Evolution And Diversity Of

Woody And Seed Plants

Lecture in General Botany
Aiza L. Castañeda
Characterize woody plants.
 Introduction

• A woody Plant is a plant that produces wood as its

structural tissue.
• Woody plants can either be trees, shrubs or lianas.
• These are usually perennial plants whose stems and larger
roots are reinforced with wood produced from the
secondary xylem
Lignophytes
Lignophytes

• Lignophytes are vascular land plants that produce

robust wood through a cambium.
• During the denovian radiation, the first woody
plants arose on the land in a group called the
progymnosperms.
Features:

• Lignophytes have the ability to produce secondary

xylem or wood, or lost this ability over time.
• Plants evolved the ability to produce wood, also known as
secondary xylem during the denovian period.
• The most ancestral lignophyte group are the
progymnosperms.
 Progymnosperms

• Progymnosperms are some of the first plants on earth to

produce robust wood from a cambium similar to modern
day trees.
• These were spore bearing plants in comparison all
modern woody plants are seed bearing.
• They are considered a paraphyletic grade of plants.
Ecology and Habit

• First “true” trees which produces wood from

cambium.
Stems

• Robust secondary xylem (wood) produced from a bifacial

cambium.
• Monopodial growth
• It is a form of growth found in plants with an apical meristem, which
produces new length through growth (mitosis), and branches through
axillary buds.
• These axillary buds open at a later time to produce branches.
Leaves

• Ancestral members lack leaves

• Derived members have laminate leaves
(megaphyll)
Reproductive structures

• Spore- bearing plants

Evolution of Woody plants

• The diversification of early terrestrial plants is

characterized by an intense phase of morphological
innovation during the denovian period that resulted in
the evolution of a large variety of growth forms.
 Evolution of Woody plants

• Several unrelated taxa adopted the tree habit, a form

characterized by its extended lifetime and the
possession of a tall vertical trunk.
• This provided large sized plants functional
advantages over smaller one in terms of reproduction
and light interception.
Present specific example that shows
the advantages of lignophytes over
smaller plants in terms of
reproduction and light interception.
Evolution of Woody plants

• Tall vertical trunk has certain challenges in the

biophysical point of view in terms of biomechanical
support and water transport.
 What possible challenges are
brought by tall vertical growth?
Evolution of Woody plants

• Evolution of the tree habit and of forests has directly

• promoted the diversification of the reproductive systems
and the advent of seeds.
• Created new niches which leads to a diversified terrestrial
flora and fauna.
Evolution of Woody plants

• It impacted the biosphere and contributed to the

dramatic decline of atmospheric CO2 in the Late
Denovian.
Spermatophytes
Evolution of seed plants

• Whole genome duplication event in the ancestor of

seed plants occurred about 319 million years ago.
• The earliest seed plant (Runcaria) was recorded
around 20 million years ago.
 Runcaria

• Runcaria sheds new light on the sequence of

character acquisition leading to the seed.
• Runcaria has all of the qualities of seed plants
except for a solid seed coat and a system to guide
the pollen to the seed.
 Spermatophytes form five divisions, the first four
of which are traditionally grouped as gymnosperms,
plants that have unenclosed “naked seed” these are:
• Cycadophyta
• Ginkgophyta
• Pinophyta
• Gnetophyta
• Magnilophytes (angiosperms)
 Cycadophyta
(General Characteristics)

• The cycads a subtropical and tropical group of plants.

• Cycads have a cylindrical trunk which usually does not branch.
• Leaves grow directly from the trunk and typically fall when older leaving a
crown of leaves at the top.
• The leaves are pinnate with a central leaf stalk from which parallel “ribs”
emerge from each side of the stalk, perpendicular to it.
 Cycadophyta
(Mode of Reproduction)
• Mature cycads are either male or female with both sexes
producing cones that allow them to reproduce.
• Male cones produce pollen while female cones form ovules that
turn into large seeds when pollinated.
• The seeds are covered in a fleshy outer layer called a sarcotesta
(that is often a bright yellow, orange or crimson)
• Insects are the primary aids to pollination while animals such as
birds and bats help to disperse the seeds.
 Cycadophyta
(Poisonous Attributes)
• All cycads contain poisonous glycosides known as
cycasins and neurotoxins (beta-N-methylamino-I-alanine,
BMAA).
• Cycads may have developed poisonous defense to protect
themselves from bacteria and fungi.
• Eating the seeds of cycads is poisonous to cats and dogs
Ginkgophyta
• Phylum of seed plants represented by one living species, Ginkgo
biloba.
• This species is restricted to China where it may be extinct in the wild.
• The group was well represented during the Mesozoic with worldwide
distribution.
• Ginkgo biloba is widely planted as an ornamental. It is especially useful
as a street tree as it is tolerant of city polluted air.
Vegetative Characteristics:

• Deciduous trees bearing distinctive fan-shaped

leaves.
• Branches with numerous spur shoots that bear the
reproductive structures.
• Stems with extensive secondary growth producing
considerable secondary xylem.
 Leaves
• Ginkgo leaves are bi-lobed, tough
and more resistant to decay than
other leaves.
• Some leaves are borne on long
stems and turn yellow, die back in
winter, then reappear in spring,
while others are on shorter stems
that may survive the winter.
Trunk and Vascular System
• The bark of Ginkgos is fissured and the trunks may reach to 4m in diameter.
• The vascular system of Ginkgos, and also conifers, are different to that of
flowering plants.
• While flowering plants have a series of tube-like cells to conduct water,
Ginkgos have connecting cells with tiny perforations, these are valves that
close when water is in short supply so that turgidity is preserved.
Reproduction and Survival

• Ginkgos are dioecious.

• The male cones grow from the shoot tip in clusters and release
pollen.
• The female ovules (cones) appear in twos on the end of a stalk
and do not look much like the cones of conifers.
• Each ovule has a drop of fluid, the pollination drop, that traps
pollen to enable fertilization
• Ginkgo sperm cells are motile, swimming to the ovule
using thousands of hairs.
• This is something that occurs in cycads and in ferns, but
not conifers or flowering plants, so is a throwback to a
more primitive form of reproduction.
• Once fertilized the ovule grows into something
resembling a fruit containing the seed.
• Ginkgo seeds contain two cotyledons (seed leaves), but
these never expand or emerge, instead they remain
embedded in the seed providing nutrition for the
seedling.
• The first leaves to appear above ground are true leaves
with the distinctive Ginkgo shape, this is called hypogeal
germination.
Ginkgos have a few clever ways of surviving
and reproducing:
• Ginkgos have been known to change sex, so
that the male trees start producing ‘fruits’ and
seeds.
• This is an effective way of propagating when
there are no females around.
 Ginkgos have a few clever ways of surviving
and reproducing:
• Ginkgos have a tendency to put out suckers from the ground that point
upwards, but older trees sometimes also have odd downward growths,
called Chichi, hanging from a single branch like stalactites.
• When these growths hit the ground they can start growing new roots
and eventually form into a new tree, this is seems to be a form of
reproduction for when the main tree is coming to the end of its life.
Ginkgos have a few clever ways of surviving
and reproducing:
• If Ginkgos are hacked right back to the bare trunk
they can regrow, either growing from the damaged
stem or by putting out new shoots from the
ground.
• Ginkgos are also very resistant to pests, diseases,
fires and pollution.
Medicinal Properties

• Ginkgo biloba contains Flavonoids and Terpenoids

which are naturally occurring chemical groups
found in plants.
Flavonoids

• Use for the plant: pigmentation, assisting in nitrogen

fixation and cellular function

• Use for humans: thought to have anti-allergic, anti-

inflammatory, anti-microbial, anti-cancer and anti-
diarrheal properties although this is not fully proved.
Terpenoids
• Use for the plant:
• provide pigmentation and smell.
• They are thought to act as a deterrent to herbivorous insects and an
attractant to insects that may eat herbivorous insects.
• They also are found in flowering plants and are used to attract
pollinators.
• They may have antioxidant benefits for plants.
Terpenoids

• Use for humans:

• they have been used in traditional medicines for many years,
although their effectiveness is not proved, they may have
antibacterial properties and they may also have antioxidant
benefits.
Coniferophyta
General Characteristics

• The Coniferophyta is a relatively large group of plants

which forms the dominant component of vast
ecosystems, especially in the northern hemisphere
(Northern Boreal Forest).
• Some of these plants are the largest organisms on the
planet and also have the greatest longevity.
General Characteristics

• The most significant vegetative adaptations of this taxon

include Secondary Growth and the production of
protective Buds.
• They also have a significant amount of internodal
elongation which allows them to grow faster than the
other plants we have reviewed.
General Characteristics

• Their Leaves have a battery of adaptations which foster

survival in extreme habitats.
• The "tree line" in the northern hemisphere is the conifer
as these are the most tolerant woody plants with regard to
heat, cold and aridity.
Leaves Characteristics

• Conifer Leaves have many adaptations that equip them to

deal with dry, hot and cold environments.

• They have a reduced Lamina (blade).

Leaves Characteristics

• Pinus monophylla has a cylindrical shape. This give it a

small Surface Area/Volume ratio. This means that
evaporation will be minimized compared to a flat
blade.
• If the separate needles of 2-5 needle Pines are viewed
together they form a cylinder.
Leaves Characteristics

• The Epidermis has a thick Cuticle & its walls may be

Lignified.
•Stomata are "sunken".
• A Sclerified Hypodermis (layer(s) below Epidermis) is
usually present.
Leaves Characteristics

•Closely spaced Chlorenchyma

• An Endodermis separates the Mesophyll & Vascular
Bundle.
• The Vascular Tissues are unbranched and reside in the
center of the leaf.
Stem Characteristics

• Secondary Growth is the result of Lateral Meristems

• Vascular Cambium
• Cork Cambium
• The word Cambium signifies the meristematic nature of
these two.
Stem Characteristics

• The plane of cell division in both is predominately

Periclinal.
• This produces radial files of cells which increase the girth
of the organ in which they occur.
Stem Characteristics

• The Vascular Cambium produces

• Secondary Xylem (wood)
• Secondary Phloem (inner bark).
Stem Characteristics

• Secondary Xylem provides structural support but

it also provides a conduit for the translocation of
water throughout the entire plant.
• Secondary Phloem transports sucrose throughout
the organism.
Stem Characteristics

• The Cork Cambium (Phellogen) produces Cork (Phellem).

• Cork is commonly known as "outer bark".
• This tissue is dead, except for the Phellogen and its immediate
derivatives.
• The walls of Cork Cells are impregnated with Suberin.
• It prevents excess water loss and it also insulates living cells from
the external environment.
Roots Characteristics

• The Primary Root of Conifers is similar to what we have seen

before.
• However, Conifer Roots have Secondary Growth.
• They have Secondary Vascular Tissues and Periderm.
• This allows them to expand over time and thus increase their
ability to anchor the ever-increasing above ground biomass of the
shoot system.
Roots Characteristics

• It also allows them to persist for centuries in some

cases.
• The Periderm has functions similar to the Periderm on
aerial structures.
• Secondary Vascular Tissues also have the same primary
functions as their aerial counterparts.
Gnetales
General Characteristics
• Foster and Glifford (1959) described Gnetales as “ a small
group of gymnosperm like plants.
• Maheshwari and Vasil (1961) mentioned that “the order
Gnetales, formerly included three genera, Ephedra,
Welwitschia and Gnetum which were considered to be
highest evolved among the gymnosperms and believed to
show an approach to the angiosperm.
General Characteristics

• These are woody plants, of which some species are trees

(Gnetum Gnemon) many are lianes or shrubs and a few,
are stumpy turnip-like.
 General Characteristics

• Leaves are simple elliptical or

strap-shaped or sometimes
reduced to minute scales.
• They are generally opposite or
whorled.
General Characteristics

• ‘Flowers’are unisexual,
usually dioecious and only
rarely monoecious as in
some species of Gnetum.
General Characteristics

• ‘Flowers’ are
arranged in
compound strobili
or ‘inflorescences’.
General Characteristics

• The male flowers are

surrounded by a perianth.
• Each male flower contains an
antherophore with one to eight
synangia.
Pollen-
producing cone
showing six
antherophores
with their bracts
Detail of an
antheropore showing
five synangia with apical
dehiscence slits
Polyplicate Pollen
Ovulate cone showing two
seeds surrounded by four
pairs of opposite and
decussate leaf-like bracts
Detail of apical part of two
seeds from D showing the
uppermost pair of leaf-like
bracts; note the micropylar
tubes extending our of the
tips of the seed envelope
Sporne (1965) divided Gnetales into
following three unigeneric families:
• Gnetaceae: Gnetum
• Ephedrine: Ephedra
• Welwitschiaceae: Welwitschia
Gnetum

• The plant body is sporophytic and resembles remarkably

with a dicotyledonous plant, specially when it is not in the
fruiting stage.
• Most of the species are lianes or climbers with twining
stem, except a few which are shrubs or trees.
Gnetum gnemon Gnetum costatum
Ephedra

• Ephedra, the lone genus of family Ephedraceae of order

Gnetales, is represented by some 40 species.
• It is distributed in mountainous or rocky places, or in
sandy desert regions throughout the world.
• Most of the species are shrubs, and a few are lianes.
 Welwitschia

• Welwitschia bainesii (= W. mirabilis) is the only species of genus Welwitschia, the sole
representative of family Welwitschiaceae of Gnetales.
• This is the most strange or bizarre of all gnetalean plants showing a very restricted
distribution in a narrow coastal belt of about 1000 Km long in south-west Africa.
• The specific name (Welwitschia mirabilis) of this African genus “is very appropriate
because the adult sporophyte is unlike that of any known plant on the earth”.
• According to the recent nomenclatural changes, however, the correct and valid name is
Welwitschia bainesii. The common name “desert octopus” is often riven to this genus
because of its peculiar habit.