I

Rotary Drilling
Bits

Energy Department
Rotary Drilling Bits
Here is what you will be able to do when you complete each objective.
1. Discuss Fixed Cutter bits and rolling cutting bits and their IADC Standard Classification.
2. Discuss the mechanisms of rock removal and the Mohr failure criterion.
3. Discuss drill bit selection guidelines.

Introduction
At the bottom of the drillstem is the drill bit. The function of the drill bit is to drill into the
formation rock thereby dislodging it so6.0
WELL CONSTRUCTION thatBits
the drilling fluid can circulate the fragments back
to the surface for separation. There are hundreds of different types of rotary drill bits to
choose from and the proper drill bit selection, matched to formation hardness, is one of the
Classification
most basic decisions that the drilling engineer/technologist faces.

Rotary drill bits are classified as either Fixed Cutter bits or rolling cutter bits.
We can group bit types into two basic categories:

• Roller Cone Bits

• Fixed Cutter Bits

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OBJECTIVE 1: BITS
ROTARY DRILLING BITS

Fixed Cutter Bits

Fixed Cutter bits have fixed cutter blades that are integrated with the body of the bit. They are
designed with the following considerations in mind:

1. Number and shape of the cutting blades.

2. Size and location of the water channels.
3. Metallurgy of the bit and cutting elements.

Fixed Cutter bits drill by plowing cuttings from the bottom of the borehole. They consist of
bits with steel cutters, diamond bits or polycrystalline diamond (PCD or PDC) bits. They do
not have any rolling parts which makes them more suitable for drilling smaller diameter
holes. Fixed Cutter bits can be made from one solid piece of steel which reduces the potential
for bit breakage.

Diamond bits are most suitable in non brittle formations that have a plastic mode of failure.
The crown of the bit has many diamonds set in a tungsten carbide matrix. During the drilling
process, only the diamonds will be in contact with hole bottom. A small clearance will
therefore exist between the bit matrix and the hole bottom. Fluid channels in the matrix will
direct the drilling mud flow over the bit face so that the fluid will clean and cool the
diamonds.

The shape of the bit or “crown profile” is important in diamond bit design. A bit with a long
taper helps to drill a straight hole and permits the use of higher bit weights. A bit with a short
taper will make it easier to clean the cuttings from the bit face. In directional drilling, a more
concave bit face is used to increase the angle of deviation of the borehole from the vertical.

Example Diamond Fixed Cutter Bit

The hardness of the formation to be drilled determines the size and number of diamonds used.
A hard formation requires many small diamonds while a soft formation requires a few, large
diamonds.

The design of the water-course pattern in the bit controls cuttings removal and diamond
cooling. Diamond bits are engineered to be operated at a specified flow rate and pressure
drop across the face of the bit. In order to clean and cool the diamond bit adequately, the
pressure drop across the face of the bit should be about 500 to 1000 psi (3.4 to 6.9 MPa).

Polycrystalline diamond (PCD) or polycrystalline diamond compact (PDC) bits have been
used since about 1975 and consist of sintered polycrystalline diamonds bonded to a cemented
tungsten carbide substrate in a high-temperature, high-pressure process. The PCD bits work
best in non-gummy formations.
WELL CONSTRUCTION 6.0 Bits

FIXED CUTTER BIT

PDC
POLYCRYSTALLINE
DIAMOND COMPACT
BIT

WELL CONSTRUCTION
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6.0 Bits

PDC Bits Terminology

INTERCHANGEABLE CONE
NOZZLE
FIXED PORT NOSE
TAPER OR
STEEL BLANK FLANK
SHOULDER
CUTTERS
• FACE
• GAUGE
• UPREAMING
DIAMOND
WELD GROOVE GAGE PAD

BIT BREAKER SLOT

TUNGSTEN
SHANK BORE CARBIDE
MATRIX
BEVEL
MAKE UP FACE
API PIN CONNECTION SHANK
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Rolling Cutter Bits

The three-cone rolling cutter bit is the most common of the rotary drilling bits. This bit is
available with a large variety of tooth and bearing designs and is well suited to a wide variety
of formations. The three cones contain the cutting elements which rotate about the axis of the
cone as the bit is rotated at the bottom of the hole.

In three-cone rolling cutter bits the axis of rotation of the cones is offset (0 to 4°) from the
geometrical center of the bit so there is some Fixed Cutter.
 

The shape of the bit teeth is also important as soft formations require long, widely spaced
steel teeth and hard formations require shorter steel teeth.

Common Bearing Assemblies used for Rolling Cutter Bits

There are two types

WELL of teeth: milled tooth6.0
CONSTRUCTION cutters
Bitsand tungsten carbide inserts.

MILLED TOOTH TCI – TUNGSTEN CARBIDE INSERT

Milled tooth cutters are made by milling the teeth out of a steel cone. Tungsten carbide insert
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bits are made by pressing a tungsten carbide cylinder into accurately machined holes in the
cone.

Various types of bearings are used: roller-type outer bearing, ball-type intermediate bearing
and a friction-type nose bearing. They are lubricated by the drilling fluid or are sealed and
grease lubricated. The most advanced type is the journal bearing.
 WELL CONSTRUCTION 6.0 Bits

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IADC Standard Classification of Bits

There is a large variety of rotary drilling bit designs available from the manufacturers. A
standard classification system for identifying rotary drilling bits has been approved by the
IADC (International Association of Drilling Contractors). The classification system adopted
is the following three-digit code.

First Digit

The first digit is the bit series number.

 A “D” preceding the first digit represents a diamond or PCD bit.

 D1, 2, 3, 4, and 5 represent soft, medium-soft, medium, medium-hard and hard Fixed
Cutter bits for example, a D2 bit.
 D7, 8, 9 represent diamond core bits and PCD core bits in soft, medium and hard
formations.
 1, 2, 3 represent milled tooth bits in soft, medium and hard formations.
 5, 6, 7, 8 represent insert bits in soft, medium, hard and extremely hard formations.
 4 is reserved for future use for example, universal bits.

Second Digit

The second digit is the type number.

 Type 0 represents a PCD Fixed Cutter bit.

 1, 2, 3, 4 represent a formation hardness subclassification from soft  hard in each
category.

Third Digit

The third digit is the feature number.

 For diamond and PCD Fixed Cutter bits, there are 8 features (for example, step-type
profile, long taper, etc.).
 For diamond and PCD Fixed Cutter type core cutting bits, 2 features: 1 represents the
conventional core barrel type, 2 the face discharge type, 9 is reserved for future use.
 For rolling cutter bits: 8 features: e.g., 4 represents sealed roller bearings, 8 a directional
drilling bit, 9 is reserved for future use.

Summary
There are hundreds of different types of drill bits to choose from and proper selection is
critical to the success of the drilling process. Rotary drilling bits are classified as either
rolling cutter bits or Fixed Cutter bits. Fixed Cutter bits have fixed cutter blades that are
integrated with the body of the bit. Rolling cutter bits have two or more cones containing the
cutting elements which rotate about the axis of the cone as the bit is rotated at the bottom of
the hole. The International Association of Drilling Contractors (IADC) has developed an
approved standard classification system for identifying rotary drilling bit types that are
available.

Exercise 1
1. What are the two main types of drilling bits used today?
2. What is the chief advantage of Fixed Cutter bits over rolling cutter bits?
3. What are the three design features of Fixed Cutter bits?
4. Why is the three-cone rolling cutter bit the most commonly used bit in rotary drilling
operations?
OBJECTIVE 2: DRILLING MECHANISMS

Rock Failure Mechanisms

The basic mechanisms of rock removal are as follows:
 Ploughing
 Grinding
 Scraping or gouging
 Erosion by fluid jet
 Chipping or crushing
 Shearing
 Most commonly, a combination of the above

Drilling Mechanisms

 Gouging & Scraping Milltooth

 Chipping and Crushing Insert

 Shearing PDC

 Ploughing Natural Diamond

Impregnated Diamond
 Grinding

Fixed Cutter Bit Failure Mechanisms

The drilling action of Fixed Cutter bits is primarily a wedging mechanism resulting from a
combination of the drill collar weight on the bit and the rotary turning force. Diamond Fixed
Cutter bits drill with very small penetration into the formation, often drilling by a grinding
action where the cement holding the grains together is broken by the diamonds.

Drilling engineers/technologists have applied several failure criteria to relate rock strength
(compression tests) to the rotary drilling process. One such failure criterion is the Mohr
theory of failure. Drilling Mechanisms

Pure Shear
Failure
The Mohr failure criterion: yielding or fracturing will occur when the shear stress is greater
than the sum of the cohesive resistance C of the material and the frictional resistance of the
slip planes or fracture plane:
τ = ±  c + σ n tan θ 
where  = shear stress at failure
c = cohesive resistance of material
n = normal stress at the failure plane
 = angle of internal friction

Two tests are carried out for different values of the stresses 1 and 3, obtaining two stress
circles (Fig. 5.15): the tangent lines can then be drawn and the various parameters are
evaluated. Based on Fig. 5.15, it can be shown that
1 1
σ n =  σ1 +σ3  -  σ1 -σ3  cos 2 
2 2
1
    1   3  sin 2 
2
and Mohr’s stress circle represents these two equations.
Note also that   2   90  and for most rocks  = 30 to 40°.

Example: Mohr failure criterion

A rock sample under a confining pressure of 14 kips fails when subjected to a compressional
loading of 70 kips along a plane that makes an angle of 27° with the direction of the
compressional load. Using the Mohr failure criterion, determine the angle of internal friction,
the shear strength and the cohesive resistance of the rock.

Solution: Mohr failure criterion

θ  2   90 therefore θ = 90 - 2  = 90 - 54 = 36° - the internal friction angle.

From the above,

1 1
τ =  σ1 - σ3  sin 2  =  70  106 -14  10 6  sin  54°  Pa  22.7 MPa 22.7 kips, the shear
2 2
strength.

1 1
The stress normal to the fracture plane = σ n =  σ1 + σ3  -  σ1 - σ3  cos 2 
2 2
1 1
=  70 + 14  -  70 - 14  cos 54° = 25.5 MPa 25.5 kips
2 2

and the cohesive resistance is c = τ-σ n tan θ = 22.7-25.5 tan 36° = 4.14 MPa 4.14 kips

Note that Mohr’s criterion can be used to predict  - the angle between the shear or failure
plane and the plane of thrust for a Fixed Cutter bit.

Rolling Cutter Bit Failure Mechanism

Rolling cutter bits with a large cone offset angle for drilling in soft formations use all of the
basic rock removal mechanisms. However, in hard formations, the chipping or crushing
mechanism predominates.

There are two failure mechanisms depending on the p between the borehole and the rock
Drilling Mechanisms
pore pressure: with high p there is pseudoplastic ejection, while with low p there is spray
ejection – this is based on Maurer’s work (1965).

Compressive
Failure

Drilling Mechanisms

Shear Failure
PDC BIT
CONTINUOUS
S HEARING

Drilling Mechanisms

Compressive and
Shear Failure
To operate a rotary drilling bit properly, the drilling engineer needs to understand the basic
mechanisms of rock removal that are at work (ploughing, grinding, erosion by fluid jet,
chipping or crushing, shear, or most commonly, a combination of the above). Fixed Cutter
bits drill primarily by a wedging action. Rolling cutter bits with a large cone offset angle for
drilling soft formations use all of the basic rock removal mechanisms.

Exercise 2
1. What are the five basic mechanisms of rock removal? Are they interrelated or do they act
independently of each other?
2. What failure mechanism is most predominate when using PDC bits?
3. What failure mechanism is most predominate in soft formations (mill tooth bit)?
OBJECTIVE 3: SELECTION CRITERIA
Bit Selection Criteria
Drill bit selection is critical for optimal drilling performance and to minimize the cost of the
drilling operation.

Although the main criterion for bit selection must be drilling cost per metre, and there are
many exceptions to general rules, the following guidelines may be used when no other
information is available:

1. The IADC classification charts for bit types give an approximate listing for the bit
types applicable in a particular formation hardness. An indication of formation hardness
may be available from other wells in the area.
2. The initial bit type and features selected should be based on the cost of the bits.
Premium rolling cutter design features and high-cost diamond and PCD Fixed Cutter bits
are usually used when the daily cost of the drilling operation is high (e.g., offshore). The
cost of the bit usually should not exceed the rig cost per day.
3. 3-cone rolling-cutter bits are the most versatile bit type available and are a good initial
choice for the shallow portion of the well.
4. When using a rolling-cutter bit:
 use the longest tooth size possible.
 a small amount of tooth breakage should be tolerated rather than switching to a
shorter tooth size.
 when enough weight cannot be applied economically to a milled tooth bit to cause
self-sharpening tooth wear, a longer tooth size should be used.
 when the rate of tooth wear is much less than the rate of bearing wear, select a longer
tooth size, a better bearing design, or apply more bit weight.
 when the rate of bearing wear is much less than the rate of tooth wear, select a shorter
tooth size, a more economical bearing design, or apply less bit weight.
5. Diamond Fixed Cutter bits perform best in non-brittle formations having a plastic
mode of failure, especially in the bottom portion of a deep well where the high cost of
tripping favours a long bit life, and a small hole size favours the simplicity of a Fixed
Cutter bit design.
6. PCD Fixed Cutter bits perform best in uniform sections of carbonates or evaporites
that are not broken up with hard shale stringers or other brittle rock types.
7. PCD Fixed Cutter bits should not be used in gummy formations which have a strong
tendency to stick to the bit cutters.

Evaluate bit wear after removal from the hole and maintain careful written records.

Drilling engineers consider drillability and abrasiveness to characterize a formation.

Drillability of the formation is a measure of how easy it is to drill (high drillability  low
compressive strength of the rock). Abrasiveness is a measure of how rapidly the teeth of a
milled tooth bit will wear when drilling the formation.
Summary
There are hundreds of drilling bits to choose from and the proper drill bit selection is critical
to achieve optimal drilling performance and to minimize the overall cost of the well.

In order to choose the correct drill bit, the primary sources of data for formation analysis are
the drilling records of other wells in the vicinity. Looking at the performance of drill bits that
have drilled through the same formations is an excellent indicator of what drill bit features
are important. However, in the final analysis, the bit selection will still be an economic
decision, i.e., which bits will achieve the least cost per metre.

Exercise 3
1. List the seven rules of thumb used by drilling engineers for initial bit selection.

2. What is the best basis of comparison when trying to choose between two different bit
types?
Exercise 1 Answers

1. Rotary drilling bits are classified as either Fixed Cutter bits or rolling cutter bits.

2. Fixed Cutter bits do not have any rolling parts which would require bearings.

3. The three design features of Fixed Cutter bits are:

1. Number and shape of the cutting blades.
2. Size and location of the water channels.
3. Metallurgy of the bit and cutting elements.

4. The three-cone is available with a large variety of tooth design and bearing types
making it ideal for a wide variety of formations.

Exercise 2 Answers

1. The mechanisms are wedging, scraping/grinding, erosion, crushing, and twisting. They
are exclusive although one mechanism may be predominant for a given bit design often
all mechanisms are operative in the drilling operation.

2. PDC bits use mainly a grinding mechanism, bits designed for soft formations will use a
ploughing or gouging mechanism.

3. Mill tooth bits (soft formation) use a gouging mechanism.

Exercise 3 Answers

1. Seven “Rules of Thumb”:

1. IADC classification charts (an indication of formation hardness may be available

from other wells in the area).
2. Initial bit type and features selected should be based on the cost of the bits (cost of
the bit usually should not exceed the rig cost per day).
3. 3-cone rolling-cutter bits are the most versatile and are a good initial choice for the
shallow portion of the well.
4. When using a rolling-cutter bit:
 use the longest tooth size possible.
 tolerate a small amount of tooth breakage.
 when enough weight cannot be applied economically to a milled tooth bit to
cause self-sharpening tooth wear, a longer tooth size should be used.
 when the rate of tooth wear is much less than the rate of bearing wear, select a
longer tooth size, a better bearing design, or apply more bit weight.
 when the rate of bearing wear is much less than the rate of tooth wear, select a
shorter tooth size, a more economical bearing design, or apply less bit weight.
5. Diamond Fixed Cutter bits perform best in non-brittle formations and a small hole
size favours the simplicity of a Fixed Cutter bit design.
 6. PCD Fixed Cutter bits perform best in uniform sections of carbonates or evaporites
that are not broken up with hard shale stringers or other brittle rock types.
7. PCD Fixed Cutter bits should not be used in gummy formations which have a strong
tendency to stick to the bit cutters.

2. The most valid criterion for comparing the performance of various drill bits is the drilling
cost per metre.

Module Self-Test

1. Describe a Fixed Cutter bit and explain how it operates.

2. List the three cutter types of Fixed Cutter bits and discuss the conditions considered
ideal for the application of each.

3. Describe a rolling cutter bit and explain how it operates.

4. Explain the IADC classification system.

5. What is the primary mechanism of rock removal that is effective with Fixed Cutter
bits?

6. What is the primary mechanism of rock removal in hard brittle formation rolling
cutter bits?

7. Why is the drilling cost per metre so important in evaluating drill bits?
Module Self-Test Answers
1. Fixed Cutter bits have fixed cutter blades that are integrated with the body of the bit.
Fixed Cutter bits drill by plowing cuttings from the bottom of the borehole. Fixed Cutter
bits include bits with steel cutters, diamond bits and polycrystalline diamond (PCD) bits.

4. The three cutter types of Fixed Cutter bits are steel, diamond and PCD.
Fixed Cutter bits with steel cutters perform best in soft formations.
Fixed Cutter bits with diamond cutters perform best in nonbrittle formations
Fixed Cutter bits with PCD bits perform best in non-gummy formations.

5. Rolling cutter bits have two or more cones containing the cutting elements, which rotate
about the axis of the cone as the bit is rotated at the bottom of the hole. The drilling
action depends on the offset of the cones and the shape of the teeth. The offset of the bit
is how much the cones are moved so their axis of rotation does not intersect at a common
point of the centerline of the hole. Cone offset varies from 4 to 0 depending upon the
hardness of the formation.

6. The IADC has established a standard classification system for identifying similar bit
types from different manufacturers. The classification system adopted is a three-digit
code. The first digit is the bit series number, the second digit is the type number and the
third digit is the feature number.

7. Fixed Cutter bits are designed to drill by a wedging action.

8. The percussion or crushing action is the predominant mechanism in hard brittle

formations with rolling cutter bits.

9. The drilling cost per metre is a standard figure of merit to which all bit designs, materials
and characteristics can be objectively referenced. This is the final criterion used in
choosing the best bit for any job.
Assignment
1. Why are drill bits so important in the drilling process?

2. Why do you think that it is important for the drilling engineer/technologist to optimize
drilling parameters (rate of penetration of the hole, weight on the drill bit, and the drilling
speed)?

3. Why is a classification system for drill bits required in the petroleum industry?

4. Why is the science of rock failure analysis important in the drilling industry?

5. What role does record keeping of prior drilling activity have in current drill bit selection?

References
1. “Applied Drilling Engineering”, SPE Textbook Series Vol 2, 1991;
WELL CONSTRUCTION 6.0 Bits
Petroleum Extension Service (PETEX), The University of Texas at Austin.

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