Artificial Intelligence (AI)

Part - 2, Lecture – 13 & 14

Resolution in First-order logic

Lecturer: Dr. Md Akhtaruzzaman
Assistant Professor, CSE, MIST
akhter900@gmail.com

June 17, 2021, MIST, Dhaka.

 Recap

 Resolution
 Resolution inference rule
 Steps of Resolution rule
 Examples

akhter900@gmail.com 2
 Unification
 Unification Algorithm
 Examples

akhter900@gmail.com 3
 A proving technique that proceeds by building
refutation proofs (proofs by contradictions)
 If there are various statements are given, and a
conclusion is needed to be proved from those
statements, resolution can be applied.
 Unification is a key concept in proofs by
resolutions.
 Resolution is a single inference rule which can
efficiently operate on the Conjunctive Normal
Form (CNF) or clausal form.

akhter900@gmail.com 4
Also called as binary resolution rule

𝒍 𝟏 ∨ ⋯ ∨ 𝒍 𝒌 , 𝒎𝟏 ∨ ⋯ ∨ 𝒎𝒏
𝑺𝑼𝑩𝑺𝑻 𝜽, 𝒍𝟏 ∨ ⋯ ∨ 𝒍𝒊−𝟏 ∨ 𝒍𝒊+𝟏 ∨ ⋯ ∨ 𝒍𝒌 ∨ 𝒎𝟏 ∨ ⋯ ∨ 𝒎𝒋−𝟏 ∨ 𝒎𝒋+𝟏 ∨ ⋯ ∨ 𝒎𝒏

Here, 𝒍𝒊 and 𝒎𝒋 are complementary literal

akhter900@gmail.com 5
Exercise 1:
 𝑷∨𝑸
 ¬𝑸 ∨ 𝑹
 ¬𝑷 ∨ 𝑺
 ¬𝑺

 Goal to proof: 𝑹

akhter900@gmail.com 6
Exercise 1…: Solution (Resolution graph):
 𝑷∨𝑸 𝑷∨𝑸 --- ¬𝑸 ∨ 𝑹
 ¬𝑸 ∨ 𝑹
 ¬𝑷 ∨ 𝑺 𝑷∨𝑹 --- ¬𝑷 ∨ 𝑺
 ¬𝑺
𝑹∨𝑺 --- ¬𝑺
 Goal to proof: 𝑹
 Negation of 𝑹 is ¬𝑹 𝑹 --- ¬𝑹

𝚽 (𝐍𝐮𝐥𝐥)
akhter900@gmail.com 7
1. Conversion of facts into first-order logic (FoL)
2. Convert FoL statements into CNF
3. Negate the statement which needs to prove
(proof by contradiction)
4. Draw resolution graph (unification)

akhter900@gmail.com 8
 Convert FoL statements into CNF
1. Eliminate all implication (→) and rewrite
2. Move negation (¬) inwards and rewrite
3. Rename variables or standardize variables
4. Eliminate existential instantiation quantifier by
elimination
5. Drop Universal quantifiers
6. Distribute conjunction ∧ over disjunction ¬

akhter900@gmail.com 9
Example 1:
 John likes all kind of food.
 Apple and vegetable are food
 Anything anyone eats and not killed is food.
 Anil eats peanuts and still alive
 Harry eats everything that Anil eats.

 Prove by resolution: John likes peanuts.

akhter900@gmail.com 10
Given statements:
1. John likes all kind of food.
2. Apple and vegetable are food
3. Anything anyone eats and not
killed is food.
4. Anil eats peanuts and still alive
5. Harry eats everything that Anil
eats.
Prove that: John likes peanuts.
Step 1: Convert Facts into FoL
1. ∀𝒙 𝒇𝒐𝒐𝒅 𝒙 → 𝒍𝒊𝒌𝒆𝒔 𝑱𝒐𝒉𝒏, 𝒙
2. 𝒇𝒐𝒐𝒅 𝑨𝒑𝒑𝒍𝒆 ∧ 𝒇𝒐𝒐𝒅(𝒗𝒆𝒈𝒊𝒕𝒂𝒃𝒍𝒆𝒔)
3. ∀𝒙 ∀𝒚 𝒆𝒂𝒕𝒔 𝒙, 𝒚 ∧ ¬𝒌𝒊𝒍𝒍𝒆𝒅 𝒙 → 𝒇𝒐𝒐𝒅(𝒚)
4. 𝒆𝒂𝒕𝒔 𝑨𝒏𝒊𝒍, 𝒑𝒆𝒂𝒏𝒖𝒕𝒔 ∧ 𝒂𝒍𝒊𝒗𝒆(𝑨𝒏𝒊𝒍)
5. ∀𝒙 𝐞𝐚𝐭𝐬 𝐀𝐧𝐢𝐥, 𝐱 → 𝐞𝐚𝐭𝐬(𝐇𝐚𝐫𝐫𝐲, 𝐱)
6. ∀𝒙 ¬𝒌𝒊𝒍𝒍𝒆𝒅 𝒙 → 𝒂𝒍𝒊𝒗𝒆(𝒙)
7. ∀𝒙 𝒂𝒍𝒊𝒗𝒆 𝒙 → ¬𝒌𝒊𝒍𝒍𝒆𝒅 𝒙
8. Have to proof: 𝒍𝒊𝒌𝒆𝒔(𝑱𝒐𝒉𝒏, 𝑷𝒆𝒂𝒏𝒖𝒕𝒔)
akhter900@gmail.com 11
Step 1: Convert Facts into FoL
1. ∀𝒙 𝒇𝒐𝒐𝒅 𝒙 → 𝒍𝒊𝒌𝒆𝒔 𝑱𝒐𝒉𝒏, 𝒙
2. 𝒇𝒐𝒐𝒅 𝑨𝒑𝒑𝒍𝒆 ∧ 𝒇𝒐𝒐𝒅(𝒗𝒆𝒈𝒊𝒕𝒂𝒃𝒍𝒆𝒔)
3. ∀𝒙 ∀𝒚 𝒆𝒂𝒕𝒔 𝒙, 𝒚 ∧ ¬𝒌𝒊𝒍𝒍𝒆𝒅 𝒙 →
𝒇𝒐𝒐𝒅(𝒚)
4. 𝒆𝒂𝒕𝒔 𝑨𝒏𝒊𝒍, 𝒑𝒆𝒂𝒏𝒖𝒕𝒔 ∧ 𝒂𝒍𝒊𝒗𝒆(𝑨𝒏𝒊𝒍)
5. ∀𝒙 𝐞𝐚𝐭𝐬 𝐀𝐧𝐢𝐥, 𝐱 → 𝐞𝐚𝐭𝐬(𝐇𝐚𝐫𝐫𝐲, 𝐱)
6. ∀𝒙 ¬𝒌𝒊𝒍𝒍𝒆𝒅 𝒙 → 𝒂𝒍𝒊𝒗𝒆(𝒙)
7. ∀𝒙 𝒂𝒍𝒊𝒗𝒆 𝒙 → ¬𝒌𝒊𝒍𝒍𝒆𝒅 𝒙
8. Have to proof: 𝒍𝒊𝒌𝒆𝒔(𝑱𝒐𝒉𝒏, 𝑷𝒆𝒂𝒏𝒖𝒕𝒔)
Step 2: Convert FoL into CNF
1. ¬ 𝒇𝒐𝒐𝒅 𝒙 ∨ 𝒍𝒊𝒌𝒆𝒔(𝑱𝒐𝒉𝒏, 𝒙)
2. 𝒇𝒐𝒐𝒅(𝑨𝒑𝒑𝒍𝒆)
3. 𝒇𝒐𝒐𝒅(𝒗𝒆𝒈𝒆𝒕𝒂𝒃𝒍𝒆𝒔)
4. ¬ 𝒆𝒂𝒕𝒔 𝒚, 𝒛 ∨ 𝒌𝒊𝒍𝒍𝒆𝒅 𝒚 ∨ 𝒇𝒐𝒐𝒅(𝒛)
5. 𝒆𝒂𝒕𝒔 (𝑨𝒏𝒊𝒍, 𝑷𝒆𝒂𝒏𝒖𝒕𝒔)
6. 𝒂𝒍𝒊𝒗𝒆(𝑨𝒏𝒊𝒍)
7. ¬ 𝒆𝒂𝒕𝒔 𝑨𝒏𝒊𝒍, 𝒘 ∨ 𝒆𝒂𝒕𝒔(𝑯𝒂𝒓𝒓𝒚, 𝒘)
8. 𝒌𝒊𝒍𝒍𝒆𝒅 𝒈 ∨ 𝒂𝒍𝒊𝒗𝒆(𝒈)
9. ¬ 𝒂𝒍𝒊𝒗𝒆 𝒌 ∨ ¬ 𝒌𝒊𝒍𝒍𝒆𝒅(𝒌)
10. 𝒍𝒊𝒌𝒆𝒔(𝑱𝒐𝒉𝒏, 𝑷𝒆𝒂𝒏𝒖𝒕𝒔).
akhter900@gmail.com 12
Step 2: Convert FoL into CNF Step 3: Negate the statement to be proved
1. ¬ 𝒇𝒐𝒐𝒅 𝒙 ∨ 𝒍𝒊𝒌𝒆𝒔(𝑱𝒐𝒉𝒏, 𝒙)
2. 𝒇𝒐𝒐𝒅(𝑨𝒑𝒑𝒍𝒆)
1. ¬𝒍𝒊𝒌𝒆𝒔(𝑱𝒐𝒉𝒏, 𝑷𝒆𝒂𝒏𝒖𝒕𝒔)
3. 𝒇𝒐𝒐𝒅(𝒗𝒆𝒈𝒆𝒕𝒂𝒃𝒍𝒆𝒔)
4. ¬ 𝒆𝒂𝒕𝒔 𝒚, 𝒛 ∨ 𝒌𝒊𝒍𝒍𝒆𝒅 𝒚 ∨ 𝒇𝒐𝒐𝒅(𝒛)
5. 𝒆𝒂𝒕𝒔 (𝑨𝒏𝒊𝒍, 𝑷𝒆𝒂𝒏𝒖𝒕𝒔)
6. 𝒂𝒍𝒊𝒗𝒆(𝑨𝒏𝒊𝒍)
7. ¬ 𝒆𝒂𝒕𝒔 𝑨𝒏𝒊𝒍, 𝒘 ∨ 𝒆𝒂𝒕𝒔(𝑯𝒂𝒓𝒓𝒚, 𝒘)
8. 𝒌𝒊𝒍𝒍𝒆𝒅 𝒈 ∨ 𝒂𝒍𝒊𝒗𝒆(𝒈)
9. ¬ 𝒂𝒍𝒊𝒗𝒆 𝒌 ∨ ¬ 𝒌𝒊𝒍𝒍𝒆𝒅(𝒌)
10. 𝒍𝒊𝒌𝒆𝒔(𝑱𝒐𝒉𝒏, 𝑷𝒆𝒂𝒏𝒖𝒕𝒔).

akhter900@gmail.com 13
Step 2: Convert FoL into CNF Step 4: Draw Resolution graph
1. ¬𝒍𝒊𝒌𝒆𝒔 𝑱𝒐𝒉𝒏, 𝑷𝒆𝒂𝒏𝒖𝒕𝒔
1. ¬ 𝒇𝒐𝒐𝒅 𝒙 ∨ 𝒍𝒊𝒌𝒆𝒔(𝑱𝒐𝒉𝒏, 𝒙)
 𝜽 = 𝑷𝒆𝒂𝒏𝒖𝒕𝒔 Τ𝒙
2. 𝒇𝒐𝒐𝒅(𝑨𝒑𝒑𝒍𝒆)
2. ¬𝒇𝒐𝒐𝒅(𝑷𝒆𝒂𝒏𝒖𝒕𝒔)
3. 𝒇𝒐𝒐𝒅(𝒗𝒆𝒈𝒆𝒕𝒂𝒃𝒍𝒆𝒔)
 𝜽 = {𝑷𝒆𝒂𝒏𝒖𝒕𝒔/𝒛}
4. ¬ 𝒆𝒂𝒕𝒔 𝒚, 𝒛 ∨ 𝒌𝒊𝒍𝒍𝒆𝒅 𝒚 ∨ 𝒇𝒐𝒐𝒅(𝒛)
3. ¬ 𝒆𝒂𝒕𝒔 𝒚, 𝑷𝒆𝒂𝒏𝒖𝒕𝒔 ∨ 𝒌𝒊𝒍𝒍𝒆𝒅 𝒚
5. 𝒆𝒂𝒕𝒔 (𝑨𝒏𝒊𝒍, 𝑷𝒆𝒂𝒏𝒖𝒕𝒔)  𝜽 = {𝑨𝒏𝒊𝒍/𝒚}
6. 𝒂𝒍𝒊𝒗𝒆(𝑨𝒏𝒊𝒍) 4. 𝒌𝒊𝒍𝒍𝒆𝒅 𝑨𝒏𝒊𝒍
7. ¬ 𝒆𝒂𝒕𝒔 𝑨𝒏𝒊𝒍, 𝒘 ∨ 𝒆𝒂𝒕𝒔(𝑯𝒂𝒓𝒓𝒚, 𝒘)  𝜽 = {𝑨𝒏𝒊𝒍/𝒈}

8. 𝒌𝒊𝒍𝒍𝒆𝒅 𝒈 ∨ 𝒂𝒍𝒊𝒗𝒆(𝒈) 5. ¬𝒂𝒍𝒊𝒗𝒆(𝒌)

 𝜽 = {𝑨𝒏𝒊𝒍/ 𝒌}
9. ¬ 𝒂𝒍𝒊𝒗𝒆 𝒌 ∨ ¬ 𝒌𝒊𝒍𝒍𝒆𝒅(𝒌)
6. 𝚽 (𝐧𝐮𝐥𝐥)
10. 𝒍𝒊𝒌𝒆𝒔(𝑱𝒐𝒉𝒏, 𝑷𝒆𝒂𝒏𝒖𝒕𝒔).

Proved
Step 3: Negate the statement to be proved
1. ¬𝒍𝒊𝒌𝒆𝒔(𝑱𝒐𝒉𝒏, 𝑷𝒆𝒂𝒏𝒖𝒕𝒔)

akhter900@gmail.com 14
akhter900@gmail.com 15
FoL Conversion

akhter900@gmail.com 16
CNF Conversion

akhter900@gmail.com 17
Resolution graph

akhter900@gmail.com 18
 Understand before act,
as what is seen may not be the actual
reflection of a state.

Thank You
19