Course: Teaching Strategies (846)

ROLL No. CB666747

Assignment No. 1
Semester: Spring, 2021

Q.1 Discuss with any educationist, the permissive style of teaching and
prepare a report of the outcomes of your discussion.
Answer:-
Institutions of higher learning across the nation are responding to political, economic,
social and technological pressures to be more responsive to students’ needs and more
concerned about how well students are prepared to assume future societal roles.
Faculty are already feeling the pressure to lecture less, to make learning environments
more interactive, to integrate technology into the learning experience, and to use
collaborative learning strategies when appropriate.

Lecture. For many years, the lecture method was the most widely used instructional
strategy in college classrooms. Nearly 80% of all U.S. college classrooms in the late
1970s reported using some form of the lecture method to teach students. Although the
usefulness of other teaching strategies is being widely examined today, the lecture
still remains an important way to communicate information.

Used in conjunction with active learning teaching strategies, the traditional lecture can
be an effective way to achieve instructional goals. The advantages of the lecture
approach are that it provides a way to communicate a large amount of information to
many listeners, maximizes instructor control and is non-threatening to students. The
disadvantages are that lecturing minimizes feedback from students, assumes an
unrealistic level of student understanding and comprehension, and often disengages
students from the learning process causing information to be quickly forgotten.

The following recommendations can help make the lecture approach more effective
(Cashin, 1990):

1. Fit the lecture to the audience

2. Focus your topic – remember you cannot cover everything in one lecture
3. Prepare an outline that includes 5-9 major points you want to cover in one
lecture
4. Organize your points for clarity
5. Select appropriate examples or illustrations
6. Present more than one side of an issue and be sensitive to other perspectives
7. Repeat points when necessary
8. Be aware of your audience – notice their feedback

Case Method. Providing an opportunity for students to apply what they learn in the
classroom to real-life experiences has proven to be an effective way of both
disseminating and integrating knowledge. The case method is an instructional strategy
that engages students in active discussion about issues and problems inherent in
practical application. It can highlight fundamental dilemmas or critical issues and
provide a format for role playing ambiguous or controversial scenarios. Course
content cases can come from a variety of sources. Many faculty have transformed
current events or problems reported through print or broadcast media into critical
learning experiences that illuminate the complexity of finding solutions to critical
social problems. The case study approach works well in cooperative learning or role
playing environments to stimulate critical thinking and awareness of multiple
perspectives.

Discussion. There are a variety of ways to stimulate discussion. For example, some
faculty begin a lesson with a whole group discussion to refresh students� memories
about the assigned reading(s). Other faculty find it helpful to have students list critical
points or emerging issues, or generate a set of questions stemming from the assigned
reading(s). These strategies can also be used to help focus large and small group
discussions. Obviously, a successful class discussion involves planning on the part of
the instructor and preparation on the part of the students. Instructors should
communicate this commitment to the students on the first day of class by clearly
articulating course expectations. Just as the instructor carefully plans the learning
experience, the students must comprehend the assigned reading and show up for class
on time, ready to learn.

Active Learning. Meyers and Jones (1993) define active learning as learning
environments that allow � students to talk and listen, read, write, and reflect as they
approach course content through problem-solving exercises, informal small groups,
simulations, case studies, role playing, and other activities — all of which require
students to apply what they are learning� (p. xi). Many studies show that learning is
enhanced when students become actively involved in the learning process.
Instructional strategies that engage students in the learning process stimulate critical
thinking and a greater awareness of other perspectives. Although there are times when
lecturing is the most appropriate method for disseminating information, current
thinking in college teaching and learning suggests that the use of a variety of
instructional strategies can positively enhance student learning. Obviously, teaching
strategies should be carefully matched to the teaching objectives of a particular lesson.
For more information about teaching strategies, see the list of college teaching
references in Appendix N. Assessing or grading students’ contributions in active
learning environments is somewhat problematic. It is extremely important that the
course syllabus explicitly outlines the evaluation criteria for each assignment whether
individual or group. Students need and want to know what is expected of them. For
more information about grading, see the Evaluating Student Work section contained
in this Guide.

Cooperative Learning. Cooperative Learning is a systematic pedagogical strategy

that encourages small groups of students to work together for the achievement of a
common goal. The term ‘Collaborative Learning’ is often used as a synonym for
cooperative learning when, in fact, it is a separate strategy that encompasses a broader
range of group interactions such as developing learning communities, stimulating
student/faculty discussions, and encouraging electronic exchanges (Bruffee, 1993).
Both approaches stress the importance of faculty and student involvement in the
learning process. When integrating cooperative or collaborative learning strategies
into a course, careful planning and preparation are essential. Understanding how to
form groups, ensure positive interdependence, maintain individual accountability,
resolve group conflict, develop appropriate assignments and grading criteria, and
manage active learning environments are critical to the achievement of a successful
cooperative learning experience. Before you begin, you may want to consult several
helpful resources which are contained in Appendix N. In addition, the Program in
Support of Teaching and Learning can provide faculty with supplementary
information and helpful techniques for using cooperative learning or collaborative
learning in college classrooms.

Integrating Technology. Today, educators realize that computer literacy is an

important part of a student’s education. Integrating technology into a course
curriculum when appropriate is proving to be valuable for enhancing and extending
the learning experience for faculty and students. Many faculty have found electronic
mail to be a useful way to promote student/student or faculty/student communication
between class meetings. Others use listserves or on-line notes to extend topic
discussions and explore critical issues with students and colleagues, or discipline-
specific software to increase student understanding of difficult concepts. Currently,
our students come to us with varying degrees of computer literacy. Faculty who use
technology regularly often find it necessary to provide some basic skill level
instruction during the first week of class. In the future, we expect that need to decline.
For help in integrating technology into a course curriculum contact the Program in
Support of Teaching and Learning or the Instructional Development Office (IDO) at
703-993-3141. In addition, watch for information throughout the year about
workshops and faculty conversations on the integration of technology, teaching and
learning.

Distance Learning. Distance learning is not a new concept. We have all experienced
learning outside of a structured classroom setting through television, correspondence
courses, etc. Distance learning or distance education as a teaching pedagogy, however,
is an important topic of discussion on college campuses today. Distance learning is
defined as ‘any form of teaching and learning in which the teacher and learner are not
in the same place at the same time’ (Gilbert, 1995). Obviously, information
technology has broadened our concept of the learning environment. It has made it
possible for learning experiences to be extended beyond the confines of the traditional
classroom. Distance learning technologies take many forms such as computer
simulations, interactive collaboration/discussion, and the creation of virtual learning
environments connecting regions or nations. Components of distance learning such as
email, listserves, and interactive software have also been useful additions to the
educational setting.

Q.2 Explain various activities occuring in each phase of teaching while highlighting
on the different phases of teaching

Answer
Element of a model of teaching represent its structure, process and teaching aids of
the instruction. A model of teaching consists of syntax, social system, principle of
reaction and support system. The detailed descriptions are as follows.

​
Syntax

It is the steps or phases of the model being presented before the class. It illustrates the
logical and sequential order of the teacher student activities of the instruction
procedure. It describes the complete programme of action of the model.

Social system

Social system of a model explains its nature of learning environment. It describes the
role and relationship of the teacher and students through the phases as well as
designing the lesson. As each and every model is unique, the role of teacher and
students in every model may vary according to the respective learning theory of the
model is built. It also varies in phases to phases.

Principle of Reaction

This is the extension of social system. It deals with the rules of reaction to the
students responses in the classroom interaction. The reaction of the teacher must be in
accordance with the theory of which model has been built. The teacher reaction is
desired when the students’ responses/ behavior are untouched with expected level
responses and for giving reinforcement. It depends the family of the model is
presented.

Support system

It includes all instructional aides used in a model of teaching. Eg. Books,

Encyclopedia, Video clips, slides, News paper, Tab, Expert, Films, Specimen etc.

Effect of models of Teaching

Models of teaching have a very positive effect on students’ behavior. Bruce Joyce
classified the effect as Instructional effect and Nurturant Effect. Instructional effects
are the direct effect of an instruction on students’ cognitive, affective and
psychomotor domain. Nurturant effects are the indirect effect other than the teacher
intends to achieve through the model. It is the additional achievement gained by the
students through the unique nature classroom interaction. Examples are the
development of problem solving ability, analytical thinking, critical thinking, social
skill, tolerance etc.

FAMILIES OF MODELS OF TEACHING

Joyce & Weil (2014) categorized the models of teaching in to four families. The
classification has been made in accordance with the theoretical basis and fundamental
aim of the teaching model. The four families explained below in detail.

THE INFORMATION PROCESSING FAMILY

Models in the information processing family focus on the cognitive activity of
child. It includes scientific inquiry for collecting original information, organizing
and properly storing of the information. Some models provide the learners with
information and concept, some emphasis concept formation and hypothesis testing
and still other generate creative thinking. Joyce & Weil (2014) listed eight models in
Information Processing Model.

THE SOCIAL FAMILY

The focus of the social model family is to build synergy (collective energy) in the
classroom for addressing ongoing problems of personal, social, national as well as
international importance. Social models help the students to develop Self directed
problem solving ability, sense of belongingness towards the society and make them
responsible citizens of the country.

THE PERSONAL FAMILY

The personal models begin from the perspective of the selfhood of the individual.
Individual consciousness and development of unique personality is the chief focus of
this family. The models in personal family attempt to make them understand their self
and thereby students can shape their future. The cluster of personal models pays great
attention to the individual perspective and seeks to encourage productive
interdependence, increasing people’s self awareness and sense of responsibility for
their own destinies.

THE BEHAVIOURAL SYSTEM FAMILY

Modification of behavior is the main focus of this family. The stance taken is that
human beings are self correcting communication systems that modify behavior in
response to the information about how successfully tasks are navigated. The role of
predetermined objectives, observable behavior, clearly defined task and methods,
feedback and reinforcement are the foundations of models in behavior family.

Q.3 Critically examine the understanding level of teaching and also give the
limitations of teaching at understanding level.

Answer:

Through teaching the teacher brings a desirable change in the learner. Both the
concepts teaching and learning are interrelated to each other. Development of
all-round personality of the learner is the final goal of teaching and learning. During
teaching an interaction takes place between an experienced person (teacher) and an
inexperienced person (student). Here the main aim is to bring change in the behavior
of the student.

Teachers teach students at three levels. They have to keep in mind about the
developmental stage of the learners so that desired educational objectives can be
achieved. These three levels are
1. Memory level: Thoughtless teaching
2. Understanding level: Thoughtful teaching
3. Reflective level: Upper thoughtful level

I’ll be doing a separate article on these levels of teaching but for now, in this article,
we will have the gist of all these three levels of teachings along with their advantages
and disadvantages.

Memory level of teaching

It is the first and thoughtless level of teaching. It is concerned with memory or mental
ability that exists in all living beings. Teaching at memory level is considered to be
the lowest level of teaching. At this level,

 the thinking ability does not play any role.

 students only cram the facts, information, formulas and laws that are taught to
them.
 the teaching is nothing but learning the subject matter by rote.[Bigge, Morris
L(1967)]
 the role of the teacher is prominent and that of the student is secondary.
 The study material is organized and pre-planned. The teacher presents the
study material in a sequential order.
 Memory level teaching lacks insight. Psychologically, it is cognitive level
teaching.

Merits of memory level teaching

1. Useful for children at lower classes. This is because of their intellect us under
development and they have a rote memory.
2. The role of the teacher is important in this level of teaching and he is free to
make choices of subject matter, plan it and can present it at will.
3. The knowledge acquired at memory level teaching forms a basis for the future
i.e. when student’s intelligence and thinking is required.
4. Memory level teaching acts as the first step for understanding and reflective
levels of teaching. It is pre-requisite for understanding level teaching.

Demerits of memory level teaching

1. This does not contribute to the development of the student’s capabilities.

2. Since at this level student learns by rote, the knowledge gained does not prove
helpful in real life situations as it does not develops the talents of students.
3. The pupils are kept in strict discipline and cramming is insisted on this
teaching.
4. Intelligence does not carry any importance in this type of teaching and it lacks
motivation

Reflective level of teaching

This level is also known as introspective level. Reflecting on something means giving
careful thought to something over a period of time. It also means thinking deeply
about something.

Reflective level of teaching is considered to be the highest level at which teaching is

carried out.

 It is highly thoughtful and useful.

 A student can attain this level only after going through memory level and
understanding level.
 Teaching at the reflective level enables the students to solve the real problems
of life.
 At this level, the student is made to face a real problematic situation. The
student by understanding the situation and using his critical abilities succeeds in
solving the problem.
 At this level emphasis is laid on identifying the problem, defining it and
finding a solution to it. The student’s original thinking and creative-abilities
develop at this level.
 The role of the teacher in this level of teaching is democratic. He does not
force knowledge on the students but develops in their talents and capabilities.
 The role of the students is quite active.
 reflective level of teaching is that which is problem-centered and the student is
busy in original imagination.

Merits of reflective level teaching

1. The teaching at this level is not teacher-centered or subject-centered, it is

leaner-centered.
2. There is an interaction between the teacher and the taught at the reflective
level teaching.
3. At this level, teaching is appropriate for the higher class.
4. At this level, teaching is highly thoughtful and useful than the teaching at the
memory or understanding level.

Demerits of reflective level teaching

1. not suitable for small children at the lower level of teaching. It is suitable only
for mentally matured children
2. At this level, the study material is neither organized nor pre-planned.
Therefore students cannot acquire systematic and c;organized knowledge of their
study courses.

Q.4 Discuss and differentiate between the terms task analysis and content
analysis. Give examples in support of your answer

Answer:-
MYP sciences aspires to develop scientifically informed, caring and responsible
individuals who can think critically and make informed choices about themselves,
the environment and society.

Aims

The aims of the teaching and study of sciences are to encourage and enable students
to:

 develop inquiring minds and curiosity about science and the natural world
 acquire knowledge, conceptual understanding and skills to solve problems and
make informed decisions in scientific and other contexts
 develop skills of scientific inquiry to design and carry out scientific
investigations and evaluate scientific evidence to draw conclusions
 communicate scientific ideas, arguments and practical experiences accurately
in a variety of ways
 think analytically, critically and creatively to solve problems, judge arguments
and make decisions in scientific and other contexts
 appreciate the benefits and limitations of science and its application in
technological developments
 understand the international nature of science and the interdependence of
science, technology and society, including the benefits, limitations and
implications imposed by social, economic, political, environmental, cultural and
ethical factors
 demonstrate attitudes and develop values of honesty and respect for
themselves, others, and their shared environment.

Objectives

The objectives of sciences listed below are final objectives and they describe what
students should be able to do by the end of the course. These objectives have a direct
correspondence with the final assessment criteria, A–F (see “Sciences assessment
criteria”).

A One world

This objective refers to enabling students to understand the interdependence between

science and society. Students should be aware of the global dimension of science, as a
universal activity with consequences for our lives and subject to social, economic,
political, environmental, cultural and ethical factors.

At the end of the course, and within local and global contexts, students should be able
to:

 describe and discuss ways in which science is applied and used to solve local
and global problems
 describe and evaluate the benefits and limitations of science and scientific
applications as well as their effect on life and society
 discuss how science and technology are interdependent and assist each other
in the development of knowledge and technological applications
 discuss how science and its applications interact with social, economic,
political, environmental, cultural and ethical factors.

B Communication in science

This objective refers to enabling students to develop their communication skills in

science. Students should be able to understand scientific information, such as data,
ideas, arguments and investigations, and communicate it using appropriate scientific
language in a variety of communication modes and formats as appropriate.

At the end of the course, students should be able to:

 communicate scientific information using a range of scientific language

 communicate scientific information using appropriate modes of
communication
 present scientific information in a variety of formats, acknowledging sources
as appropriate
 demonstrate honesty when handling data and information, acknowledging
sources as appropriate
 use where appropriate a range of information and communication technology
applications to access, process and communicate scientific information.

C Knowledge and understanding of science

This objective refers to enabling students to understand the main ideas and concepts
of science and to apply them to solve problems in familiar and unfamiliar situations.
Students are expected to develop critical and reflective thinking and judge the
credibility of scientific information when this is presented to them.

At the end of the course, students should be able to:

 recognize and recall scientific information

 explain and apply scientific information to solve problems in familiar and
unfamiliar situations
 analyse scientific information by identifying components, relationships and
patterns, both in experimental data and ideas
 discuss and evaluate scientific information from different sources (Internet,
newspaper articles, television, scientific texts and publications) and assess its
credibility.

D Scientific inquiry

This objective refers to enabling students to develop scientific inquiry skills to design
and carry out scientific investigations.

At the end of the course, students should be able to:

 define the problem or research question to be tested by a scientific
investigation
 formulate a hypothesis and explain it using logical scientific reasoning
 design scientific investigations that include variables and controls,
material/equipment needed, a method to be followed, data to be collected and
suggestions for its analysis
 evaluate the method, commenting on its reliability and/or validity
 suggest improvements to the method.

E Processing data

This objective refers to enabling students to record, organize and process data.
Students should be able to collect and transform data by numerical calculations into
diagrammatic form. Students should be able to analyse and interpret data and explain
appropriate conclusions.

At the end of the course, students should be able to:

 collect and record data using appropriate units of measurement

 organize and transform data into numerical and diagrammatic forms, including
mathematical calculations and visual representation (tables, graphs and charts)
 present data in a variety of ways using appropriate communication modes and
conventions (units of measurement)
 analyse and interpret data by identifying trends, patterns and relationships
 draw conclusions supported by scientific explanations and a reasoned
interpretation of the analysis of the data.

F Attitudes in science

This objective goes beyond science and refers to encouraging attitudes and
dispositions that will contribute to students’ development as caring and responsible
individuals and members of society.

This objective is set in the context of the science class but will pervade other subjects
and life outside school. It includes notions of safety and responsibility when working
in science as well as respect for and collaboration with others and their shared
environment.

During the course, students should:

 carry out scientific investigations using materials and techniques safely and
skillfully
 work effectively as members of a team, collaborating, acknowledging and
supporting others as well as ensuring a safe working environment
 show respect for themselves and others, and deal responsibly with the living
and non-living environment.

Q.5 The methods provide learning by doing to be quite successful in developed

and developing countries. Discuss.
Answer

In most developing countries, few children graduate from secondary school and many
don’t even finish primary school. In Ghana, for example, only 50 percent of children
complete grade 5, and of those, less than half can comprehend a simple paragraph.
The UNESCO program Education for All, which as part of the Millennium
Development Goals aims to provide free, universal access to primary schooling, has
been successful in dramatically increasing enrollment. But, according to annual
Education for All reports, many kids drop out before finishing school. Why don’t they
stay?

There are numerous reasons, including the difficulty of getting to school and the cost
of schooling. Even when tuition is free, there are often expenses for lunch, uniforms,
and examination fees. And because the quality of education is often poor, parents are
forced to pay for additional tutoring to enable their children to pass tests. Opportunity
costs may be even larger—while they are in school, children forgo opportunities to
produce income working on the family farm or selling in the marketplace. It is not
surprising that when education investments do not result in adequate learning, or even
basic literacy and numeracy, parents do not keep their children in school.

Even when learning outcomes are adequate, very few students continue on to
secondary school. Job prospects for most people in the developing world are poor,
and staying in school past grade 5, or even through grade 10, does not improve them
significantly. In impoverished regions, the vast majority will not secure formal
employment and will be supported primarily through subsistence level agriculture and
trading. Health outcomes in these regions are also dire. Millions of children die every
year from controllable diseases such as diarrhea, respiratory infections, and malaria.

Educational programs typically adopt traditional Western models of education, with

an emphasis on math, science, language, and social studies. These programs allocate
scarce resources to topics like Greek mythology, prime numbers, or tectonic plate
movement—topics that may provide intellectual stimulation, but have little relevance
in the lives of impoverished children. Highperforming students in less developed
regions face a much different future from their counterparts’ in wealthier areas. There
are no higher levels of schooling or professional job opportunities awaiting most of
these children; they will likely end up working on family or neighborhood farms or
starting their own small enterprises.

Schooling provides neither the financial literacy students will need to manage the
meager resources under their control, nor the guidance needed to create opportunities
for securing a livelihood or building wealth. In addition, schooling provides little
assistance to promote the physical health needed for economic stability and quality of
life. Life expectancy is low in impoverished regions, and not just because of lack of
quality medical care. The devastation preventable disease wreaks on well-being and
financial stability in poor regions can be dramatically mitigated through instruction on
basic health behaviors, such as hand washing.

We fervently believe that what students in impoverished regions need are not more
academic skills, but rather life skills that enable them to improve their financial
prospects and well-being. These include financial literacy and entrepreneurial skills;
health maintenance and management skills; and administrative capabilities, such as
teamwork, problem solving, and project management.

Over the last five years, we have done extensive work on the state of education in
developing countries. We have visited many government, nongovernment, and private
schools and teacher training programs in Asia, Latin America, and Africa, and we
have talked extensively with teachers, students, headmasters, school owners, and
government officials. We have visited innovative educational programs that are
among the world’s largest and most successful, including BRAC, an NGO in
Bangladesh that owns and operates 32,000 primary schools; Pratham, which provides
literacy and other educational support programs, teaching 33 million children in India;
and Escuela Nueva, the Colombian program of mono- and multigrade teaching that
has grown to 20,000 schools. We have implemented training for illiterate adults in
developing countries and have tested that training effectively over the last few years,
applying the best of our experience to improving organizations like Opportunity
International, a large microfinance institution.

These experiences have convinced us that the time is right to redefine quality
education in the developing world.

A New Educational Model

We have developed a robust educational model that combines traditional content with
critically important financial, health, and administrative skills, which can be delivered
via existing school systems and teachers.

Our model, which we call “school for life,” shifts the goal of schooling away from the
achievement of standardized learning outcomes toward making a positive impact on
the economic and social well-being of students and their communities. The model
requires significant changes in both content and pedagogy. First, entrepreneurship and
health modules are mandatory curriculum components for all primary grade students.
Second, student-centered learning methods are used that require students to work in
groups to solve complex problems and manage projects on their own.

This approach is inspired by models of adult education in developing countries that

focus on self-efficacy as a critical foundation of positive livelihood and
health-seeking behaviors, along with active-learning pedagogies used in progressive
schools throughout the world. The health curriculum draws on the work of the World
Health Organization and focuses on preventing disease, caring for sick children, and
obtaining medical care. The entrepreneurship curriculum is informed by our work
with adult entrepreneurs in developing countries, and it draws ideas from a broad
range of financial and entrepreneurial programs developed by organizations like the
International Labour Organization, Junior Achievement, and Aflatoun.

Conceptual knowledge is put into practice at school through activities that empower
children to use what they have learned. For example, students practice routine health
behaviors, such as hand washing and wearing shoes near latrines—and, to the extent
feasible, gain exposure to other important behaviors, such as boiling drinking water
and using malaria nets. They practice routine market-like transactions by earning
points for schoolwork and budgeting those points to obtain valuable prizes, such as
sitting in a favorite chair or being first in line.

Students also develop higher order skills as they work in committees to develop and
execute complex projects. Health-related projects can range from planning and
carrying out an athletic activity to be played during recess, to practicing diagnostic
skills when classmates are ill—helping to decide, for example, when a cold has turned
into a respiratory infection that requires antibiotics. Entrepreneurship projects include
identifying and exploiting market opportunities through business ideas like school
gardens or community recycling that create real value. Students learn and practice
workplace skills and attitudes like delegation, negotiation, collaboration, and
planning—opportunities that are rarely available to them outside their families.

Some school systems, especially at the secondary level, have begun to include
entrepreneurship and health topics in their curricular requirements. But including
information in basic lectures is not enough. Schools must simultaneously adopt
action-oriented pedagogical approaches that hone critical thinking skills and enable
children to identify problems, seek out and evaluate relevant information and
resources, and design and carry out plans for solving these problems. This involves
tackling real problems that require and empower students to take the initiative and
responsibility for their own learning.

A full implementation of this new school for life approach has not yet been adopted
by any major organization, but a pilot is currently being developed by Escuela Nueva
in Colombia. Escuela Nueva was the pioneer in adapting student-centered approaches
for use in impoverished rural environments, which often use multigrade classrooms.
Escuela Nueva develops classroom materials and pedagogical approaches in which
students work in self-directed teams to learn, discuss, and actively practice, using the
basic content included in standard governmental curricula.

Through this unique combination of relevant content, practical implementation, and

student empowerment, children develop a body of knowledge, skills, and attitudes
that will enable them to succeed and thrive when they leave school, whether they are
headed toward college or remain in their communities.

Dramatic Changes Are Needed

The traditional definition of school quality in the developing world is based on

content mastery. But using traditional schooling approaches during the few precious
years most children will spend in school leads to wasted resources and forgone
opportunities for individuals and communities. Governmental agencies and
organizations that support and promote quality education for all children must move
beyond traditional models to help children develop the knowledge, skills, and
attitudes that are relevant to their lives and that can lift them out of poverty.

For too long, governments and organizations investing in developing-world education

have operated under the unquestioned assumption that improved test scores were clear
evidence that their investments have paid off. But if, as we argue here, mastery of the
basic primary school curriculum is not the best means for improving life chances and
alleviating poverty in developing countries, that model is broken. Investing in
interventions that produce the highest test scores is no longer a valid approach for
allocating scarce educational dollars or the scarce time available for the development
of young minds. It is time to seek out the interventions that lead to the greatest social
and economic impact for the poor.

Reference:-

 AIOU BOOK
 http://studylecturenotes.com/simulated-teaching-definition-characteristics-a
nd-assumptions/
 https://crlt.umich.edu/gsis/p2_5