INTRODUCTORY SOIL LECTURE

NOTES

By Dereje M

2010/11

Wollega University,
shambu campus
 Wollega University
FACULTY OF AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT
DEPARTMENT OF SOIL RESOURCE AND WATERSHED MANAGEMENT

COURSE NAME INTRODUCTORY SOILS

COURSE CODE SRWM 201
CREDIT HOUR 3 (2+1)
INSTRUCTOR DEREJE M.
COURSE OUT LINE

1. INTRODUCTION
1.1. Concept of Soil
1.2. Approaches in soil study
1.3. Major components of soil
1.4. Importance of soil
2. SOIL FORMING MINERALS AND ROCKS

2.1 Soil forming minerals

2.2 Soil forming rocks
2.3 Weathering and soil formation
3. SOIL FORMATION AND PROFILE DEVELOPMENT
3.1. Factors of Soil Formation
3.2. Soil profiles and its major horizons
3.3. Pedogenic Processes
4. PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF SOILS

4.1. Soil texture

4.2. Soil structure
4.3. Soil consistence and soil colour
4.4. Particle and bulk densities of soils and pore space of soils
4.5. Soil water
4.6. Soil air and temperature

5. CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF SOIL

5.1. Soil colloids

5.2. Cat ion exchange
 5.3. Anion exchange and adsorption
5.4. Soil reaction
5.5. Salinity and alkalinity
6. SOIL AND NUTRITION OF PLANTS

6.1. Essentiality of elements

6.2. Elements required in plant nutrition
6.3. Function of nutrients in plants
6.4. Fertilizers and fertilizer management
7. MODERN SYSTEMS OF SOIL CLASSIFICATION

7.1. Purpose of Classification

7.2. Categories of the New systems
7.3. Major soils of Ethiopia

 REFERENCES

1. Brady NC, 1990. The nature and properties of soils.

2. M M RAI 4th Edition. Principles of soil science.
3. Frederic R.Troech and Louis M.Thompson 5th Edition. Soils and soil fertility.

ASESSMENT METHODS

 Continuous assessment…………..70%
 Final Exam……………………………….30%

CHAPTER - ONE
 INTRODUCTION

1.1Concepts of Soil
The term soil is derived from a Latin word “solum “which means floor.
Soil is defined as a three dimensional, dynamic, natural body occurring on the surface of
the earth and which is a medium for plant growth and whose characteristics have resulted
from the forces of climate and living organisms acting up on a parent material, as
modified by the relief over a period of time.
Soil science is that science dealing with soils as a natural resource on the surf ace of the
earth including soil formation, classification and mapping, and the physical, chemical,
biological, and fertility properties and the relation for crop production.
Here are two basic sources for the modern concept of soil. The first is the practical
knowledge gained by farmers through centuries of trial and error while the second is
information and science based facts about the soil.
Early scientific understanding of soils flourished from the early seventeenth century until
the middle of the twentieth century with the aim of increasing crop production.

I. Experience of the cultivator: This concept was gained through centuries of

trial and error. The earliest recorded history contains evidence that, through
trial and error, man learned to distinguish differences in soils. He also learned
the value of treating soils with plant and animal wastes. A very tangible
example of these is a more than 42 centuries old history of the Chinese that
they used a schematic soil map as a basis for taxation.
II. Early scientific investigations and soil productivity: There were scientific
attempts from the 17th C to the mid 19th C to increase crop productivity. E.g
Dokuchaiev (1900): the father of soil science defines soil as a natural body
composed of minerals and organic constituents having a definite genus and
distinct nature of its own. Jenny (1941): define soil as a naturally occurring
body that has been evolved owing to combined influence of climate and
organisms, acting on parent material as conditioned by relief over a period of
time.
 These different concepts of soil led to three different concepts of soil.
1. Medium for pant Growth (Earliest concept): most today’s soil scientists’ work
in agricultural institutions with this concept.
2. Weathered Rock (Impact of geology on the study of soils): Geologists,
engineers, space scientists and oceanographers share this idea. They believe character of
source rock determine the nature of the soil. Soil by this concept includes all the loose or
unconsolidated rock and mineral matter on the surface of the earth, and even on other
planets and celestial bodies.
3. A Natural Body (Soil as a product of the environment under which it develops):
An individual soil is a 3-dimensional dynamic natural body. This concept realized that
soil is a unique being formed through pedogenic processes and is different from
underlying rocks and minerals. The characteristics of this unique being is determined by
the soil forming factors identified by Dokuchaev and his team, who deserve the biggest
credit in developing this very concept. The problem here is the separation between
pedology and geology, boundaries of unconsolidated rocks and soil, is somewhat blurred.
In any case, this is the most widely maintained concept by soil scientists.

1.2 Approaches in Soil study

The points discussed earlier gear up to two basic approaches to soils study.
1. Soil as a natural entity, a bio-chemically weathered and synthesized product of nature,
i.e., the pedagogical approach. A pedologist considers the soil as a natural body and
places minor emphasis on its immediate practical utilization. His information about
the soil is useful to any user of the soil.

2. Soil as a natural habitual for plants and justifies studies primarily on that basis, i.e.,
the Edaphological approach. An edaphologist considers the various properties of soil
as they are related to plant production. He has ultimate goal of food and fiber
production. Thus, he looks for reasons for variations in the productivity of soils and
options for improving them.
1.3. Major components of soil
Mineral soils consists of four major components these are
 Mineral (inorganic) Constituent (45%): The inorganic portion of the soil is
variable in size. It is normally composed of small rock fragments and minerals of
various kinds.
 Organic matter (5%): soil organic matter (SOM) represents an accumulation of
partially decayed and partially synthesized plant and animal residues. It is a
transitory soil constituent as it is continuously broken down by the work of micro-
organisms.
 Soil water (25%): Soil water, a dynamic solution, is important in relation to
plant growth for reasons. Soil water makes up soil solution, together with its
dissolved salts, which is important as a medium for supplying nutrients to
growing plants. Water is held in soil pores. Those in large pores are quickly
drained by gravity while those in small pores are strongly held to the soil particles
still some are lost through evaporation. Thus, plants do not make use of all the
water available in the soil.

 Soil air (25%): Soil air, also a changeable constituent, differs from atmospheric
air in many aspects. Soil air is not continuous in its appearance. It generally
contains high relative humidity as compared to atmospheric air. Besides, its
content of Carbon dioxide is usually much higher.
The proportion of the four major components of soil varies greatly, e.g. with depth,
location, texture, and other factors. Subsoil has higher percentage of minerals and water
and lower content of organic matter and air.

1.4 Importance of soil

Soil is one of our most important natural resources and understanding of the soil system
is key to the success and environmental harmony of any human use of the land.
I. Soil supports the growth of higher plants by working as medium of plant
growth.
 II. The system of water supply and purification.
III. Soil is a recycle system for nutrients and organic wastes.
IV. Soil is a habitat for organisms including reptiles and mammals.
V. Soil is engineering medium for foundation and earth fill.

CHAPTER - TWO
SOIL FORMING MINERALS AND ROCKS
Soil is a natural body .This implies that this body is formed by the action of nature. The
agents or factors of nature that are recognized as being responsible for soil formation are:
 Parent material
 Climate
 Relief or topography
 Vegetation
 Time
The type of soil developed depends on the amount of time a parent material on a specific
topography is exposed to the effect of climate and vegetation. Parent materials are
defined as the materials underlying the and from which the soil develops in most cases.
There are five general categories of parent materials from which a soil may develop:
 Minerals and rocks
 Glacial deposits
 Loess deposits
 Alluvial and marine deposits
 Organic deposits
Of these five categories, minerals and rocks are probably the most important on a world
wide basis because they are the materials that weather or break down to form soils.
2.1 Soil Forming Minerals
A mineral is defined as a naturally occurring in organic body that has a fairly definite
internal structure and composition, which results in fairly definite physical and chemical
properties. There are different ways of classifying soil forming minerals, the most
important ones being the following:
1. Based on Origin
A. Primary minerals. B. Secondary minerals.
A. Primary minerals.
They are present in soil chemically unchanged. They are found in soil but not formed in
soil. They are formed by cooling of molten magma especially igneous rocks.
Quartz- chemically it is SiO2.
Abandon in sand & silt &resistant to weathering. It prevents any form of substitution
&does not have any other use full element to plant it simply helps to develop a skeleton
of the soil.
Feld spars- abundant in soil that is not leached.constituts nearly 61% of the minerals that
are found in the earth crust. It acts as store house of Na, K, Ca and many trace elements.
Also known as silicates of aluminum and the general chemical formula is R (Si3O8) R is
different cat ion.
 Orthoclase (K, Na) Al Si3O8
 Microcline (K Al Si3O8)
 Mica source of K. Amphibole easily weathered to clay mineral.
 Pyroxene easily weathered to clay mineral.
 Olivine easily weathered to clay mineral.
 Epidote highly resistant to chemical weathering.
 Tourmaline highly resistant to chemical weathering.
 Zircon highly resistant to chemical weathering.
 Rutile highly resistant to chemical weathering.
 Magnetite highly resistant to chemical weathering.
B. Secondary minerals.
Also called weathering products are those minerals that are formed in soils either by the
decomposition or alteration and /or resynthesis of primary minerals due to the exposure
of primary minerals to atmosphere, biosphere, and hydrosphere. In short they are
minerals that have been formed by weathering of primary minerals.
These are classified as
1. Silicate minerals (clay minerals.)
2. Non Silicate minerals.
 1. Silicate minerals.
These are in organic crystalline minerals found in clay fraction (<2µm) of the soils. Most
commonly these are layered silicates (illite montmorilonite chlorite).they contain ca, Na,
k, Fe, mg, in large amount besides O, OH, Al, and Si. These minerals are variable colour
depending upon their chemical composition.
The clay minerals carry negative charge on their surfaces and have interred lattice space
in which water inter and cause swelling-shrinkage. Owing to the negative electric charge
of clay surface cat ions are attracted around the clay minerals. These cat ions d o not get
bound permanently and can be exchanged for other cat ions.
The amount of cat ion varies depending up on the type of clay mineral and it is referred to
us cat ion exchange capacity (CEC).because of the cat ion exchange there is always a
balance between the concentration of cat ion in the soil water and these obserbed on the
surface of clay particles.

Features 1:1 type 2:1 type

Expanding non expanding
1. Group member kaolinite smictite/montimorilonite
Illite/mica
2. Structure 1:1 2:1 2:1
3. Surface area 25-50 m2/g 750 m2/g 75-125 m2/g
4. Bonding O-OH O-O O-K-O
5. Binding strong very weak Medium
6. Swelling Nil maximum Medium
7. Ionic substitution Nil Al for Si/mg, Fe, for Al Al for Si
8. CEC c mol (p+) kg-1 3-15 80-100 10-40
9. Heat of weathering 1-2 cal/g 10-20 cal/g 2-4 cal/g

2. Non Silicate minerals

1. Oxide, hydroxide or hydrous oxide group of minerals.
The oxide minerals are formed by direct combination of elements present in the earth’s
crust with oxygen (46.7%).
 E.g. 4Fe + 3O2 2FE2O3 (hematite)
2Al2 + 3O2 2Al2O3 (Gibbsite)
Oxides are usually harder than any other minerals except silicates.
2. Carbonate group: the basic compounds like Mg (OH) 2 and Ca (OH) 2combines
with CO2 or carbonic acid (H2CO3) to form carbonates.
Ca CO3 + CO2 Ca CO3+H2O
Ca (OH) 2 + H2CO3 CaCO3 + 2H2O
Calcite is of white color, hardness 3 widely distributed in sedimentary rocks and easily
decomposed.
CaCO3+CO2+H2O Ca (HCO3)2 soluble form

Dolomite (Ca, mg (co3)2) -less soluble in water dark colored, source of mg.
Siderite (feco3) - is product of iron bearing minerals, hardness 4 found mostly in water
logged soils.
3. Sulphate group- it is a complex group formed by the combination of one sulfur and
four oxygen ions which further reacts with ca to form gypsum (CaSO4.2H2O).
Found in desert soils and in sedimentary rocks. Used as amendment to reclaim salt
affected soils (CaSO4.2H2O). Source of Ca and S.
4. Phosphate group: rock phosphate-apatite (ca3 (po4)3
 It is a primary source of p in soils, hardness 5
 Decomposed easily with carbonic acid.
 Highly immobile in soils as it combines with clay.
IMPORTANT PROPERTY OF MINERALS
The ordered structure of minerals is called crystalline structure. Each mineral structure is
a unique three dimensional arrangement of its atoms or ions and can be used like a finger
print to identify the mineral.
Minerals must be identified easily if they are used to interpret earth’s process and earth’s
history. And some of the important properties of minerals are discussed below.
1. Hardness: is the resistance of the minerals to being scratched and is an induction of
the strength of bonds between a mineral constitutes or atoms or ions.
Diamond is harder than the quartz because the bonds holding diamonds carbon to carbon
atom together are stronger than the forces that bond silicate to oxygen in quartz.
A mineral hardness can be determined by comparing the mineral with a set of reference
minerals that constitutes a scale called Moh’s scale. A mineral will scratch any
substance /mineral softer than it self but can be scratched by any harder mineral or
substance.

Moh’s scale of mineral hardness.

Moh’s scale simple testing materials

Mineral hardness number material hardness
1. Diamond 10
2. Corundum 9
3. Topaz, beryl 8
4. Quartz 7 streak plate 7
5. Orthoclase, feld spars 6
6. Apatite 5 window glass 5.5
pocket knife
5
7. Fluorite 4
8. Calcite 3 penny 3
9. Gypsum 2 finger nail 2.5
10. Talc 1

2. Breakness- when the mineral is struck with a hammer it breaks a long region of
relatively weak bonds.
Some minerals break a long smooth flat plane, while others crumble in to irregular
fragments reflecting different pattern of bonding with in the mineral.
3. Cleavage: the tendency of a mineral to break a long planner surface is called mineral
cleavage, and the surface them selves are called cleavage planes. It occurs in minerals
that have planner zones of weak bonding.
4. fracture- some minerals exhibit no cleavage because they are no planner zones of
weak bonding and such minerals break by what is called fracture. Some break along
irregular, jagged or splintery surface, but others favor smooth, curved surface in what is
called concoidal fracture. Quartz is an extremely common mineral that display excellent
concoidal fracture.
5. Luster: the manner in which light is reflected from the source of a mineral is called
the minerals luster.
Metallic luster ____________________ metal type.
Earth luster ____________________ dust type.

6. Colour: it is easily determined property and use full identification property but
impurities and crystal defects cause4 most minerals to be highly variable in colour.
7. Streak – is the colour of a mineral powder.
It is more reliable property than the colour because surface defects are destroyed and
impurities mollified during crushing. Regardless of colour streak tends to remain
constant.
8. Specific gravity: is a comparison of density of a mineral to density of water.

2.2 SOIL FORMING ROCKS

Rocks : a rock may be defined as the hard mass of mineral matter comprising two or
more rock forming minerals but some rock may be mono mineralic, e.g. olivinite, dunite.
Rocks are mixture of minerals whose characteristics vary with the characteristics of
minerals with in them.
Depending on the genesis and structure, rocks are generally divided in to:
1. igneous rocks
2. sedimentary rock
3. metamorphic rock
1. Igneous rocks: during volcanic eruption the cooling and consolidation of molten
magma or fluid lava with in or on the surface of the earth’s crust is called igneous or
primary rocks.
When the solidification of the molten magma takes place deep in the earth’s crust, the
rocks formed are called plutonic or intrusive igneous rocks and since the magma cools
more slowly, these rocks are comprised of large crystals. E.g. granite which contains
more than 60% silica and 20-30% quartz and its weathering product of is light colored
sandy soils with low specific gravity and acidic nature. , diorites and gabbros.
When the solidification of the molten magma takes place on the surface of the earth, the
rocks formed are generally called volcanic, extrusive or effusive igneous rocks. These
rocks are ones with glassy textured as there is no enough time for the development of
crystal. E.g. basalt which is a fine grained dark colored rock that contains 50% feld spar
and 50% ferromagnesian minerals and its weathering products are dark colored heavy
soils with high specific gravity (black soils or verti soils) and pumice which is very light
weight rock which has a lower specific gravity than water as a result it floats on the
water. In composition it is comparable to granite and in texture is like a sponge.
2. Sedimentary rock: these are composed of weathering products of igneous and
metamorphic rocks and are formed after deposition by wind and /or water.
There are three major groups of sedimentary rocks:
1. Clastic sedimentary rocks: these are composed of fragments of the more resistant
minerals, depending on the size of the deposited material (conglomerate, sand, silt and
clay) different Clastic sedimentary rocks are developed. Examples are the following
Sand stones are cemented sands over 75% being quartz and lesser quantities of smaller
particles (< 0.005 mm in diameter).sandstones weathered to produce sandy soils.
Sedimentary quartizites are silica cemented sands in which the cement is as hard as sand.
Conglomerates and breccias are formed from various – sized fragments cemented
together.
Shales are consolidated clays and silts (0.05-0.002mm) with various amount of
cementation. Sedimentary rocks with a high fraction of clay were originated by
deposition of clays in slow running water. The clays are shaped like flat leaflets and
therefore under pressure they become stratified to form clay slate (shale). Soil formed on
clay slate do have a high content of bases, but they are less permeable due to high clay
content and difficult to use in agricultural production. Shales, how ever, are not very
resistant to weathering.
2-Chemical sedimentary rocks
These are formed by precipitation or flocculation from solution, most commonly
limestone and chalks. Limestones are calcium carbonate or mixture of calcium and
magnesium carbonates, clays, silts, and sands with more than 50% of the mass as
carbonates. Limestones are high in calcium and soils developed from limestone are
usually fine textured. Dolomites (Dolostones) are similar to limestone, but have more
magnesium carbonate as part of the carbonate mixture.
3-Biogenic sedimentary rocks
They develop when organisms living in oceans or lakes die, sink down and become
consolidated. Examples are shell limestone and marl with mollusk shells. These are high
in calcium.
3. Metamorphic rocks
Igneous and sedimentary rocks that are subjected to intense heat and great pressure are
transformed in to metamorphic rocks. Change in mineralogy and rock structure generally
renders the metamorphosed rock more resistant to weathering, but they weather to
produce similar soils. Common metamorphic rocks include:

1- Gneiss is a metamorphosed ingenious/sedimentary rock mainly from light

colored igneous rocks. The minerals in this rock are segregated and oriented
to form light and dark bands and consists of layers of coarse grains, usually
quartz or field spars, alternating with layers of fine grained minerals.
2- Schist is foliated (appears flaky or layered); comprised of many rocks or
minerals, especially micas (mica schist).
3- Slate: hardened shale or silt stone.
4- Quartzite: recrystallized quartizitic sand stone, formed by heat and pressure;
very slow to weather; produces sandy, shallow soils.
5- Marble the metamorphosed equivalent of lime stone or dolomite hardened to
polish; easily decomposed.

Table some of the more important sedimentary and metamorphic rocks and the minerals
commonly dominant in them.
Sedimentary rocks Dominant mineral metamorphic rocks Dominant mineral
Lime stone Calcite(CaCO3) Gneiss (varies)a
Dolomite Dolomite Schist (varies)a
[Ca,Mg(CO3)2]
Sandstone Quartz (SiO2) Quartzite Quartz (SiO2)
Shale Clays Slate Clays
Conglomerate (varies)b Marble Calcite(CaCO3)

a- the minerals present are determined by the original rock which has been changed by
metamorphism. Primary minerals present in the igneous rocks dominate these rocks,
although some secondary minerals are also present.
b-small stones of various mineralogical make up will be cemented in to conglomerate.
2.3 Weathering and soil formation
Weathering in general refers to a group of processes by which surface rocks disintegrates
in to smaller particles or dissolved in water as it comes in contact with the atmosphere,
the hydrosphere and the biosphere. Rocks at the earths surface are usually covered
partially or completely by a layer of loose /un consolidated/ material called Regolith (the
unconsolidated mantle of weathered rock and soil material on the earths surface; loose
earth material above solid rock).the upper part of the regolith being weathered can
generally be designated as parent material (the un consolidated and more or less
chemically weathered minerals or organic matter from which the solum of soils is
developed by pedogenic process ).the following indicates the general direction of
weathering.

Rock SFF parent material SFF immature soils SFF mature soils.
SFP SFP

SFF= soil forming factors, SFP = soil forming processes

The weathering processes can be grouped in to two categories
1- physical weathering/Disintegration/
2- chemical weathering(decomposition)
2.3.1-PHYSICAL WEATHERING
The disintegration of the parent material in to smaller and smaller pieces with no change
in mineral structure or composition is called physical weathering. the smaller pieces
retains most of the characteristics of the parent material. Only the grain sizes become
smaller and smaller, but compositions are not changed and no new material are formed.
PHYSICAL PROCESSES OF WEATHERING
There are several processes of weathering.
1-Abration:-Water carrying suspended rock fragments has scouring on surface. The
grinding action of glaciers, gravels, pebbles and boulders moved along a constantly
abraded by fast flowing streams.
2-wetting and drying:-Water penetrates in to rocks and react with their constituent
minerals.
3-freezing and thawing:-When water is trapped in the rock crevice and pores of a rock
and is subjected to repeatedly freezing and thawing resulting in forces of expansion and
contraction. The water near the rock surface, exposed to the cold air, freezes first,
exerting pressure on the water remaining in the rock crevices and pores. This produces
the mechanical effect of a wedge on the rock. This process is called frost wedging. The
pressure resulting from the growth of ice crystal with in rocks is sufficiently high to crack
rocks apart. Water expends about 9% with freezing.
4-thermal expansion and contraction of minerals:-Rocks are composed of different
kinds of minerals. When heated up by solar radiation, each different mineral will expand
and contract a different amount at different rate with surface temperature fluctuations.
With time, the stresses produced are sufficient to weaken the bonds along grain
boundaries, and thus flaking of fragments.

5 – Release of confining pressure:-Many of the rocks at ht e earth’s surface were

formed at considerable depth and later were uncovered by erosion of the over lying rock
material. Deeply buried rocks are subjected to high and equal pressure on all sides. The
vertical pressure lessens progressively as more and more the over lying rocks are
removed by erosion. This release of pressure allows the compressed rock to expand in the
vertical direction, forming curved sheets parallel to the earth’s surface. The formation of
curved sheets of rocks by release of pressure is called exfoliation. Exfoliation results in
the formation of rounded features called exfoliation domes.
6-crystalization (salt crystal growth):-In arid environments water evaporated at the
surface of rocks and crystals form from dissolved minerals. Over time, the crystals grow
(expand their volume) and exert of force great enough to separate mineral grains and
break up rocks.
7-animals and plants living organism):-The growth of plant and tree roots in to rock
crevices pries apart the rock in a process called root wedging. Burrowing animals and
extensions of plant roots help in the formation of regolith by physically displacing rock
particles and increasing the volume of openings in the regolith. These new openings
allow more oxygen and water to penetrate the regolith, increasing the effect of chemical
weathering.
In general, the main forces of physical weathering involved in all of the above processes
are ware, ice, wind, and temperature change as well as plant and animals.

2.3.2-CHEMICAL WEATHERING
The decomposition of the original parent material, forming new mineral and soluble
substance, is called chemical weathering. Chemical weathering consists of a number of
reactions in which the ions that make up minerals combined with the ions of atmosphere
and hydrosphere. In chemical weathering /decomposition/ definite chemical change takes
place, soluble materials are released, and new minerals are synthesized or are left as
resistant end products. The most common reactions in chemical weathering involve the
addition of water, carbon dioxide, and oxygen to rocks and sediments at the earth’s
surface.

Chemical Processes of Weathering

I. Hydrolysis: is the reaction of minerals with water. The most important way by which
chemical breakdown of rocks takes place. It is a decomposition reaction.
E.g. KAlSi3O8 (microcline) + 8H2O  HAlSi3 O8 + KOH
2HAlSi3O8 + 8H2O  Al2O3 3H2O + 6H2Sl O3 (These two may re-crystallize as Kaolinite
or remain as oxides)
 KOH  K+ + OH-

II. Hydration: involves the rigid attachment of H and OH ions to the compound
being attacked. The water may hasten other decomposition processes by moving in the
lattice.

E.g. 2FeO3 + 3H2O  Fe2O3.3H2O

Hematite Limonite
(Red) (Yellow)
III. Carbonation and other Acidic processes: Hydrogen ions in percolating (carbonic)
acidic water are effective in disintegration and decomposition of mineral matter.
E.g. CaCO3 + H2CO3  CO (HCO3)2
Soluble
Other stronger acids like HNO3 and H2SO4 and some organic acids have similar effects.
Hydrogen of the acids replaces the bases.

E.g. Ca AlSi2O8 + H Soil particle  H2AlSi2O8 + Ca Soil Particle

IV. Oxidation: manifests in rocks carrying ion, which is easily oxidized.
E.g. 3Mg FeSiO4 + 2H2O  H4Mg3Si2O2 + SiO2 + 3FeO
Olivine Serpentine Ferrous
Oxide

4FeO + O2  2Fe2O3

Hematite
V. Solution: Solvent action of water and the ions it carries hastens weathering.
Examples have already been given of the action of dissolved CO 2 on calcite,
dissolution of KOH,

Generally, chemical can occur at the soil surface, in the solum or below the solum. Based
on this two types of chemical weathering are distinguished:
 Pedochemical weathering – chemical weathering with in the solum.
  Geochemical weathering – weathering below the solum.

In summary:
 Physical weathering is caused by physical stresses with in the rock or minerals. It
causes the rock to disintegrate in to smaller sized material, with out changing the
chemical composition.
 Chemical weathering is caused by chemical reaction and definite chemical
changes occur in the weathering products.
Factors Affecting Weathering of Minerals
1) Climatic Conditions: Climate determines the kind and rate of weathering that takes
place. Under low rainfall condition, mechanical processes dominate resulting in a
decrease in particle size with little change in composition. More moisture
encourages both mechanical and chemical weathering. Weathering rates are rapid in
humid tropical areas. Consequently, hydrous oxides dominate. Climate also
controls vegetation type and cover.
2) Physical Characteristics: Particle size, hardness, and degree of cementation are three
physical characteristics that influence weathering. In rocks, large crystals of different
minerals encourage disintegration due to variation in the amount of expansion and
contraction occurring as temperature changes. Finer grained materials are apparently
more resistant to mechanical break down but more susceptible to decomposition. A
dense quartzite or sandstone cemented firmly by a slowly weathered mineral will
resist mechanical breakdown and present a small amount of total surface area for
chemical activity. Porous rocks such as volcanic ash are obviously easily weathered.
3) Chemical and Structural characteristics: Gypsum is easily weathered because of
its solubility. Calcite dissolves by the action of acid water (mainly carbonic acid).
Ferro-magnesia’s are easily weathered compared to silica and others. Structurally
tight minerals are less easily weathered than looser ones. E.g. Zircon and muscovite
are tighter than olivine. The weathering sequence of minerals has been indicated to be
in the opposite direction to Bowen’s crystallization series:
 Quartz Resistant


Muscovite

(Potassium feldspar)

Ca x Na feldspars

Biotite, hornblende

Olivine
 Easily weathered
Dolomite and calcite

Gypsum

Fig. Weathering sequence of some major rock minerals.

CHAPTER - THREE
SOIL FORMATION AND PROFILE DEVELOPMENT
3.1 Factors of Soil Formation
At any specific location on the surface of the earth at least 5 factors are acting
simultaneously to produce the soil.
These are:
 Nature of parent material (texture, structure chemical and minerals
composition)
 Time that the parent materials are subjected to soil formation

 Relief (Topography)
 Living organisms ( especially the native vegetation)
 Climate (particularly temperature and precipitation)
1.2&3 are passive factors while 4&5are active factors.
All these factors have not of equal importance in development of the different soils, some
of them may be more effective in determining the nature of soils under a particular set of
conditions or all of them are interrelated and components to each other.
 Arid soils: arid region soils .Climate is dominant factor.
 Entisoils: young soils with no horizon development. Time is dominant factor.
 Moll soils: very rich in organic matter content. vegetation is dominant factor

The passive soil forming factors are those which represent the source of soil forming
mass and conditions affecting it. These provide a base on which the active soil forming
factors work or act for the development of soil, such factors are the parent material, relief
& time.
The active soil forming factors are those which supply energy that act on the mass for the
purpose of soil formation.

Jenny (1941) expressed the relation ship of these five factors to the soil properties by the
equation.
S= f (p, cl, r, o, t……) (3.1)

S= any soluble properties, organic matter, soil ph, texture.

F=function of or dependent on.
The dots indicate that factors of lesser importance such as mineral accession from the
atmosphere, or fire, might need to be taken in to account. Equation 3.1 assumes that there
is a causal relationship between S and the soil forming factors. Jenny 1980 redefine the
soil forming factors as ‘state’ variables and included ecosystem properties, vegetation and
animal properties as well as soil properties. Parent material and relief defines the initial
state for soil development, climate and organisms determine the rate at which chemical
and biological reactions occur in the soil (the pedogenic processes), and time measures
the extent to which a reaction will have proceeded. There is a logical progression: of
environment (i.e. the soil forming factors) processes soil properties underlying
the soil formation.
To simplify the application of equation 3.1 it has been practiced to solve it for changes in
a soil properties S when only one of the control variables (e.g. climate) varies, the other
being constant or nearly so. The relation ship is then called a climofunction-
(climate=control variable):
S=f (cl) o, r, p, t… (3.2)
And the range of soils formed is called climosquence.similarly, where other soil-forming
factors are the predominant controlling variable, we have:
 Organisms – a bio sequence
 Topography – a topo sequence
 Parent material – a litho sequence
 Time – a chrono sequence

1. Parent material: is the material from which soil is developed. It is the initial
stage of the soil system at time t=0. It is a basic factor for soil formation and its texture is
an important element in the process of soil formation.
Types of parent material
A. According to composition.
I. Homogenous – mechanically homogenous such as products of weathering of igneous
rocks rusting on the bed rock.
II.Hetrogenous – mixture of sedimentary deposits.
B. According to nature of parent material.
I. Organic- in wet environment (such as swamps or marshes) incomplete decomposition
may allow organic parent material to accumulate from the residues of vegetation, peat
and woody peat.
II. In organic – residual weathered materials from rock are transported from one location
and deposited in other location.
C.According to mode of origin:
I. Residual or sedentary: insitu formation or formed in place from weathering of
underlying rock.
II. Transported: transported by various agencies of transportation.
Some examples are:
 Alluvium: a deposit material, of which some of the fertile land in the world
consists, carried in suspension by a river. Its Size ranges from clay to very
large boulders.
 Colluvium: crudely stratified material on slope formed by soil creep or flow.
Gravity is the main agent of transportation here.
 Dune Sands: Coarse sand formed by wind into ridges of various shapes. They
are common along coasts and in arid areas.
 Glacial Drift (Moraine): The debris deposited by a melting glacier, it can
vary widely in particle size and usually contains a mixture of rock types. It
covers a large part of the Northern Hemisphere.
 Lacustrine Clays: Fine materials sediment at the bottom of lakes and now
exposed at the surface due to a change in the nature of the drainage.
 Loess: a deposit of fine material transported by wind, it is usually buff
colored, unstratified and forms vertical walls. It can originate from deserts or
melted glaciers.
 Marine Clays: fine material sediment at the bottom of the sea and now
exposed at the surface due to change in sea level.
 Pedi-sediments: material deposited by surface-wash on long, gently sloping
plains. They consist of old soil material such as quartz, gravel and concretions
and are very common in tropical and sub-tropical countries.
 Raised Beaches: beach deposits that are now above the present high-water
mark. They are very common in coastal situations.
 Solifluction Deposits: Crudely stratified deposits on slopes, they are formed
in a cold climate as a result of alternating freezing and thawing causing mass
movement down the slope.
  Volcanic Ash: A deposit of fine particles of lava ejected during an eruption.
They occur very close to the volcano, but they may be more than 100km away
in case of aggressive eruption.

D. According to mineralogical composite of the parent material.

The more appropriate classification of parent material from soil point of view is based on
the mineralogical composition and chemical properties of the minerals.
E.g. Quartisite: generally produced sandy soil, carry gravels highly eroded soil.
Granitic: develop light coloured sandy soils.
Basaltic: develop dark coloured clay soils.
Limestonic: develop dark coloured clay soils.

2. CLIMATE: is the most important factors controlling the type and rate of soil
formation because it acts on parent material and determines the nature and intensity of
weathering.
The principal climate variables affecting soil formation are the precipitation (rain fall)
and temperature. Both of them affect the chemical, physical and biological processes.
The precipitation affects the rate of leaching, erosion, drainage and soil moisture content.
The temperature affects: the rate of organic matter decomposition, microbial activities,
soil coloure and oxidation reduction reactions.
Van Hoff (1884) law states that for every 10o rise in temperature the speed of a chemical
reaction increases by a factor of two.
There are factors that affect soil temperature:
- The diurnal and seasonal variations
- Soil depth
- Aspect
- Latitude
- Altitude
Arid climate: low rain fall, less leaching, dry soil, salt affected and low vegetable.
Humid climate: high rain fall, more leaching, thick vegetation and deep soil.
Temperate climate: low temperature, less organic matter decomposition and acidic soils.
Tropical and sub tropical: warm to hot humid with isothermal conditions.
Generally, climate also influences the soil formation indirectly through its effect on
vegetation.

3. TIME: Soil forming processes take time to show their effect. Recent soil deposits
show little soil development where as land surfaces exposed for thousands of years may
have well developed profiles that are quite different.
Soil formation is a slow process requires thousands of years to develop a nature pedon
under ideal condition .under less favorable condition it may take more time, 1” soil
formation may take from 200-1000 years.
The pedologists think in terms of horizon or solo and profiles but not in terms of inches
or centimeter. Hence, instead of old and young soils, pedologists call them as mature and
immature soils or indicate the degree of maturity. Soil properties change with time hence,
soil matures with time.
Theoretically, soils may be in equilibrium with the environment with out having marked
profile features and vice versa. Soils may have well developed profiles with out being in
equilibrium with the environment. Hence, maturity of soil is not a steady state but rather
is a changing one. All components of soil do not approach maturity at the same time.

And the criteria of soil maturity is ds/dt =0 where, S is soil property and is in
equilibrium with the environment and d is indicatrix no longer change in time.
Another approach is that when the percolation rate of water in soil is zero, the soil is in a
state of rust .How ever, absence of percolation does not definitely proved the maturity of
soil or less percolation more maturity.
The soil properties considered in relation to maturity are soil ph, organic matter content,
clay accumulation, lime or CaCO3, horizons and magnitude of elluvial and illuvial
horizons. Estimation of relative age or degree of maturity of soils is based on horizon
differentiation. The larger the no of the horizons, the greater their thickness and intensity
the more mature the soil.

4. BIOTIC FACTOR OR LIVING ORGANISMS

Nearly every organism living on the surface of the earth or in the soil affects the
development of soils in one way or another. The actions of living organisms include
organic matter accumulation, profile mixing by animals, nutrient cycling by all, structural
stability of soils, etc. The organisms can be grouped as higher plants, vertebrates,
microorganisms, micro fauna and mesofauna.
The most influential aspect of higher plants is the role of roots, the addition of organic
matter, the extraction water and nutrients from the soil. Plant roots act as binders and
prevent soil from erosion. They grow into the cracks of rocks forcing the rocks to break
apart. Besides, the die and decompose there adding organic matter to the interior of the
soil. Litter fall, from leaves and trunks, also contribute significant amount of organic
matter to the soil surface thereby changing the properties of the soil. Plants extract water
and nutrients from the soil body. This leads to the loss of ions from the soil and rapid loss
of water from the soil. The losses in turn affect the physical and the bio-chemical
properties of the soil.
Few mammals, vertebrates, including rabbits, moles, prairie dogs dig down into the soil
mixing the profile considerably. Uncontrolled grazing by animals also leads to
susceptibility of the soil to erosion. The addition of organic matter as waste products and
dead bodies from animals should not be ignored as well. Recently, human influence on
soils is stepping up rapidly because of industrialization and intensive agriculture. Human
beings influence soil to the extent that a different soil type is the result.
The predominant micro organisms in the soil are bacteria, fungi, actinomycetes, algae
and viruses. The distribution of these micro organisms in soils is determined largely by
the presence of food supply. Consequently, their number is greatest in the surface
horizons. However, the type and number of micro organisms that occur in soils are
determined by temperature and moisture. Micro organisms play considerable role in the
decomposition of organic matter and other bio-chemical reactions.

Earthworms, nematodes, mites, millipedes, etc are some of the mesofauna that are present
in soils. Their distribution is determined almost entirely by their food supply.
Consequently, they are concentrated in the top 2-5cm; only few, such as earthworms,
penetrate below 10-20cm. They are concerned largely with the ingestion and
decomposition of organic matter, and mineral matter in some cases. They also transport
materials from one place to another and in so doing they produce drainage passages.
5. RELIEF OR TOPOGRAPHY: In equalities of the land surface considered
collectively is known as relief. The topography relates to the configuration of the land
surface and is described in terms of differences in slop and landscape position.
Topography a factor of soil formation is an arbitrary designation; actually it is a condition
influencing the soil formation in many important ways.
The work of topography may be to hasten or delay the work of climatic forces. There is a
definite interaction among topography, vegetation and soil. Topography is not static but
dynamic, as all land surfaces are constantly changing through weathering and erosion, the
study of which is known as geomorphology. Topography influences soils in such a way
that on flat or gently sloping sites there is the tendency for materials to remain in place
and for the soil to be thick but as the slope increases so does the erosion hazard, resulting
in tiny stony soils on strongly sloping lands. Topography also influences the drainage
and the amount of moisture in the soil.
Soil properties affected by relief
 Depth of the soil
 Thickness and organic matter content of the horizon
 Relative wetness of the profile
 Degree of horizon differentiation
 Soil reaction
 Soil colour
 Soluble salt content of the soil
 Temperature
 Kind and degree of pan(hard layer) formation
 Characteristics of the initial parent material.

Catena or Hydro-sequence: soils commonly occur in groups with each member of the
group occupying a characteristic position. When each of the soils occurs on similar parent
material, vegetation but in a different hydro sequential position from the top to the
bottom of a slope, the group of the soil is called Catena or Hydro-sequence.

3.2 Soil profiles and its major horizons

3.2.1 SOIL PROFILE
A soil profile is a vertical section through the soil in the field. A soil profile has a distinct
morphological appearance that varies gradually with distance. To represent an individual
soil, soil profile has to be wide enough to show lateral variation and deep enough to show
the underlying unconsolidated or consolidated layers that influence (have influenced) the
genesis and behavior of the soil.
The development of soil profile may result in layers of distinct characteristics or
homogeneous single soil stand. The process of forming the first kind of profile is called
horizonation and will be seen in detail hereunder. The process leading to the formation of
the homogeneous type of profile is called haploidization. Mixing by burrowing animals,
self-mixing, as in the case of vertisols are the phenomena leading to haploidization.
Most soil profiles, as stated above, show layers approximately parallel to the soil's
surface, soil horizon. Soil profile is different from geologic column. Generally, soil
Profile develops through disintegration and synthesis of minerals, addition and
transformation of organic matter, nutrient Leaching, and all action of water.
3.2.2 SOIL HORIZON
The processes of soil change discussed earlier lead to the formation layers with distinct
features. These layers, parallel to the ground surface, are termed as soil horizons.
The soil horizons can be designated either by the ABC system or by 1, 2, 3… system, or
by their depth range. They can also be named by a more quantitative method, which will
later be discussed under soil classification, as it is part of distinguishing features of a soil
type.
Here, the ABC system will be discussed. In this system, there are head (master) horizons
that are designated as O, A, E, B, and C. They are also sub divided in to smaller layers.

Master Horizons

There are 5 master horizons in the soil profile. Not all soil profiles contain all 5
horizons; and so, soil profiles differ from one location to another. The 5 master horizons
are represented by the letters: O, A, E, B, and C.
O: The O horizon is a surface horizon that is comprised of organic material at various
stages of decomposition. It is most prominent in forested areas where there is the
accumulation of debris fallen from trees.

A: The A horizon is a surface horizon that largely consists of minerals (sand, silt, and
clay) and with appreciable amounts of organic matter. This horizon is predominantly the
surface layer of many soils in grasslands and agricultural lands.

E: The E horizon is a subsurface horizon that has been heavily leached. Leaching is the
process in which soluble nutrients are lost from the soil due to precipitation or irrigation.
The horizon is typically light in color. It is generally found beneath the O horizon.

B: The B horizon is a subsurface horizon that has accumulated from the layer(s) above. It
is a site of deposition of certain minerals that have leached from the layer(s) above.

C: The C horizon is a subsurface horizon. It is the least weathered horizon. Also known
as the saprolite, it is unconsolidated, loose parent material.

The master horizons may be followed by a subscript to make further distinctions between
differences within one master horizon.
Figure 7. A portrayal of the horizons within the profile of a typical forest soil. Forests
soils tend to have 5 layers, including a surface layer of decomposing plant debris, as well
of a zone of leaching.
Source: http://courses.missouristate.edu/ejm893f/creative/glg110/Weathering.html
 DATING OF HORIZONS AND PROFILES

Has been done by:

1. Carbon dating (C14 method) organic matter, charcoal, fossil
Half life- 6000years.
2. Depth of leaching of carbonates.
100 cm depth – 2300 years old
150 cm depth – 9800 years old
213 cm depth – 32,000 years old.

3.3. Pedogenic Processes

During formation of soil from parent material, the regolith under goes profound changes
by variation in four broad soil forming processes /pedogenic processes.
Those are: I. Addition II. Losses / removal
III. Translocation IV. Transformation

I. Addition: Input of materials to the developing soil profile from out side sources are
considered as addition. This includes organic matter from fallen plant residues, roots,
dust particles and dissolved salts from irrigation and under ground water.
Good example is addition of organic matter that creates black layer at the soil surface;
mineral matter may also be added.
II. Losses / removal: This may be explained by losses of salts from the soil by
drainage. It also includes losses by surface erosion.
III. Translocation: This process involves the movement of in organic and organic
materials laterally with in a horizon or vertically from one horizon up or down to other
horizon.
E.g. Movement of clay particles, organic matter, ions, etc from A to B-horizon. It can
also be movement of materials from subsoil upwards.
IV. Transformation: In this process Mineral and organic matters change their form
and composition. The changes can be physical alteration or chemical modification
usually resulting in new products or mine
 CHAPTER – FOUR
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF SOILS
The physical properties of soils are extremely important in determining how soils can
and should be used. They range from the properties that determine soil suitability for
foundation to the production of different crop plants. The physical properties of soils
include the soil texture, soil structure, soil consistency, soil colour, particle and bulk
density, pore space, soil water, soil air and temperature.

4.1Soil texture
Soil texture is concerned with the size of mineral particles. It refers to the relative
proportion of particles of various sizes in a given soil. The size of particles in a
mineral soil is not readily subjected to change due to this the soil texture is considered
as a basic property of a soil. Mineral particles are usually separated into convenient
groups based on their size, for the ease of study. Such groups are called soil
separates. Three primary soil separates are widely recognized: sand, silt and clay.
A number of different classifications have been devised by different institutions (e.g.
British Standards Institution, International Society of Soil Science, United States
Department of Agriculture, United States Public Road Administration) of which two are
widely adopted. Either of the two classification methods can be used for the purpose of
study.
 International Society of Soil Science (ISSS) made the following classification for soil
separates:
< 0.002mm Clay
0.002-0.02mm Silt
0.02-0.2mm fine sand
0.2-2mm coarse sand
 United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) made more classes in the following
size ranges:
< 0.002mm Clay
0.002-0.05mm silt
0.05-0.10mm Very Fine Sand
0.10-0.25mm Fine Sand
 0.25-0.5mm medium sand
0.5-1.0mm coarse sand
1.0-2.0mm very coarse sand

Analytical Procedure
Soil particles of various sizes are separated by a procedure known as mechanical
analysis. A sample of soil is broken up and the very fine and larger sand fractions are
separated by sieving. The silt and clay fraction are then determined by methods that
depend upon the rate of settling of these two separates from suspension. The principle is
that when soil particles are suspended in water they tend to sink, and the rapidity of
settling is roughly proportional to their size

Soil textural class

Individual soil separates do not constitute a soil in the field. Their mixture constitutes a
soil. Soil textural class names have become standardized to express the variation of soils
in composition of the different sized particles (sand, silt and clay).
There are three basic soil textural names. Their combination gives twelve soil textural
classes:
A. SAND contains >70% sand by weight. It is not sticky and not heavy when ploughed.
Textural classes of such soils are Sand and Loamy Sand.
B. CLAY contains >35 or 40 % clay separate by weight. It feels sticky and heavy when
ploughed.
Textural classes: Clay, Silty Clay, and Sandy Clay.
C. LOAM: Exhibits heavy and light properties in about equal proportions. It is
agriculturally important soil.
Textural classes: Loam, Sandy Loam, Silt Loam, Silty Clay Loam, Clay Loam, Sandy
Clay Loam.
The following table shows the soil textural names based on the sequence of the variation
in the field. The variation from sand to clay is very gradual and shows the very nature of
field condition.
Table 3.2 General terms used to describe soil texture in relation to basic soil textural
class names (USDA).

Common Texture Basic soil textural class

names names
Sandy Soils Coarse Sandy
Loamy sand
Loamy Soils Moderately Sandy Loam
Fine sandy Loam
coarse
Medium Very Fine Sandy Loam
Loam
Silt Loam
Silt
Moderately Clay Loam
Sandy Clay Loam
Fine
Silty Clay Loam
Clayey Soils Fine Sandy Clay
Silty Clay
Clay

Textural class name is normally given after the proportion of the different soil separates
is known. For easy representation, soil textural triangle has been devised. Sand Silt and
Clay take each of the sides of the triangle. After knowing the percentage of each of the
soil separates their textural class name is sought in the textural triangle.
(A scanned map of textural triangle)
Fig.5. Soil textural triangle

4.2 Soil Structure

Soil structure is the arrangement of soil particles into groupings. These groupings are
called peds or aggregates, which often form distinctive shapes typically found within
certain soil horizons. For example, granular soil particles are characteristic of the surface
horizon.
Soil aggregation is an important indicator of the workability of the soil. Soils that are well
aggregated are said to have “good soil tilth.” The various types of soil structures are
provided below.

4.3 Soil consistence& Soil Colour

4.3.1 Soil consistence is a term used to describe the physical condition of a soil at
various moisture contents, as evidenced by the behaviour of that soil towards mechanical
stresses or manipulations. It is basically described at three moisture levels: wet, moist
and dry.
 Wet: two parameters are used here, the stickiness (non-sticky, slightly sticky, sticky
and very sticky) and the plasticity (non-plastic, slightly plastic, plastic and very
plastic).
 Moist: is the most important since it best describes the condition of soils when they
are tilled in the field. It is the measure of the resistance of the soil to crushing
between the thumb and the forefinger. Terms used are:
 Loose ----------- non-coherent
 Very friable --- coherent but very easily crushed
 Friable------------easily crushed
 Firm ------------- crushed under moderate pressure
 Very firm -------- crushes only under strong pressure
 Extremely firm ---resistant to crush between thumb and forefinger.
Texturally speaking sandy soils tend to be loose and clay soils tend to be extremely
firm. However, moist consistence depends upon the moisture level.
 Dry Consistence: is related to the attraction of the particles to each other. The
following terms are used:
 Loose ----- non-coherent
 Soft------- breaks under slight pressure between thumb and forefinger to a
powdery mass.
 Slightly hard ----- breaks under moderate pressure
 Hard -------- breaks with difficulty under pressure
 Very hard --- very resistant to pressure; can not be broken between thumb and
forefinger.
 Extremely hard ---- extreme resistance to pressure. It needs a hammer to break.
4.3.2 Soil Colour
Soil colour is an indication of soil conditions. It does not greatly affect the soil. Looking
at the soil colour some judgements may be made about the soil condition according to
the following brief indications.
Munsell soil colour chart
The Munsell system describes colour in terms of Hue (the basic colour), Value
(lightness) and chroma (the purity of the colour).
The Hue is the first number followed by the colour designation.
In the Munsell system the value for white is assigned the number 10 and for black 0.
The chroma increases from left (1) to right (8).
How ever, not all colours in the Munsell system are used to describe soil colour.
The typical Munsell colour chart for soils cover only those colours described as being
yellow or red or some combination of the two. This is not to say that other colours do
not occur in soil.
It is common to find grey soils in which no Hue occurs, and in this case only the value
and chroma are indicated.
I. Brown to black colour: results from organic matter or dark parent material. An
experienced expert may specify the cause from the odour of the soil, of course.
High level of organic matter in a waterlogged area has a sour, oily smell. In a
well-drained area it has earthy smell. A dark parent material gives a faint chalky
smell.
II. White to light grey: results when organic matter has been leached down of
sandy soils and E-horizons. Can also be caused by the accumulation of lime,
gypsum and other light materials.
III. Yellow to Red: Is due to iron oxides most commonly in warm areas. Red colour
is from iron (Fe+3) oxides where there is good drainage for the aeration (oxygen
supply). Yellow colour results from an iron oxide that includes some water
(limonite), i.e. slightly less well drained.
IV. Bluish grey: results from un oxidized iron, indicates lack of oxygen
4.4 Particle and bulk densities and pore space of soils

Density of Mineral soil

Density of a material is the mass of a unit volume of that material. This holds true for
soils as well. However, the density of mineral soil is expressed in two different forms.
Particle density is the mass per unit volume of soil solids (g/cm3). Particle Density
depends on the type of the mineral that constitutes the soil and the organic matter content
of the soil. Usually its value for mineral soils falls in the range between 2.6 and 2.75
g/cm3. With an average value of 2.65 g/cm3.
Bulk density is the mass of the solid soil per total volume of the soil.

Pore space of mineral soils

Pore space is that portion of a soil occupied by air and water. The arrangement of the
solid particles determines the pore space. Its volume is the difference between the total
volume and the volume of soil solids.
bulkdensity
%Solid space = particledensity * 100

bulkdensity
%Pore space = 100 - %solid space = 100- particledensity * 100

Porosity of a soil depends upon particle size, depth, organic matter content and
management. Generally, sandy soils are less porous than clay soils. The higher the
organic matter contents of the soil, the higher its porosity. This is attributed to the
granulation and aggregate stability of the soil, which create pores in between the
aggregates. As depth increases, porosity decreases as organic matter content decreases,
and force of compaction increases due to the weight of the soil above it. Though
cultivation increases porosity at the beginning, frequent cultivation lowers porosity as it
destroys the granules and creates compaction.

Size of pores: Soil pores do not have uniform size. Depending on their size, soil pores
can be classified in to three groups.
 Micro pores: - air movement is restricted while water moves slowly in
capillaries. Part of this water can be taken by plant roots.

The size of Micro pores is …………<30 µm

  Meso pores: are effective in conducting water also after the macro pores have
become empty.
The size of Meso pores is………... 30-100 µm

 Macro pores :- allow the movement of air and water freely

They soon dry after the cession of water supply
They affect aeration and drainage
The size of Macro pores is………>100µm

4.5 Soil water

Importance of soil water:-
 Water is needed for Evapotranspiration consumption of plants (Crops)
 water is solvent and makes soil solution ( With nutrients)
 water is a constituent of plant body
 water controls Soil air and temperature
 water is active agent in soil erosion
Water molecule is a compound formed from two hydrogen atoms and one Oxygen atom.
The structural arrangement of a water molecule is not linear. It is rather V-shaped
resulting in polarity of the molecule, the hydrogen side being electropositive and the
oxygen side being electronegative. The angle subtended in the V-shape is 105o.

H+ 1050 Electropositive
7 H

O= electronegative

Retention of Soil water

The concept of retention practically refers to the moisture holding by soil particles.
Two forces largely account for the retention of water by the soils.
Cohesion: attraction of water molecules for each other controls the retention movement
and utilization of water in soils.
Adhesion: attraction of solid surfaces for water.
The tension with which water is hold will vary with the distance of the water molecule
from the soil solids.

1. Maximum retention capacity- is attained when all the pores in the soil are filled
with water, saturated. It happens to the topsoil after heavy rain or irrigation. Here,
the matric suction is essentially zero.

2. Field capacity- If the water supply in the above case is cut off, after a day or so, the
Macro pores will be filled by air while the Micro pores still contain water. Water
will, then, flows very slowly. It is at this level that plants take up the water actively
and the soil is said to be at its field capacity. Its matric suction varies from soil to
soil (0.1-0.2 bar).
3. Wilting Coefficient- The water at the field capacity will dissipate rapidly through
evapotranspiration and direct evaporation from the soil. If not replenish (refill),
plants start to wilt during daytime followed by night. If the condition persists the
plants remain wilted day and night; i.e. they exist in a permanently wilted condition.
At this time the suction value is about 15 bars. The soil moisture content at this time
is called wilting coefficient or critical moisture. For normal growth of plants, the
moisture content of the soil should be kept above this level.

4. Hygroscopic coefficient- Further drying of the soil will lead to the retention of only
water molecules held around soil particles or colloids, as adsorbed moisture. The
water can only move in a vapor form. The matric suction at this point is 31 bars.
Clay and humus hold much more water than sandy soil of this condition because of
their greater surface area.

Soil Moisture Contents versus Suction

There is an inverse relationship between the water content of soil and the suction or
tension with which the water is held. There are many factors, which affect the
relationship of texture, structure and Hysteresi phenomena. The following curve depicts
the influence of texture.

Suction (bars or atmosphere)

Desorption curve (slowly drying the soil)

Clay
Sorption curve (slowly
wetting the soil)

Sand Loam

Soil Water Content (g/100g soil)

The curves are smooth (no-sharp breaks) showing that the decrease versus increase is
gradual. Besides, two facts can be drawn from the figure.
1. At a given suction, clay holds much more water than the other two soils.
2. At given moisture content, water is held much more tenaciously in the clay as
compared to the other two soils.
The influence of structure is that a well-granulated soil has more total pore spaces,
hence higher moisture holding capacity.
Hysteresis: The curve with a broken line is included to show the effect of hysteresis
phenomena. The raw definition of hysteresis is a lagging response to a cause.
Hysteresis here is a phenomenon occurring when soils are alternatively wetted and
dried. A number of factors cause this:
- The entrapment of air as a soil is re-wetted. This clogs some pores and prevents
effective contact among others.
- Soil colloids shrink upon drying and do not give the same kind of pore
configuration upon re-wetting.
The soil moisture-energy curves are important in the movement of water in soils and the
uptake and utilization of water by plants

Measuring Soil Moisture

There are two types of measurements for soil water: soil moisture content and soil
moisture potential.
The Soil Moisture Content is measured by Gravimetric method: a known weight of
moist soil sample is dried in an oven at 100 oC to 1100c and weighed again. The weight
lost is considered as that of the moisture evaporated through heating
Moisture content can be expressed in:
a) Mass percentage = Wt. of water X 100%
Wt. of dry soil
b) Volume percentage = Volume of waterX100%
Total volume of the soil sample
The volume percentage gives better picture of water available to roots.

Conventional Soil Moisture Classification Schemes

Two types of soil water classification have been developed.
I. Physical classification (Gravitational, capillary and hygroscopic): Water in excess of
the field capacity (0.1-0.2 bars) is termed gravitational. Capillary water is the water
held in micro pores and behaves according to the lows governing capillarity. It includes
most of the water taken up by growing plants exerts suctions between 0.1 and 31 bars.
Hygroscopic water is that bound tightly by the soil colloids at suction values greater than
31atm. Plants can not make use of this water but some microbes are found to be active.
II.Biological Classification (Available and Unavailable): Moisture retained in the soil
between the field capacity (0.1 -0.2 bar) and the permanent wilting coefficient is called
available water. Water held at tension greater than 15 bars is said to be unavailable to
plants.
4.6 Soil air and soil temperature
4.6.1 Soil Air
Sufficiently aerated soil must have at least two characteristics:
- Sufficient space devoid of solids and water
- Ample (plenty) opportunity for the ready movement of essential gases into and
out of these spaces.
Two biological reactions account for oxygen and carbon dioxide proportions and
amount in the soil:
- Respiration of higher plant roots
- The aerobic of organic residues by micro organisms
Problems of aeration in the field are caused by:
- Excess moisture
- Poor exchange of gases between the soil and the atmosphere which in turn
depends on the rate of biochemical reactions influencing the soil gases and the
actual rate at which each gas is moving into or out of the soil.
Effects of soil aeration on biological activities
I. On micro organisms: A decrease in the rate of organic matter oxidation results from
poor aeration because of the lack of oxygen, not excess CO2. Only anaerobic and
facultative organisms function properly under poor aeration.
II. On higher plants: Poor aeration results in the following phenomena in higher plants:
 The growth of the plants, especially root, is curtained.
 The absorption of nutrients is decreased.
 The absorption of water is decreased.
 The formation of certain inorganic compounds toxic to plant growth is facilitated.
III. On nutrient and Water: In poorly aerated condition, absorption of water and
nutrients decreases due to inefficiency of root respiration.
The most common remedies for poor aeration are removal of excess water, aggregation
(granulation) and breaking compacted layers.
4.6.2 Soil Temperature
Soil temperature is important because it influences the availability of nutrients,
absorption, transport of water, enzymatic activities of plants and micro organisms`` and
other metabolic processes.
There are a number of factors that determine soil temperature. These are:
 The net amount of heat the soil absorbs
 The heat energy required to bring a given change in the temperature of a soil.
 The energy required for changes such as evaporation.
Solar radiation depends fundamentally upon climate. But the amount of energy entering
the soil in addition affected by other factors such as soil colour and vegetation cover of
the site.

Chapter five
Soil Chemical properties
Introduction
Soil chemical properties deal with the nature of soil colloids (organic and inorganic).
Mainly the focuses of attention are their mineral and chemical composition, charges,
exchange of ions, reaction, salinity, and other properties. It is the chemical properties of
the soils that are rather important from the point of view of nutrient availability to plants.
As the most active part of the soil is the clay fraction, it is this soil separate, especially the
colloidal part that is given emphasis in this chapter. In addition to the clay the humus
fraction of the soil will also be emphasized.

5.1 THE SOIL COLLOID

Soil colloid includes particles with diameter less than 0.001mm in diameter. Not all clays
(diameter <0.002mm) are colloids.
Soil colloids are the sites within the soil where ions of essential mineral elements such as
calcium, potassium and sulphur are held and protected from excessive` loss by
percolating rain or irrigation water. Subsequently the essential ions can be withdrawn
from the colloidal bank sites and taken up by plant roots. These fine particles markedly
influence the soil structure formation and stability, and the retention and movement of
water, with their implications for the control of soil air and temperature.

General properties of soil colloids

Size
The most important common property of colloids is their extremely small size. They are
too small to be seen with an ordinary light microscope.
Surface area
Because of their small size, all soil colloids expose a large external surface per unit mass.
The total surface area of soil colloids ranges from 10m2/g for clays with only external
surfaces to more than 800m2/g for clays with extensive internal surfaces. Due to the high
surface area colloids have high capacity to retain nutrient and water.

Surface charges
Soil colloidal surfaces both external and internal, carry negative and/or positive charges.
For most soil colloids, electro negative charges predominate, although some mineral
colloids in very acid soils have a net electronegative charge. The presence and intensity
of the particle sizes influences the attraction and repulsion of the particles towards each
other, thereby, influencing both physical and chemical properties.
Adsorption of cat ions and water
The charges on soil colloids attract ions of opposite charge to the colloidal surfaces. Such
attraction is of particular significance for negatively charged colloids. The colloidal
particles referred to as micelles
(Micro cells), attract hundreds of thousands of positively charged ions or cat ions such as
H+, Al3+, Ca2+ Mg2+. Anions such as NO3-, Cl-, SO24- may also be adsorbed on some soil
colloids; however, the adsorption of anions is not as extensive as that of cat ions.

Plasticity – a soil with > 155 clay exhibits plasticity. There is a moisture limit, plastic
limit, on which the soil’s plasticity depends
Cohesion: due to the hydrogen bonding b/n clay surfaces and water and among the water
molecules, clay particles stick together.
 Montmorilonite > illite > kaolinite. Humus reduces the attraction of individual
clay particles for each other.
Swelling and shrinking
Montimorillonite > illite > kaolinite

Dispersion and flocculation.

Dispersion is the action when clay particles act completely independently – encouraged
by high PH where, Electro negativity is at maximum
Highly hydrated mono-valent ions such as Na+ which are not very tightly held by the
micelles help to stabilize dispersed colloids.
Flocculation, the opposite of dispersion, is a condition that is beneficial from the
agricultural point of view. It is the first step in the formation of stable aggregates or
granules the ability of common cat ions to flocculate soil colloids is in the order of:

TYPES OF SOIL COLLOIDS

There are four major types of soil colloids in soils:
I. layer silicates II. Iron and aluminium oxide clays
III.Allophane and associated clays and IV. Humus.
They can also be grouped into two broad categories as in-organic (clay minerals) and
organic (humus). However they naturally occur intermixed. There are two groups of
clays: the silicate clays, dominant in temperate areas and the iron and aluminium hydrous
oxides, dominant in tropics and semi-tropics.
I. Layer Silicate Clays
Silicate clay minerals are the dominant inorganic colloids in most soils, especially those
in temperate areas. Their most important properties are their layer like crystalline
structures and their negative charge. The layers are comprised of planes of closely packed
oxygen atoms held together by silicon, aluminium, magnesium, hydrogen and or iron
atoms that occupy spaces between the oxygens.E.g kaolinite
On the basis of the number and arrangement of tetrahedral (silica) and octahedral
(alumna) layers contained in the crystal units, silicate clays may be classified into four
groups:

1) 1:1 Type: (E. g. klaolinte, halloysitc, dickite, etc.) The sheets are held together by
shared oxygen atoms. Crystal units are held together by rigid hydrogen bonding. As the
lattice is fixed, there is no expansion. Besides, they:
 Have only external surface area
 Have little isomorphic substitution
 Have low CEC
 Are large in size
 Have very low plasticity, cohesion, shrinkage, and swelling.

2) 2:1 type expanding minerals: (E.g. montimorillonite and vermiculite). The sheets are
held together by shared oxygen or OH atoms. The lattices are held together by weak
oxygen to oxygen linkages. They:
 Have expansion of crystals by H2O entering in between
 Have internal surface area
 Have high CEC (high negative charges)
 Have high plasticity, cohesion, swelling-shrinkage
 Are small in size.
3) 2:1 type Non-expanding minerals: (e. g. the hydrous micas, mainly the illite). These
are similar to the above group but K ion fits between the crystal lattice resulting in no
expansion. Most of its properties lie between that of kaolinite and montimorillonite.

4) 2:2 type minerals: (e.g. chlorite, silicates of Mg with some Fe and Al). Here two
silica and two Mg make up the unit as a result of substitution. In most of its
properties it is similar to illite.

Sources of the Negative Charges in silicate clays

The negative charges on the surface of the silicate clays are originated from two sources:
A) Exposed crystal edges: Unsatisfied valences at the broken edges of the silica and
alumina sheets. Also the flat external surfaces of minerals such as kaolinite have
 some exposed oxygen and hydroxyl groups which act as negatively charged sites.
At high pH, the hydrogen of these hydroxyls dissociates slightly and the colloidal
surface is left with a negative charge carried by the oxygen. Hence, this type of
charge is referred to as pH dependent charge. The phenomena accounts for most
of negative charges in 1:1 silicate clays and on the broken edges of the 2:1 silicate
clays.

B) Ionic (isomorphic) substitution: Silicon in the tetrahedral and Aluminium in the

octahedral are subject to substitution by atoms of similar size. When there is no
substitution the positive and the negative charges are in balance. However, if an Al atom
replaces the Si in the tetrahedron; one extra negative charge will be created since Al has
only three positive charges while Si has four. Isomorphous substitution can also be source
of positive charges if the substituting cat ion has a higher charge than the ion which
substitutes it. For examples, an Al3+ ion substituted by Mg2+ ion, a positive charge
remains.
II. Allophane and associated clays
The most significant of such poorly crystalline silicate colloids are allophone. These
minerals are poorly defined aluminium silicates with general composition of
approximated as Al2O3.2SiO2H2O and they are most prevalent in soils developed from
volcanic ashes. Their capacity to adsorb ions varies with pH, cat ions being adsorbed
mostly at high pH, anions mostly at low pH. Allophanes are also known for their high
phosphate adsorbing capacities especially in acid soils.

III. IRON AND ALUMINIUM OXIDES

These clays occur in greater quantities in the highly weathered soils of tropics and semi-
tropics. Examples of Iron and Aluminium oxides common in the soils are haematite
(Fe2O3) and gibbsite [AL (OH) 3
Some of these groups are crystalline structure, but others are amorphous. They are not
sticky and plastic as the layer silicate clays. The surface area of Fe, Al oxide minerals
vary with pH. At high pH values, the particles carry a small negative charge that is
balanced by adsorbed cat ions. In very acid soils, they carry a net positive charge and
attract negatively charged ions.

IV. ORGANIC COLLOIDS (HUMUS)

Humus is an organic complex chain of carbon bounded to Hydrogen, Oxygen and
Nitrogen. It has very high CEC (net negative charge). The colloidal organization of
humus has some similarities to that of clay. A highly charged micelle is surrounded by a
swarm (group) of cat ions. The humus colloids are not crystalline. However, the negative
charge in humus is associated with particularly dissociated enolic (-OH) carboxylic (-
COOH) and phenolic - groups. Under very acid conditions,
the negative charges are not very high-lower than that of some of the silicate clays. With
a rise of pH to neutral and alkaline conditions, however, the electro negativity of humus
per unit weight greatly exceeds that of the silicate clay. In this case, the adsorbed H has
been replaced by Ca, Mg, and other cat ions.

5.2. Cat ion exchange

The exchange of one cat ion for another on soil colloids is termed cat ion exchange. An
example of the reaction that takes place during cat ion exchange can be given as follows:

Dry areas humid areas

Ca Micell + 2H+ H H + Ca++
Micell
H
The source of the hydrogen ion can be either organic or inorganic acids. The reaction
takes places fairly rapidly. If [H+] in the soil solution decreased or if [Ca ++] increased, the
reaction shifts to the left. The reaction is so dynamic that it shifts (oscillates) back and
forth. Climate and biological processes determine the reaction. In humid areas Ca ++, and
other bases too, is lost by this mechanism.

In humid region climate the reaction is favoured to the right as a result of which bases,
cat ions other than hydrogen, are exposed to leaching. On the other hand, (semi) arid
climate favours the reaction to the left, retaining the cat ions on the adsorption sites.
Biological processes that produce hydrogen ion directly or indirectly, e.g. respiration by
micro organisms and plant roots, facilitate the reaction to the right.
Cat ion exchange/adsorption capacity (CEC)
CEC refers to the maximum number of positive charges that a given amount of soil can
adsorb, or the maximum number of negative charges that a given amount of soil has. It
can be measured by different techniques. Na, K or NH 4+ ions are added to a given amount
of soil and the amount adsorbed and the amount percolated (passed through the soil) will
be determined.
CEC of soil is dependent on a number of factors. CEC increases with pH as the number
of charge increases. Thus, soil CEC is determined at pH  7 to include the pH-dependent
charges. CEC is expressed as the number of positive charges absorbed per unit mass
(centi moles of charges per kg or C mol c/Kg). By the old concept CEC is also expressed
in equivalents or milliequivalents. “Equivalent weight is 1gm of H or atomic weight of an
ion that replaces 1gm of hydrogen.” (milli equivalent = 1/1000 equivalent.)

The CEC of a soil is the sum of the CEC of humus, silicate clays, hydrous oxides and
others. These constituents have different CEC values in a given amount. However, there
are a number of factors that affect the CEC of soils. These are texture, organic matter
content, and kind and content of mineral.

Table 5.1: Types of colloids and their CEC

Colloid CEC (meq/100g of soil

Humus 200
Vermiculite 150
Montimorillonite 100
Chlorite/illite 30
Kaolinite 8
Hydrous oxides 4l
Cat ion Exchange and the Availability of Nutrients
By cat ion exchange, H ions from the root hairs and soil micro organisms replace nutrient
cat ions from the exchange complex. They are forced into the soil solution, where they
can be assimilated by the absorption surfaces for roots by soil organism, or they may be
removed by drainage, water.

Factors affecting the availability of nutrients

i) Cat ion saturation with in the CEC: The nutrient in question should be on the
exchange site in great proportion to be readily available.
ii) Influence of associated ions: K availability may be limited by excessive
quantities of exchangeable Ca. K itself may depress Mg availability.
iii) Type of the colloid. The persistence with which a colloid holds an ion
depends on the type of the colloid. Montinorillonite > kaolinite.

5.3. Anion exchange and absorption

Kaolinite and hydrous oxides of iron and aluminium, including allophane, show evidence
of having positive charges on their crystal surfaces. These charges are thought to have
two sources. Both sources take place at low pH values at which hydrogen ion
concentration in the soil solution increases and there are enormous numbers of anions
other than the hydroxyl. The sources are:

I. The protonation or adding of H+ to the OH-

E.g. Al-O---H Al-OH2+
Surface of at low pH
Minerals at
High PH
II. The exchange of the OH for other anions such as phosphate, nitrate, etc
Al–OH + H2PO4- Al–H2PO4 + OH-
Surface of mineral surface of mineral
Percent base saturation
H and Al tend to dominate acid soils, both contributing to the concentration of H + ions in
the soil solution. Al does so through hydrolyze.
Al+3 + H2O Al (OH) ++ + H+
 Al (OH) ++ + H2O Al (OH) 2+ + H+
The other cat ions, called exchangeable bases, neutralize soil acidity. The proportion of
the cat ion exchange capacity (CEC) occupied by these bases is called the percentage
base saturation.
PH: As the base saturation is reduced, the pH is also lowered. Leaching tends to increase
the acidity of humid soils. In the pH range of 5-6, the ration for humid temperate region
mineral soil is roughly at 5% base saturation change for energy 0.10 changes in pH.
Climatic regions: Humid region soils are distinctly acid and about two-thirds base
saturated. (Semi) arid region soils have pH near () 7 and its percentage base saturation is
100%. H and Al in humid and Ca in semi-arid are the dominant cat ions on the exchange
sites.
5.4 Soil Reaction
Soil Reaction is expressed as the soil PH. This variable largely controls plant nutrient
availability and microbial reaction in soils.
In soil reaction three conditions are possible: Acidity, neutrality and alkalinity.

Acidity

Acidity starts as H+ starts to leaves the exchange sites and gets to the soil solution.
 When PH decreases to  6.0 Al begins to leave the structure of silicate clays.

Micell Al 3+ Al 3+ + Micel

Al +3 + H2O Al (OH) 2+1 + 2H+

Acidity is greatly expressed in humid region which rain fall is sufficient to leach the soil
profile. Two simple balances affect acidity are:
I. The balance between acid and non acid cat ions on colloid surface.
II. The balance between H+ and OH- ions in the soil solution.
Causes of acidity
 Relatively young soil, those not exposed to long periods of weathering and
leaching share the PH of their parent materials. Acidic P.M. include granite,
sandstone shale.
  Percolation also reduces the PH.
 Some processes produce H.
E.g. Respiration of roots and microbes
CO2 + H2O H2CO3 + HCO3- + H+
 Crops - When they have nutrients the “give back” H+.
 Nitrification – contributes H+ to the soil.
NH+4 + 2O2 NO-3 + H2O + 2H+
This happens also when ammonium fertilizer is used.
 Acid from precipitation
As rain drops fail they dissolve CO2 in air and form carbonic acid.Similarlly varying
amount of nitrogen and sulphur are present in the atmosphere that comes from volcanic
eruption , forest fire or from industry may react with water and may result in HNO 3 and
H2SO4.
Classification of soil acidity
1. Active acidity due to H+ and AL3+ ions in the soil solution:
2. Exchangeable or Salt replaceable acidity, involving the Aluminium and hydrogen that
are easily exchangeable by other cat ions in a simple salt solution, such as KCl: and
3. Residual acidity which can be neutralised by limestone or other alkaline materials but
can not be detected by the replaceable technique.

Buffering is the resistance to a change in the Ph of soil solution. This happens due to the
reserve acidity and adsorbed bases.
Importance of buffering
1. Buffering tends to ensure some stability in the soil pH preventing fluctuation that
might be harm full to plants, micro organisms and the aquatic system.
2. Buffering influences the amount of amendment such as lime or sulphurs required to
bring a desired change in soil pH. High CEC, high buffering.

Reclamation of acid soils

Agricultural liming materials such as CaO, CaCO3, MgCO3 and MgO are used to
reclaim acid soils

5.5Salinity and alkalinity

Alkaline and saline soils are found on more than half of the earth’s arable lands. They
dominate most arid and semiarid regions of the world.

Sources of alkalinity
As it is mentioned before, the replacement of Al3+ and H+ from the exchange complex and
the soil solution by base forming cat ions stimulate soil alkalinity. In soils of low rainfall
areas, the carbonate and the bicarbonate anions reinforce the tendency to wards alkalinity.
Moreover, the particular cat ion associated with carbonate anions also influences the pH
level. For example, if adsorbed Na is prominent on the colloidal complex and in the soil
solution, and if ample HCO3- and CO32- are present, NaHCO3 and Na2CO3 will form. Both
these salts are water soluble and highly ionised, thus assuring continued high levels of
HCO3- and CO32- ions. The high concentration of carbonate ions can produce pH values as
high as 10 or more.
Sources salinity

These saline soils are widely distributed in the world. They are most often found in areas
with precipitation to evaporation ratios of 0.75 or less and in low flat areas with higher
water tables that may be subject to seepage from higher elevations. Salinity and or
alkalinity can be developed when salts are naturally accumulated in some surface soils of
arid and semiarid regions because of insufficient rainfall to lush salts from upper soil
layer or induced by irrigation.

Measuring soil PH
1) Electrometer method: very accurate.
2) Dye method – easy, simple, and less accurate

Measuring salinity and alkalinity

Salinity
Pure water is a poor conductor of electricity but conductivity increases as more and more
salt is dissolved in the water. Thus the electrical conductivity of the soil solution gives us
an indirect measurement of the salt content. EC is expressed in terms of decisiemens per
meter (ds/m).
Sodium status
Two expressions are used to characterise the sodium status of highly alkaline soils. The
exchangeable sodium percentage (ESP) identifies the degree to which the exchange
complex is saturated with sodium.
ESP = exchangeable sodium (cmol/kg)*100
Cat ion exchange capacity (cmol/kg)
ESP level of 15 are associated with pH values of 8.5 and above. Higher levels may bring
the pH to above 10.
The sodium adsorption ratio (SAR) is a second more easily measured property that is
becoming even widely used than ESP. It gives information on the comparative
concentration of Na+, Ca2+ and Mg2+ in soil solutions. It is calculated as follows:

SAR = [Na+]

[Ca2+ and Mg2+]1/2

Where all the concentrations are in mol/L. the SAR of the soil extract takes
into consideration that the adverse effect of sodium is moderated by the
presence of calcium and Magnesium ions.

Classification of saline soils

Classes PH EC ds/m ESP SAR

Saline <8.5 >4 <15 <13

Saline-sodic >8.5 >4 >15 >13

(saline- alkaline

Sodic( Alkaline) >8.5 <4 >15 >13

Reclamation of Saline soils

The removal of excess salts from saline soils requires access of ample irrigation water
with low SAR and an effective soil drainage system that quickly removes the salts laden
water once it leaches down through the soil. If the natural soil drainage is in adequate to
accommodate the leaching water an artificial drainage network must be installed. The
process can be monitored by measuring the soils EC. The amount of water needed to
remove the excess salt from the saline is called leaching requirement LR. LR is
determined by characteristics of the crop to be grown, the irrigation water and the soil.

CHAPTER- SIX
SOIL AND NUTRITION OF PLANTS

6.1 Essentiality of elements

Factors Controlling the Growth of higher Plants

Plants require the following materials for their normal growth in addition to the absence
of disease and freedom from insect pests:
a) Light d) air
b) Water e) mechanical support
c) Nutrients f) heat

The soil supplies, either wholly or partially, all of these except light. Plant growth is
dependent upon the combination (favourable) of the factors. If any one of them is of
balance with the others, growth may be reduced or entirely stop.
Further, the factor which is least optimum will determine the level of crop production.
This principle is called the principle of limiting factor, which can be stated as “the level
of crop production can be no greater than that allowed by the most limiting of these
essential plant growth factors.” The principle was first stated by a German scientist called
Liebig, hence Liebig’s principle. The importance of the principle holds for the nutrients
as well. Not only the supply of a given element is important, but also the relationship of
this supply to all other factors which may affect plant growth.

The Essential Elements

Elements necessary for the normal growth of plants are called essential elements. For an
Essential elements used in relatively large Essential elements used in relatively small
amount amounts
Mostly from air and From solid soils From soil solids
water
Carbon Nitrogen Iron Chlorine
Hydrogen Phosphorous Manganese Cobalt
Oxygen Potassium Boron
Calcium Molybdenum
Magnesium Copper
Sulphur Zinc
element to be essential its deficiency should reduce the growth of plants and the
deficiency should be corrected by that element alone. There are two major functions of
nutrients for plants. They are part, constituent, of the plant tissue. They act as catalysts in
other metabolic activities. Seventeen elements are known to be essential in plant growth.
They can be grouped based on the amount they are required by plants and based on their
sources.

Table 6.1 Essential nutrient elements and their sources

Note: Sodium, Fluorine, Iodine, Silicon, Strontium and Barium may increase crop growth
when supplied at small amount, but they are not essential.
Though the majority of the elements come from the soil, they make up very small part of
the plant tissue as plant tissues are mainly made of C, H and O (94-99.5%). C, H and O
are not limiting under normal condition as they are supplied by the atmosphere.

6.2 Elements required in plant nutrition

Macro nutrients include elements required in large amount such as:-
Nitrogen: Organic matter has to decompose to release N. The N finally emerges as an
ammonium compound which is oxidized to nitrite and then to nitrate form. The processes
of the two oxidation changes are called nitrification.
Organic N Ammonium salts (NH4+) NO2- salts NO3-
salts
These processes, the micro organisms for that matter, are influenced by temperature,
aeration, pH, C/N ratio and uptake by the micro organisms.

Phosphorous: Organic P is released by the decay of the organic matter like the case of
N. mineral P presents a much more difficult problem. P compounds are slowly soluble in
water, even under the presence of CO2.
Ca3 (PO4)2 + 4H2O+4CO2 Ca (H2PO4)2 + 2Ca (HCO3)2
Insoluble P water soluble water soluble
Even the soluble forms of phosphate may be changed to insoluble complexes by either
micro organisms or the reaction with Fe, Al, and others. P is also fixed into the mineral
colloid layers.
Potassium and Calcium: Some of the Ca and most of the K occur as components of
soil minerals. They are released from the minerals by the solvent action of water together
with carbonic acids and other acids.
2KAlSi3O8 + H2CO3 + H2O H4Al2Si2O9 + K2CO3 + 4SiO2
Microcline hydrated silicate soluble
Feldspar carbonate
The K released by such reaction may be up taken by plants or lost in drainage or held by
the negatively charged soil colloids. K may be firmly fixed in the lattice of mineral
colloids like illite.
Magnesium: Mg is released either by the breakdown of minerals (like K) or by ionic
exchange. For the rest it is similar to Ca and K.
Sulphur: Transformation of S, like N, is largely biological and it is readily activated.
Organic S Decay products Sulphites Sulphates
Proteins and of which H2S and SO3- - SO4- -
Others other sulphides
Mineralization Sulphur oxides
The other nutrient elements (Fe, Mn, Cu, Zn, Bo, Mo, Cl and Co) are used by plants in
very small amounts, hence the name micronutrients or trace elements. This does not
mean that they are not essential. Essentiality is different from the amount they are
required in.
The trace elements, except Fe and Mn, are found sparingly in most soils and their
availability to plants is often very low.

6.3 Functions of nutrients in plants

1. Macronutrients
1.1 Nitrogen
Plants normally contain between 1 and 5% N by weight. It is adsorbed by plants as NO3-
and NH4+ions and as urea is an integral part of the chlorophyll, which is the primary
absorber of light energy needed for photosynthesis. An adequate supply of N is
associated with high photosynthetic activity, vigorous vegetation growth and a dark green
colour.
An excess of N in relation to other nutrients such as P, K and S can delay crop maturity;
stimulation of leafy vegetative growth early in the growing season can be disadvantage in
regions where soil moisture limits plant growth. . Early season depletion of soil moisture
without adequate replenishment prior to grain filling period can depress yields.
When plants are deficient in N they become stunted and yellow in appearance.

1.2 Phosphorous
P occurs in most plants in concentration between 0.1 and 0.4% considerably lower than
those typically found for N and K. Plants adsorb either H2PO4- or HPO42- orthophosphate
ion adsorption of H2PO4- increases at low pH values, where as uptake of HPO42- is
greatest at high soil pH.
The most essential function of P in plants is in energy storage of transfer. Energy
obtained from photosynthesis and metabolism of carbohydrates is stored in phosphorous
compounds Adenosine di and tri phosphates ADP and ATP.
1.3 Potassium
The potassium ion K+ is actively taken up from soil solution by plant roots. The
concentration on K+ in vegetative tissue usually ranges from 1-4% on dry matte basis.
Thus plant requirements for available K are quite high. It has functions that are
particularly related to the ionic strength of solution within plant also in enzyme
activation, water relations transpiration energy relations translocation of assimilate and N
uptake and protein synthesis.
When K is limiting, characteristic deficiency symptoms appear in the plant.

Typical K deficiency symptoms in Alfa alfa consist of white spots on the leaf edge,
where as chlorosis and nevosis of the leaf edges are observed with corn and other grasses.
1.4 Calcium
Calcium, (Ca) is adsorbed by plants as Ca2+ and its concentration ranges from 0.2-1.0%.
Ca has an important function in the structure and permeability of cell membranes. Lack
of Ca2+ produces s general breakdown of membrane structures with results loss of
retention of cellular diffusible compounds. Ca ensures uptake of NO3-N and therefore
interrelated with N metabolism.
Ca is essential for cell elongation and division and Ca2+ deficiency manifests itself in the
failure of terminal buds of shoot and apical tips of roots to develop, which causes plant
growth to cease.
1.5 Magnesium
Magnesium (Mg) is adsorbed as Mg2+ and it’s concentration in crops varies from 0.1-
0.4%. The importance of Mg2+ is obvious, since it is primary constituent of the
chlorophyll molecule and without chlorophyll, the autotrophic green plant would fail to
carry on photosynthesis. Chlorophyll usually accounts for about 15to 20 % of the total
Mg content of the plant.
Because of the mobility of a substantial portion of the plant Mg and it’s ready
translocation from older to younger plant parts, deficiency symptoms often appear first
on the lower leaves. In many species, shortage of Mg2+ results in interveinal chlorosis of
the leaf in which only the veins remain green.
1.6 sulphur
Sulphur is absorbed by plant roots almost exclusively as the sulphate ion, SO42-. Small
quantities of SO2 can be absorbed through plant leaves and utilised within plants, but
high concentrations are toxic. Elemental S dusted on fruit free leaves finds its way in
small amount to the interval plant system relatively soon after application.
S deficiency has pronounced retarding effect on plant growth and is characterised by
uniformly chlorotic plants-stunted, thin-stemmed and spindly. In many plants, these
symptoms resemble those of N deficiency and have undoubtedly led to many incorrect
diagnoses. Unlike N, S does not appear to be easily translocated from older to younger
leaves. Plant parts therefore deficiency symptoms occur fist in young leaves.
2. Micronutrients
Micronutrients function in the enzyme systems of plants. Anion forming elements such as
boron and molybdenum can be part of the structure of enzyme molecules. A very small
amount of such an element is all that required to make enough enzyme to catalyse an
essential plant process. Cat ion forming elements such as copper are more likely to serve
coenzymes that activate an enzyme but are not an integral part of the molecule.
Some micronutrients function in oxidation-reduction process of plant metabolism.
Elements such as iron copper and manganese can change valences and thus enter into
oxidation-reduction reaction.
6.4 Fertilizers and fertilizer management
Management of macronutrients
There are sixteen essential elements that plants obtain from the soil. Two of the macro
elements, Ca and Mg are applied as lime in regions deficient in these. Although not
usually rated as a fertiliser, lime doesn’t exert a profound nutritive effect. Sulphur is
applied as commercial fertilizers especially in areas where little sulphur is returned to the
soil from the atmosphere. There other microelements N, P, K are commonly applied in
commercial fertilizers.
Management of micronutrients are often referred to as fertiliser elements. The amount
of micro nutrients in fertilizers must be carefully controlled than the macronutrients. The
difference between the deficiency and toxicity levels of a given micronutrients is
extremely small. Consequently, micronutrients should be added only when their need is
certain and when the amount is known.
Broader aspects of fertiliser application
Fertilizer application involves many intricate details regarding soil, crops and fertilizers.
Because of the great variability from place to place in each of these three factors, it is
difficult to arrive at generalization for fertilizer use. However, the prominences in most
cropping systems of nitrogen responsive crops (e.g. Corn and vegetables) lead to initial
focus on N in most fertilizer schemes. Application of P and K are made to become
supplement the N supply whether it is from the soil, crop residue essentially (legumes) or
added fertilizer.
A second aspect of fertilizer practice relates to economic disadvantage don’t use
fertilizers just to grown big crops or to increase the nutrient content of their soils. They
do so to make a living. As a result any fertilizer practice, no matter how sound it may be
technically, that doesn’t give a fair economic return will not long stand the test of time.
A third aspect relates to the effects of fertilizer use on other than the production of a crop.
Wise fertiliser practices can result in increased soil fertility over a period of time,
especially if the rates of application exceed the removal rates of nutrients by the crop. On
the other hand excessive fertiliser use is not only wasteful of the nutrients applied but can
adversely affect the quality of the environment. Undesired levels of phosphates and
nitrates in drainage water from heavily fertilizer area can be harmful to human and
wildlife. Also nitrogen oxides resulting from de nitrification can have adverse effect on
global climate as they move into the upper atmosphere. For these reasons, environmental
quality consideration must play a role in determining fertilizer practices.
 CHAPTER- SEVEN
MODERN SYSTEMS OF SOIL CLASSIFICATION
Grouping of soils in some order and logical manner depends on the properties of the soil
and differentiating characteristics.
Approximation (soil taxonomy) new system of soil classification
Bases of soil classification

1. properties of soils as they exist

2. soil depth

3. Diagnostic horizons

4. Moisture and temperature regions

1.1 Purpose or objective of classification

1. To organize knowledge leading to economy of thoughts

2. To recognize the properties of soils

3. Learn relation ship and principles in soil population

4. Establish groups and sub groups for practical and applied purpose in :-

 Predicting their behaviour

 Identifying their potential uses

 Estimating their productivity

 Transferring agro technology from lab to land

Diagnostic Surface Horizons: The epipedon (Gr. Epi, over, upon, and pedon, soil) is a
horizon that forms at or near the surface and in which most of the rock structure has been
destroyed. It is darkened by organic matter or shows evidence of eluviation, or both.
Diagnostic Subsurface Horizons: The horizons described in this section form below the
surface of the soil, although in some areas they form directly below a layer of leaf litter.
They may be exposed at the surface by truncation of the soil. Some of these horizons are
generally regarded as B-horizons, some are considered B-horizons by many but not all
pedologists, and others are generally regarded as parts of the A horizon.
 7.2 Categories of the new system
1-Order -12 orders based on soil forming factors and processes
2-Sub order- 635 based on moisture and temperature
3-great group-390 based on diagnostic soil horizon
4-sub group-2484 based on control concepts
(Typical or non typical), inter grading
5-Family -8000 based on properties important for plant growth.
6-Series-19000 based on kinds and arrangement of horizons

The Soil Orders

1. Gelisols: This soil occurs in areas with temperature as low as below freezing point
for extended period of time (e.g. the higher latitudes, the mountain tips of the
subtropical areas, etc.)
2. Histosols (Greek histos = tissue; solum = soil): Include organic soils (Bog soils).
These soils have developed in a water saturated environment. They include soils
that Contain a minimum of 20% organic matter if the clay content is less and 30% if
the clay content is more than 50%.

3. Spodosols (Greek Spodos = wood ash): include soils that have A Spotted horizon,
a subsurface horizon with an accumulation of organic matter, and oxides of
aluminium with or without iron oxides. These soils form mostly on a coarse
textured, acid parent materials subject to ready leaching hence illuvial horizon.
They occur only in humid climates and are most common where it is cold and
temperate. Besides, they occur under natural forests (e.g. Pine trees, etc).

4. Andosols (Japanese Ando= Ash): Are soils that have acidic soil properties in 60
percent or more of the thickness. They develop on volcanic parent materials.
5. Oxisols (Oxide): These are the most highly weathered soil in the classification
system. They have a deep subsurface oxic horizon (a horizon generally very rich in
clay-size particles dominated by hydrous oxides of Fe and Al). Weathering and
leaching have removed large part of the silica from the silicate minerals. Some
quartz and 1:1 clay minerals remain with a dominance of the oxides of Fe and Al.
6. Vertisols (Latin Verto = turn): are characterised by high content of swelling-type
clays, which in dry seasons cause the soils to develop deep, wide cracks. There
may be a partial “inversion” of the profile as a significant material from the top
sloughs off into the cracks. They have excessive shrinking, swelling, cracking and
shearing properties.
7. Arido sols (Latin Aridus = dry): these mineral soils are found mostly in dry
climates. Except where there is ground water or irrigation, the soil layers are dry
throughout most of the year. Consequently, they have not been subjected to
intensive leaching. They have an epipedon generally light in colour, low in organic
matter content and low in clay content. They may have horizon where calcium
carbonate (calcic) or gypsum (gypsic) or more soluble salts have accumulated.
8. Ultisols (Latin ultimus = last): are usually moist soils and develop under warm to
tropical climates. They are more highly weathered and acidic than the Alfisols but
generally are not as acidic as the Spodosols. They develop on old land surfaces,
normally under forest vegetation, although savannah or even swamp vegetation is
common. They are very old and stable soils.
9. Mollisols (Latin mollis = soft): Includes some of the world’s most important
agricultural soils. They are characterized by their mollic epipedon, which is thick,
dark, and dominated by divalent cations. The surface horizons generally have
granular or crumb structures and are not hard when the soils are dry. Most of the
Mollisols have developed under prairie vegetation.
 10. Alfisols: include soils that do not have a mollic or oxic or spodic horizons and that
have either an argillic or nitric horizon. They have gray to brown surface horizons,
medium to high base status (more than 35%). These are more strongly weathered
than the Inceptisols but less so than the Spodosols. They are formed mostly in
humid areas under native deciduous forests, although grass is the native vegetation
in some cases.
11. Inceptisols (Latin inceptum = beginning): They may be termed young soils since
their profiles contain horizons that are thought to form rather quickly and result
mostly from alteration of parent materials. The horizons do not or should not have
accumulation of clay and Fe and Al oxides. The profile development is more
advanced than the Entisols but less so than the other orders.
12. Entisols: Are soils without natural genetic horizons or with only the beginnings of
such horizons. The central concept is they are soils with deep regolith with no
horizons except a plough layer. In the revised legend, they are considered as soils
that do not fit into any of the other orders. As this is a more recent concept it is
better relied on.

7.3 Major soils of Ethiopia

1. Leptosols
Leptosols are soils limited in depth by continuous hard rock or highly calcareous material
(45%) or a continuous cemented layer within 30cm. it is located in the highlands parts of
Ethiopia especially in the semiarid regions (Tigray, North Gonder)
2. Nitosols
These are soils with a deep clay enriched B horizon. They show a yellowish or reddish
colour and a gradual diffuse horizon boundaries between A and B structure. They occur
in many areas of the country especially in Gojjam, Sidamo, Gamogofa and have good
potential for agriculture. Because the deep uniform profiles that are porous and well
drained have a stable angular to sub-angular blocky structure and consequently a deep
rooting volume.
3. Cambisols:
These are young soils compared to other tropical soils. The B-horizon of cambisols is an
altered horizon with a soil structure at least moderately developed with some clay
illuuvation, or with a red colour or with some evidence of removal of carbonates.
Cambisols may occur in various regions together with many major soils of the country.

4. Regosols
Regosols are very young soils (soil from unconsolidated materials) almost without soil
development. They have an A horizon without special characteristic and all other
diagnostic horizons are absent; often the soil material is loose.
5. Vertisols:
These are easily recognised because of their clayey texture(30% of clay and often50%)
dark colours and special physical attributes. They develop cracks when expanding and
contracting with changes in moisture content. They are found in large flat or gently
slopping areas (mainly on volcanic plateau of central Ethiopia, southern Sidamo, flood
plains of the Wabi-shebele basins in western Ethiopia and etc.
Vertisols represent a vast crop production resource (teff, wheat, chickpea).Workability of
these soils is hampered by their sticky ness when wet and hardness when dry to water
logging and soil erosion
6. Fluvisols
Fluvisols develop on recent fluvial marine and lacustrine sediments which receive fresh
materials at regular intervals. Most soils consist of stratified layers with different textures.
The mineralogical composition of the soil material is related to the types of rocks, their
weathering products and alterations before transport. Examples should be valleys and
deltas, river terraces and depress ional areas, coastal areas, etc. these soils have a good
potential for agriculture, and the major limitations are related to the flood risk
7. Luvisols
Luvisols are soils with a distinct clay-enriched B horizon, but with a high base saturation
(50%). In general, they are showing a reddish or yellowish colour. Most luvisols are good
for agriculture, except the ones on steep slopes. The clay enriched B horizon may prevent
good root distribution and permeability may be low, as a consequence the erodibility can
be high.