ANATOMY AND

PHYSIOLOGY
LESSON 2: CELL STRUCTURES AND TISSUES
“LESSON 2.1: CELLS”
OBJECTIVES
1. Discuss the importance of the cell.
2. Describe each of the cellular organelles and
identify its function.

NIKKI LYN L. SUMAGAYSAY, RMT

 CELL
Determine the form and function of the human body.
“CELL IS THE BASIC FUNCTIONAL UNIT OF ALL ORGANISM.”

NIKKI LYN L. SUMAGAYSAY, RMT

There are two types of cells:
• Prokaryotic cells which are single-celled organisms that lack a
membrane-bound nucleus and membrane-bound cell organelles
• Eukaryotic cells consists of cytoplasm and cell organelles which are
bounded by a plasma membrane.

NIKKI LYN L. SUMAGAYSAY, RMT

 As microscopic techniques evolved, the use of various
histochemical, immunocytochemical, and staining techniques revealed
that the cytoplasm of different cells contained numerous subcellular
elements called ORGANELLE.

An organelle is a tiny cellular structure that performs specific

functions within a cell.

NIKKI LYN L. SUMAGAYSAY, RMT

 BASIC FUNCTIONS OF THE CELL

1. Cell metabolism and energy use

2. Synthesis of molecules
3. Communication
4. Reproduction and inheritance

NIKKI LYN L. SUMAGAYSAY, RMT

NIKKI LYN L. SUMAGAYSAY, RMT
CELL MEMBRANE/PLASMA MEMBRANE
Outermost component of the cell.
Encloses the cytoplasm

NIKKI LYN L. SUMAGAYSAY, RMT

NIKKI LYN L. SUMAGAYSAY, RMT
 FUNCTION OF THE CELL MEMBRANE
The plasma membrane envelops the cell
maintains its structural and functional integrity.
acts as a semipermeable membrane between the cytoplasm and the
external environment.
permits the cell to recognize macromolecules
assists in controlling interaction between cells.

NIKKI LYN L. SUMAGAYSAY, RMT

 COMPONENTS OF THE CELL MEMBRANE
Phospholipids
Proteins
Carbohydrate
Cholesterol

NIKKI LYN L. SUMAGAYSAY, RMT

NIKKI LYN L. SUMAGAYSAY, RMT
 MOVEMENT ACROSS MEMBRANE
1. Diffusion – it happens when solutes tend to move from an area of a
higher concentration into a lower concentration.
Concentration gradient refers to the gradual change in the
concentration of solutes in a solution as a function of distance through
a solution.

NIKKI LYN L. SUMAGAYSAY, RMT

2. Osmosis – is the diffusion of water across a selectively permeable
membrane (cell membrane) from a region of higher water
concentration to one of lower water concentration.
Water moves from the solution that is more dilute to the solution
which has a higher solute concentration.
Osmotic pressure – is the force required to prevent the movement of
water across a relatively permeable membrane.
Hydrostatic pressure

NIKKI LYN L. SUMAGAYSAY, RMT

NIKKI LYN L. SUMAGAYSAY, RMT
 Carrier Mediated Transport Mechanisms
1. Facilitated Diffusion – it moves substances in and out of the cell
from a higher concentration to lower concentration of the
particular substance. Because the movement is with the
concentration gradient, energy is not required.

2. Active transport – is a carrier mediated process that moves

substances across the cell membrane from regions of lower
concentration to those of higher concentration against a
concentration gradient. It needs energy.

NIKKI LYN L. SUMAGAYSAY, RMT

2. Active transport – is a carrier mediated process that moves
substances across the cell membrane from regions of lower
concentration to those of higher concentration against a
concentration gradient. It needs energy.
It can exchange one substance for another substance
Example: sodium potassium pump (reading assignment: secondary
active transport)

NIKKI LYN L. SUMAGAYSAY, RMT

 Endocytosis and Exocytosis
Exocytosis is the process of moving materials from within a cell to the
exterior of the cell while Endocytosis is the uptake of material through
the cell membrane by the formation of a vesicle.

NIKKI LYN L. SUMAGAYSAY, RMT

ORGANELLES
subcellular structure that has one or more specific jobs to perform in
the cell.

NIKKI LYN L. SUMAGAYSAY, RMT

 NUCLEUS
A large organelle in the center of the cell.
Nuclear envelope – bounds the nucleus
contains genetic material (DNA) of eukaryotic organisms
it serves to maintain the integrity of the cell by facilitating
transcription and replication processes.
Nucleoli - diffuse bodies with no surrounding membrane
Found within the nucleus

NIKKI LYN L. SUMAGAYSAY, RMT

 RIBOSOMES
Are organelles where proteins are produced.
perform an essential role in decoding or translating the coded genetic messages
from the nucleus for amino acid sequence of proteins
Ribosomes that are attached to the membranes of the endoplasmic reticulum
synthesize proteins that are packaged and stored in the cell as lysosomes, or are
released from the cell as secretory products.
Unattached or free ribosomes synthesize proteins for use within the cell
cytoplasm.

NIKKI LYN L. SUMAGAYSAY, RMT

 ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM
Is a series of membranes forming sacs and tubules that extends from
the outer nuclear membrane into the cytoplasm.
extensive network of sacs, vesicles, and interconnected flat tubules
called cisternae.

NIKKI LYN L. SUMAGAYSAY, RMT

 TWO TYPES OF ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM
1. ROUGH ENDOLASMIC RETICULUM
With ribosomes attached into it.
where membrane-packaged proteins are synthesized, including
secretory, plasma membrane, and lysosomal proteins.
monitors the assembly, retention, and even degradation of certain
proteins

NIKKI LYN L. SUMAGAYSAY, RMT

2. SMOOTH ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM
site for lipid synthesis and detoxification of chemicals in the cell.

NIKKI LYN L. SUMAGAYSAY, RMT

 GOLGI APPARATUS
Consists of closely packed stacks of curved membrane
bound sacs. It collects, modifies and, packages and
distributes proteins and lipids manufactured by the
endoplasmic reticulum.
CIS FACE – NEAR THE
NUCLEUS

TRANS FACE – NEAR

THE PLASMA
MEMBRANE
(malapit)

NIKKI LYN L. SUMAGAYSAY, RMT

 SECRETORY VESICLES
Small membrane bound sac that transports or stores materials in the
cell.

NIKKI LYN L. SUMAGAYSAY, RMT

 LYSOSOMES AND PEROXISOMES
Lysosomes – membrane bound vesicles formed from the golgi
apparatus
Digestive enzymes that function as intracellular digestive systems.
Peroxisomes – small membrane vesicles containing enzymes that break
down fatty acids, amino acids and hydrogen peroxide.

NIKKI LYN L. SUMAGAYSAY, RMT

 MITOCHONDRIA
Major site of energy production
The outer membrane have a smooth contour
The inner membranes have numerous folds called cristae
Aerobic respiration

NIKKI LYN L. SUMAGAYSAY, RMT

 CYTOSKELETON
Group of proteins that support the cell, hold the organelles in place
and enable the cell to change shape.

Proteins structures:
1. Microtubules
2. Microfilaments
3. Intermediate filaments

NIKKI LYN L. SUMAGAYSAY, RMT

1. Microtubules – hollow structures formed from protein subunits.
Support the cytoplasm of the cells
Assist in cell division
Forms the parts of the cilia and flagella

2. Microfilaments – small fibrils

Structurally support the cytoplasm
Involved in cell movement

3. Intermediate filaments – smaller in diameter than microtubules but

larger in diameter than microfilaments
Provide mechanical support to the cell
NIKKI LYN L. SUMAGAYSAY, RMT
 CENTRIOLES
Centrosome - specialized zone of cytoplasm close to the nucleus where
microtubule formation occurs. It has 2 centrioles.
Centrioles – small, cylindrical organelle composed of 9 triplets, each
triplet with 3 parallel microtubules joined together

NIKKI LYN L. SUMAGAYSAY, RMT

 CILIA,FLAGELLA AND MICROVILLI
1. Cilia
Project from the cell surface and are cylindrical structure
Capable of movement

NIKKI LYN L. SUMAGAYSAY, RMT

2. Flagella - one per cell (sperm)

3. Microvilli – specialized extensions of the cell membrane that are

supported by microfilaments. This increases the surface area of cells
with this structure.

NIKKI LYN L. SUMAGAYSAY, RMT

 WHOLE CELL ACTIVITY
DNA - influences the structural and
functional characteristics of an entire
organism.
Molecule with nucleotides joined
together to form two nucleotide
strands.
Gene – is a sequence of nucleotides
that provides a chemical set of
instructions for making a protein.
Gene expression - process in which
the DNA with information will direct
the protein synthesis.
NIKKI LYN L. SUMAGAYSAY, RMT
 GENE EXPRESSION
1. Transcription
2. Translation

NIKKI LYN L. SUMAGAYSAY, RMT

 TRANSCRIPTION
The first step in gene expression
In the nucleus
“DNA determines the structure of mRNA through transcription”

I. Formation of mRNA by Transcription of DNA

a. The strands of DNA molecule will separate from each other.
One DNA strand serves as a template for mRNA synthesis
DNA Nucleotides: RNA Nucleotides:
1. Thymine 1. Adenine
2. Adenine 2. Uracil
3. Cytosine 3. Guanine
4. Guanine 4. Cytosine
NIKKI LYN L. SUMAGAYSAY, RMT
b. After the DNA nucleotides pair up with the RNA nucleotides, an
enzyme catalyzes reactions that will form bonds b/n RNA nucleotides
to form a long mRNA segment.

Information in the mRNA is carried in groups of three nucleotides

called “codon” which specify a particular amino acid.

NIKKI LYN L. SUMAGAYSAY, RMT

 TRANSLATION
The synthesis of proteins based on the information in the mRNA
Occurs in the ribosomes

• mRNA
• tRNA
• rRNA

Anticodon(tRNA) + codon (mRNA) (with enzyme)

NIKKI LYN L. SUMAGAYSAY, RMT

TRANSLATION
1. Ribosome binds with mRNA.
2. The ribosome will align mRNA with tRNA so the anticodons and
codons is in correct partnership.
3. An enzyme associated with ribosome causes the formation of a
peptide bond b/n amino acids of the tRNA
4. The ribosome will now go to each mRNA one codon at a time,
releasing a tRNA and allowing it to go into position.
5. As the process continues, a polypeptide chain will be produced.
6. Translation ends when the ribosome reaches the stop codon on the
mRNA
7. The polypeptide chain and released and becomes the folded three
dimensional form the protein.
NIKKI LYN L. SUMAGAYSAY, RMT
CELL LIFE CYCLE
The life cycle of a cell consists of
series of events that produce
new cells for growth and tissue
repair.

TWO PHASES OF CELL LIFE CYCLE

1. INTERPHASE
2. CELL DIVISION

NIKKI LYN L. SUMAGAYSAY, RMT

 INTERPHASE

Non dividing stage

During interphase, the cell
undergoes normal growth
processes while also preparing for
cell division.
It is the stage in which DNA is
replicated
Most of a cell’s life is spent in
interphase
NIKKI LYN L. SUMAGAYSAY, RMT
 CELL DIVISION
Formation of daughter
cells from a single
parent cell

Mitosis – a process in
which new cells for
growth and tissue repair
is formed
Meiosis – formation of
sex cells necessary for
reproduction

NIKKI LYN L. SUMAGAYSAY, RMT

 MITOSIS
Prophase – the chromatin condenses to
form visible chromosomes. The
microtubules called spindle fibers extend
from the centrioles to the centromeres.
The centrioles divide and migrate to each
pole of the cell. In late prophase,
nucleolus and nuclear envelope disappear.

Metaphase – the chromosome align near

the center of the cell.

NIKKI LYN L. SUMAGAYSAY, RMT

Anaphase - at the beginning of this stage,
the chromatids separate. When this
happens, each chromatid is now a
chromosome
At this point, 2 identical sets of 46
chromosomes are present in the cell.
Each of the 2 sets of 46 chromosomes
is moved by the spindle fibers toward
the centriole at one of the poled of the
cell.

Telophase – the chromosomes in each of

the daughter cells become organized to
form two separate nuclei
NIKKI LYN L. SUMAGAYSAY, RMT