeter Analyzer (θ= θ1~ θ2)
(Lux) (degrees)

1 40 15 00
2 50 13 100
3 60 12 200
4 70 10 300
5 80 8 400
6 90 6 500
7 100 5 600
8 110 4 700
9 120 3 800
10 130 2 900

8. GRAPH

(i) Draw the graph between angle θ on X axis and intensity (I) on Y axis as shown in Fig. 3
(a).
(ii) Draw the graph between cos2 θ on X axis and Intensity I on Y axis as shown in as shown
in Fig. 3 (b).

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9. CALCULATIONS

𝐴𝐵
(i) Intensity I = slope of graph= 𝐵𝐶
(graph between cos2 θ and Intensity I)
(ii) To calculate the intensity of light after analyzer use I=I 1cos2 θ.

10. RESULT

Straight-line graph between I and cos2θ, verify the law of Malus. The slope of the graph gives the
value of the intensity of light after passing through IInd Polaroid (Analyzer).

13. Sources of Errors and Precautions

1. Polaroid and Luxmeter should be in horizontal line and should not be disturbed throughout
the experiment.
2. This experiment should be performed in a dark because stray light from surrounding may
affect the Luxmeter reading.
3. Fluctuations in ac mains may vary the readings of Luxmeter.

11. INFERENCES & CONCLUSIONS

Since the graphical representation of I and θ is a straight line and the intensity of emergent
light from analyzer decrease from maximum to zero indicating that the light incident of the
polarizer is linearly/plane polarized light.

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14. LEARNING OUTCOMES

• The phenomenon of polarization is used to differentiate longitudinal and transverse wave.

• The linearly polarized light has electric field vector vibrating in single direction.
• A polarizer converts unpolarized light into linearly/plane polarized light an also reduces the
intensity of light to half of the original/incident intensity.

15. APPLICATIONS

• As sun glasses to cut off unwanted reflected light best utilized by fisherman, motorist, skiers,
sportsman etc.
• In driving, the light reflected from the road surface and from the painted or glass surface of
other automobiles is also partially polarized, usually horizontally.
• Geology: Frequently exploited using polarization microscopes, for identifying minerals
photograph of a volcanic sand grain.
• Chemistry: To check the chirality of the organic compound.
• Polarization is also used in infrared spectroscopy.
• Astronomy: For providing information on sources of radiation and scattering, polarization
probes the interstellar magnetic field via Faraday rotation.
• Polarization of cosmic microwave background is being used to study the physics of the early
universe.
• 3D movies: Polarization is used for 3D movies in which the images intended for each eye are
either projected from two different projectors orthogonally oriented polarizing filters or,
more typically , from a single projector with multiplexed polarization • Polarized 3D glasses
with suitable polarized filters ensure that each eye receives only the intended image
• Communication and radar applications. All radio transmitting and receiving antennas are
intrinsically polarized, special use of which is made in radar
• Vertical polarization is most often used when it is desired to radiate a radio signal in all
directions such as widely distributed mobile units.

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