DEPARMENT OF PHYSICS, UNIVERSITY OF COLOMBO

GENARAL PHYSICS LABORATORY 1

2016

GPL 110X- Surface Tension by Ferguson’s Method

(Using Vertical Capillary Tube)

Group No - 34(B)

Register No -2015S15202

Name - W.M.Y.Madushani

Partner’s name - H.K.Deshapriya

Date of the lab class - 30/03/2016(Wednesday)

 CONTENTS
1. LIST OF FIGURES………………………………………………… 2
2. LIST OF TABLES………………………………………………….. 3
3. INTRODUCTION…………………………………………………... 4
4. THEORY …………………………………………………………….. 8
5. APARATUS & ACCESSORIES……………………………………. 9
6. PROCEDURE……………………………………………………….. 10
7. EXPERIMENTAL DATA…………………………………………... 11
8. DATA ANALYSIS………………………………………………….. 13
9. ERROR ANALYSIS……………………………………………….. 16
10. FINAL RESULT …………………………………………………… 20
11. DISCUSSION………………………………………………………. 21
12. CONCLUSION……………………………………………………… 22
13. REFERENCES……………………………………………………… 23
14. CONCLUSION……………………………………………………… 24

GPL 110X Surface Tension by Ferguson’s Method Page 1

 1. List of figures

Figure Number Description

Figure 1 Examples for surface tension

Figure 2 Liquid surfaces near solid surface

Figure 3 Capillary action

Figure 4 Schematic diagram of the experimental setup

Figure 5 Experimental instrument

Figure 6 Experimental setup

Figure 7 cross section of capillary tube

Figure 8 graph of surface tension and temperature

Figure 9 Jaeger method

GPL 110X Surface Tension by Ferguson’s Method Page 2

 2. List of Tables

Number of Table Description

Table 1 Some interfaces and their surface tension values

Table 2 Inner diameter of the capillary tube

Table 3 Temperature of the experimental liquid
Table 4 The height of the water column
Table 5 The difference in liquid levels in the manometer
Table 6 The height of the water column
Table 7 The difference in liquid levels in the manometer
Table 8 Inner diameter of the capillary tube
Table 9 Temperature of the experimental liquid
Table 10 The height of the water column
Table 11 The difference in liquid levels in the manometer
Table 12 The height of the water column
Table 13 The difference in liquid levels in the manometer
Table 14 Final results

GPL 110X Surface Tension by Ferguson’s Method Page 3

 3. Introduction

The cohesive forces between liquid molecules are responsible for the phenomenon known as
surface tension. The molecules at the surface do not have other like molecules on all sides of
them and consequently they cohere more strongly to those directly associated with them on the
surface. This forms a surface which makes it more difficult to move an object through the
surface than to move it when it is completely submersed. Surface tension is typically measured in
Nm-1.

As we all know everything around us are made out of atoms and molecules. So the liquids also
made out of atoms and molecules. And there are forces between these molecules which are
known as “intermolecular forces”. These forces are two types. Intermolecular forces which exists
between like molecules (water molecules-water molecules) are known as “Cohesive forces”.
Intermolecular forces which exists between unlike molecules (water molecule-glass molecules)
are known as “Adhesive forces”.

The cohesive forces between molecules down into a liquid are shared with all neighboring
atoms. Those on the surface have no neighboring atoms above, and exhibit stronger attractive
forces upon their nearest neighbors on the surface. This enhancement of the intermolecular
attractive forces at the surface is called surface tension.

During our life time we have seen or experienced the following instances.

i. It is possible to float light objects (but denser than water) like pins, blades, needles on the
water surface.

ii. Insects like water striders can move on the water surface.

iii. When we slowly open a tap, we can see small droplets of water are hanging in the tap.

iv. When mercury is spread on a surface, it spread like small balls.

v. When we put considerable amount of small iron balls, pins, needles, nails into a beaker
fully filled with water or any other liquid, water or liquid surface takes a convex shape.

GPL 110X Surface Tension by Ferguson’s Method Page 4

 Figure 01-Examples for surface tension

From the above factors or observations, we can conclude that there is a special
property in free liquid surfaces. Or we can say free liquid surfaces act like a elastic
membrane which is subjected to a strain.

Surface Tension in water

Surface Tension of Water The surface tension of water is 7.2×10-2 Nm-1 at 25°C. It would take
a force of 7.2N to break a surface film of water 1 cm long. The surface tension of water
decreases significantly with temperature as shown in the diagram. The surface tension arises
from the polar nature of the water molecule

Hot water is a better cleaning agent because the lower surface tension makes it a better "wetting
agent" to get into pores and fissures rather than bridging them with surface tension. Soaps and
detergents further lower the surface tension.

Surface tension of depends on following factors.

i. Temperature
ii. Substance which is above the liquid surface
iii. Purity of the liquid

Effects of the Surface Tension and some surface tension values

Because of the Surface Tension, we can come cross many circumstances. Some of them are
as bellows.
i. Some liquids wet the solid surfaces while some are not
Water (most of the liquids) wet the glass. But mercury
don’t wet the glass. Reason is as follows.

GPL 110X Surface Tension by Ferguson’s Method Page 5

 When we put a water drop on a glass surface, a water
molecule in this drop is attracted by the other water molecules in the drop and by
glass molecules. When we consider water and glass adhesive forces are stronger than
cohesive forces. So water touch the glass. So water wet the glass. But when we put
mercury on the glass, cohesive forces are stronger than adhesive forces. So mercury
don’t touch the glass. That mean mercury don’t wet the glass.

ii. Liquid surfaces take a round shape near the solid surfaces

Figure 02- Liquid surfaces near solid surface

iii. Capillary action

When an open end of a small capillary tube is immersed in a
liquid, the liquid level inside the capillary tube is lesser or greater than the outer
liquid level. This is known as “Capillary action”. When the radius of the capillary
tube decreases, this effect increases.

Figure 3 -Capillary action

GPL 110X Surface Tension by Ferguson’s Method Page 6

 The following table shows some interfaces and their surface tension values with respect to different
temperatures.

Table 1- Some interfaces and their surface tension values

Interface Temperature Surface Tension(mN.m-1)
Water – Air 200C 72.86
0
Water – Air 21.5 C 72.75
Water – Air 250C 71.99
Mercury – Air 200C 486.5
Mercury – Air 250C 485.5
Mercury – Air 300C 484.5
Water – Mercury 200C 415

Angle of contact

When free surface of liquid comes in contact with solid, it becomes curved near the place of
contact. The angle between tangents drawn on liquid surface and solid surface inside liquid at
point of contact is called angle of contact

GPL 110X Surface Tension by Ferguson’s Method Page 7

 4. Theory

Figure 04- Schematic diagram of the experimental setup

By considering the liquid at A, we can get,

Px= hσg + Π

Px=Py=P

P = hσg + Π ……… (1)

PB= Π

Π = Hσwg + P’ …… (2)

P – P’= Hσwg+ hσg…….(3)

P – P’ = 2T/r …….. (4)

Where, P’ is the pressure in the liquid at A.

Using equations (3) and (4),

2r=d,

Hσwg+ hσg = 2T/r

( )
T=

GPL 110X Surface Tension by Ferguson’s Method Page 8

Where,
σw - Density of the experimental liquid. ( Water ) ,
σ - Density of the manometer liquid,
T - Surface tension of the experimental liquid,
r - Radius of the capillary tube,
d - Diameter of the capillary tube.

5. Apparatus and Accessories

 A travelling microscope
 A mirror scale
 A thermometer (minimum scale 1°C )
 A small lamp
 A few drops of the experimental liquid ( water )
 Mirror
 Capillary tube
 Rubber tube
 Two beakers with water
 Funnel
 Stands
 Lifting table
 U tube

Figure 05-Experimental instrument

GPL 110X Surface Tension by Ferguson’s Method Page 9

 6. Procedure

Figure 06-Experimental setup

1. The inner diameter of the capillary tube was measured using the travelling microscope
and readings were recorded.
2. The temperature of the experimental liquid(water) was measured and readings were
recorded.
3. The capillary tube was mounted in a vertical position as shown in figure 1 and the height
of the liquid column (H) was measured and readings were recorded.
4. A mirror was paced inclined 45⁰ below the surface B and the curvature of the surface was
observed conveniently.
5. The surface B was illuminated.The height(h) was adjusted until a concave surface is
formed at B.(It would be give a field of view of a bright center and a dark annuals of a
bright center and a dark annuals in the mirror.)
6. Then the height h was changed until the entire field was brighten.(Corresponded to the
flat liquid surface).Then the height h was measured and readings were recorded.
7. The height h was increased further and reduced back until a flat surface was seen at
B.The second reading of h was taken.The procedure was repeated once more and two
more readings of h were taken and readings were recorded.
8. Steps 5 to 6 should be repeated for one other value of H and the readings were recorded.

GPL 110X Surface Tension by Ferguson’s Method Page 10

 9. The temperature of liquid was measured again and readings were recorded.The surface
tension of the liquid was calculated using measurements readings were recorded.

10.Experimental Data

Table 2-Inner diameter of the capillary tube

Reading
(cm)
Y1
±0.0005cm
X1=9.110
X2=9.028 Y2
Y1=9.296
X1 X2
Y2=9.214
Figure 07-cross section of capillary tube

Table 3-Temperature of the experimental liquid

Measurement Temperature
(⁰C)
±0.5⁰C
Before the 26
Experiment
After the 28
experiment

Table 4-The height of the water column

Upper end position(cm) Lower end position(cm)
±0.0005cm ±0.0005cm
5.960 5.200

GPL 110X Surface Tension by Ferguson’s Method Page 11

Table 5-The difference in liquid levels in the manometer
Measurement Mirror scale reading
(cm)
0.05cm
1 h1=8.2
2 h2=6.8
3 h1=8.4
4 h2=6.7

Table 6-The height of the water column

Upper end position(cm) Lower end position(cm)
±0.0005cm ±0.0005cm
5.960 5.200

Table 7- The difference in liquid levels in the manometer

Measurement Mirror scale reading
(cm)
±0.05cm
1 h1=8.0
2 h2=7.1
3 h1=8.1
4 h2=7.1

GPL 110X Surface Tension by Ferguson’s Method Page 12

 11.Data Analysis
Table 8-Inner diameter of the capillary tube
Reading Diameter,2r Mean value of 2r
(cm) (cm) (cm)
±0.0005cm ±0.00071cm ±0.0005cm
X1=9.110 0.082 0.082
X2=9.028
Y1=9.296 0.082
Y2=9.214

Table 9-Temperature of the experimental liquid

Measurement Temperature Average
(⁰C) Temperature
±0.5000⁰C (⁰C)
±0.3536⁰C
Before the 26 27
Experiment
After the 28
experiment

Table 10-The height of the water column

Upper end position(cm) Lower end position(cm) Height of the water column,
±0.0005cm ±0.0005cm H1(cm)
±0.00071cm
5.960 5.200 0.760

GPL 110X Surface Tension by Ferguson’s Method Page 13

Table 11- The difference in liquid levels in the manometer
Measurement Mirror scale reading Height difference Average height difference
(cm) h(cm) ̅
±0.05cm ±0.071cm ±0.05cm
1 h1=8.2 1.4 1.55
2 h2=6.8
3 h1=8.4 1.7
4 h2=6.7

Table 12-The height of the water column

Upper end position(cm) Lower end position(cm) Height of the water column,
±0.0005cm ±0.0005cm H1(cm)
±0.00071cm
6.850 5.165 1.685

Table 13- The difference in liquid levels in the manometer

Measurement Mirror scale reading Height difference Average height difference
(cm) h(cm) ̅
±0.05cm ±0.071cm ±0.05cm
1 h1=8.0 0.9 0.95
2 h2=7.1
3 h1=8.1 1.0
4 h2=7.1

1. Diameter (d1) = X1 – X2
= 0.082 cm
2. Diameter (d2) = Y1 – Y2
= 0.082 cm

3. Diameter (d) = (d1 + d2)/2

= 0.082 cm

GPL 110X Surface Tension by Ferguson’s Method Page 14

 4. Average temperature (T) = (T1 + T2)/2
= 27 0C
Experiment 1
5. Height of the water column (H1) = HU – HL
= 0.76 cm
6. Height difference (h´) = h2 - h1
= 1.4 cm
7. Height difference (h´´) = h2 - h1
= 1.7 cm
8. Height difference ( ̅ ) = (h´ + h´´)/2
= 1.55 cm
Experiment 2
9. Height of the water column (H2) = HU – HL
= 1.685 cm
10. Height difference (h´) = h2 - h1
= 0.9 cm
11. Height difference (h´´) = h2 - h1
= 1.0 cm
12. Height difference ( ̅ ) = (h´ + h´´)/2
= 0.95 cm
( ̅ )
13. Surface Tension (T1)

= 41.935 mNm-1
( ̅ )
14. Surface Tension (T2) =

= 50.220 mNm-1
15. Surface Tension (T) = (T1 + T2)/2
= 46.078 mNm-1

GPL 110X Surface Tension by Ferguson’s Method Page 15

 12.Error Analysis
Error annlaysis for inner diameter(d)
1. d1=X1-X2
2 2 2
( 1) ( 1) + ( 2)
2 2
( 1) ( 1) × 2
( 1) ( 1)

( 1) ( )
1 7.071×10-4 cm

2. d2=Y1-Y2
2 2 2
( 2) ( 1) + ( 2)

( 2) ( 1)

( 2) ( )
2 7.071×10-4 cm

3. d =

( )2 = ( ) ( 1)
2
+( ) ( 2)
2

2
=( ) ( 1) × 2
( )
( )
( )
( )

5×10-4 cm

Error analysis for Temperature (T)

4. T =

( )2 = ( ) ( 1)
2
+( ) ( 2)
2

2
=( ) ( 1) × 2
( )
( )

GPL 110X Surface Tension by Ferguson’s Method Page 16

 ( )
( )

0.3536 cm

Error analysis for the height of the water column (H1)

5. H1 = HU – HL
( )2 ( 2
U) + ( L)
2

( )2 ( 2
U) × 2
( 1) ( U)

( 1) ( )
7.071×10-4cm

Error analysis for the difference in liquid levels in the manometer( ̅ )

6. h´ = h2 - h1
( )2 ( 2
1) + ( 2)
2

( )2 ( 2
1) × 2
( ) ( 1)

( ) ( )
´ 0.0707 cm

7. h´´= h2 - h1
( )2 ( 2
1) + ( 2)
2

( ) ( 1)

1 0.0707 cm

( )
8. ̅ =
̅ ̅
( ̅ )2 = ( ) ( )2 +( ) ( )2

=( ) ( )2 × 2
( )
( ̅)

GPL 110X Surface Tension by Ferguson’s Method Page 17

 ( )
( ̅)
̅ 0.05 cm

Error analysis for the height of the water column (H2)

9. H2 = HU – HL
2 2 2
( 2) ( U) + ( L)
2 2
( 2) ( U) × 2
( 2) ( U)

( 2) ( )
7.071×10-4cm

Error analysis for the difference in liquid levels in the manometer( ̅ )

10. h´ = h2 - h1
( )2 ( 2
1) + ( 2)
2

( )2 ( 2
1) × 2
( ) ( 1)

( ) ( )
´ 0.0707 cm

11. h´´= h2 - h1
( )2 ( 2
1) + ( 2)
2

( ) ( 1)

1 0.0707 cm

( )
12. ̅ =
̅ ̅
( ̅ )2 = ( ) ( )2 +( ) ( )2

=( ) ( )2 × 2
( )
( ̅)

GPL 110X Surface Tension by Ferguson’s Method Page 18

 ( )
( ̅)
̅ 0.05 cm

Error analysis for the difference in liquid levels in the Surface Tension(T)
( ̅ )
13. T1=

( 1)
2
=( ) ( )2 + ( ) ( )2 + ( ̅
) ( ̅ )2

=* ( ̅ )+ ( )2 + ( ) ( )2 + ( ) ( ̅ )2

( 1)= [( ̅ ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ̅) ]

=± [( ) ( ) ( ) (

) ( ) ( ) ]

= ± 0.1681 mNm-1

( ̅ )
14. T2=

( 2)
2
=( ) ( )2 + ( ) ( )2 + ( ̅
) ( ̅ )2

=* ( ̅ )+ ( )2 + ( ) ( )2 + ( ) ( ̅ )2

( 1)= [( ̅ ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ̅) ]

=± [( ) ( ) ( ) (

) ( ) ( ) ]

= ± 0.1689 mNm-1

GPL 110X Surface Tension by Ferguson’s Method Page 19

 15. T =

( )2 = ( ) ( 1)
2
+( ) ( 2)
2

2 2
=( ) ( 1) +( ) ( 2)

( ) [( ) ( ) ]

( ) [( ) ( ) ]

0.1191mNm-1

13.Final Results

Table 13-Final results

Results of the Experiment
Diameter of the capillary tube (0.082± 0.0005) cm
Temperature (27± 0.3536) 0C
H1(height of the
water column
(0.760± 0.0007) cm
inside the capillary
Experiment 1
tube)
h’ (1.550± 0.05) cm
T1 (41.935±0.1681) mNm-1
H2(height of the
water column
(1.685± 0.0007) cm
inside the capillary
Experiment 2 tube)
h” (0.95± 0.05) cm
T2 (50.220±0.1689) mNm-1
Surface Tension T (46.078±0.1191) mNm-1

GPL 110X Surface Tension by Ferguson’s Method Page 20

 14.Discussion
The surface tension of water-air interface at 27⁰C 71.22 mNm-1.But according to our experiment
we got the value at 46.08mNm-1.According to this value there are some errors in our experiment.
We started our experiment at 26⁰C and end our experiment at 28⁰C.This temperature different
can be an error.Because temperature mainly affect to the surface tension.When the temperature
increases there surface tension decreases.Due to increased temperature of water,impurities of any
kind are evaporated and also the inter molecular forces are reduced thus by lowering surface
tesion.If this attraction exceeds that between the liquid molecules among themselves,it reduces
the surface energy,resulting in decrease in the surface tension of the solution.If we can stable
temperature it was a better for our final result.
The edges of the capillary tube that we used to this experiment are broken.It was difficult to take
a clear image of the curvature.
Also we took the below mesurements to calculate the following.
 Diameter of the capillary tube
 Height of the water column inside the capillary tube
 Different of the liquid levels in the manometer
Each of these measurements also have an error.If we can measure these more accurately, we can
to get a close value to the reference value.We could to get some accurate value to the diameter of
the capillary tube.The capillary hole is too small because that we have to messure of the diameter
of is so accurately..We can to get better reading for that because of the,we use travelling
microscope.It is a good method to get the better readings than the method of insert a mercury
coloumn in to the capillary tube and measure its length and calculate the diameter of the capillary
tube.
In this experiment ,there was hard to perform as there was an air bubble stuck in the capillary
tube.
Making the horizontal liquid coloumn is the hardest part of the experiment.There was a big error,
if we couldn’t make the liquid coloumn was not horizontal.In this practicle we used mirror and
small lamp to recognized to the liquid coloumn horizontal or not.If can recognized liquid
coloumn horizontal or not in probably we can do most accurately in this practicle, while taking
the readings from the manometer. It gave a field of view of a bright center and a dark annuals in

GPL 110X Surface Tension by Ferguson’s Method Page 21

the mirror.To see it well we used a small lamp.But we light on the lamp long time,it is caused to
vaporize the water in capillary tube.It is an error.Because when the water decreases,it affects to
the pressure giving in height of ater column.Also we got readings in two times.If water column
decreases it affects to more.
Also here problem had reason to use the mirror scale.So there were able to take more accurate
readings when top surface of liquid column and it’s relaction are equal.
Also we got that readings both me and partner.There was a problem in the accuracy of the
measurement.Thus if same person could to get these measurements, it was more accurate than
earlier one.Specially to recognizing the horizontal line of the water column,we adjusted lifting
table.If we can do this action to one person it is more suitable to get more accurate values.

15.Conclusion
After doing experiment, we calculated the value of surface tension of the water and air interfaces
in 27⁰C temperature by Ferguson’s method and we got the value 46.028mNm-1 .But the value
should be around 72 mNm-1.There were some errors in our experiment which caused the value to
get derivated from the real value.

GPL 110X Surface Tension by Ferguson’s Method Page 22

 16.References

 Web sites
1. https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Surface_tension

 Books
1. Advanced Physics by Keith Gibbs
2. A – level Physics by Roger Muncaster

GPL 110X Surface Tension by Ferguson’s Method Page 23

 17.Questions
1. What is the effect of temperature on the surface tension of a liquid?When does it
vanish?
In general,surface tension decreases when temperature increases.Because cohesive forces
decrease with an increase of molecular thermal activity.The influence of the surrounding
environment is due to the adhesive action liquid molecules have at the interface.

Figure 8 – graph of surface tension and temperature

The figure shows how water surface tension decreases with temperature.This is because
cohesive forces decreases as molecules vibrate at a higher frequency when temperature is
increased.
2. Why is Xylol or kerosene preferred as a manometric liquid to water or mercury?
This is because the density of mercury is high, or u can say it is thick in nature. it does
not stick on the walls of the tube of manometer, resulting in accurate measurements.
--if water would be used instead of mercury, then the tube of manometer would be very
long, as water is less dense, and so rises very fast in the tube on experiencing air
pressure.-
-- in terms of visibility also, mercury is definitely better than water, as water would not be

GPL 110X Surface Tension by Ferguson’s Method Page 24

 clearly visible.
-- evaporation rate of water is higher than that of mercury.
any other liquid would also not work-mercury is best for it as it is cheaply available too.

3. Water wets glass but mercury does not.Why?

In water the cohesive force is weaker than the adhesive force exerted by the molecues of
glass, hence it wets glass while in mercury the cohesive force is stronger than the
adhesive force of glass.Hence it does not sticks to glass and as a result does not wets it.
4. Which liquids do and which liquids do not rise in capillary tubes?
The liquids which has a higher cohesive force does not rise while the other liquids rise.
Liquids which has higher surface tension values like mercury don’t rise in capillary
tube.Liquids like water which has law surface tension values rise in capillary tube.
5. What is the main advantage of using Ferguson’s method over Jaeger’s method when
determining the surface tension?

Figure 9 –Jaeger method

Measuring h1 is difficult task and there may be a big error.Because we have to measure h
in water.That is the reason to difficult it.Considering these 2 methods in ferguson method
we easy to get readings and they are accurate more than jaeger method.

GPL 110X Surface Tension by Ferguson’s Method Page 25

 6. The liquid which is used to measure surface tension should have an angle of contact
with glass equal to zero.Explain why?
In this experiment we want to measure pressure at B.We can’t to do that.Because of that
we equal to difference of pressure at B and the atmosphere pressure is zero.
Ԥ – PB = 2T/r
For that we do r .Then, Ԥ – PB = 0 and Ԥ = PB. To r we make the flat liquid
surface.When it makes the flat liquid surface,there have an angle of contact with glass
equal to zero.That is the reason why the liquid which is used to measure surface tension
should have an angle of contact with glass equal to zero.

GPL 110X Surface Tension by Ferguson’s Method Page 26