ESO 208A: Computational

Methods in Engineering
Arghya Das

Department of Civil Engineering

IIT Kanpur
 Copyright clause
“The instructor of this course owns the copyright of all the course materials.
This lecture material was distributed only to the students attending the course
ESO208A: Computational Methods in Engineering of IIT Kanpur, and should
not be distributed in print or through electronic media without the consent of
the instructor. Students can make their own copies of the course materials for
their use

Acknowledgement
Profs. Abhas Singh and Shivam Tripathi (CE)
Solution of Non-Linear
Equation
Polynomial Methods: Bairstow

Let us divide by a factor (x2 – rx – s). If the factor is exact, the resulting
polynomial will be of order (n – 2). Two roots of the polynomial can be
estimated simultaneously as the roots of the quadratic factor. For the complex
roots, they will be the complex conjugates.

If the factor (x2 – rx – s) is not exact, there will be two remainder terms, one
function of x and another constant.
Let us express the remainder term as b1(x - r) + b0. This form instead of the
standard b1x + b0 is chosen to device a convenient iteration formula!
9
Polynomial Methods: Bairstow

10
Polynomial Methods: Bairstow
b0 and b1 are functions of r and s → b0(r, s) and b1(r, s)
Expand in Taylor’s series: Apply 2-d Newton-Raphson

Need to evaluate: , , and

11
 Polynomial Methods: Bairstow
Partial differentials with respect to r:

12
 Polynomial Methods: Bairstow
Partial differentials with respect to s:

13
Polynomial Methods: Bairstow

; ; and

For any given polynomial, we know {a0, a1, … an}. Assume r and s.
Compute {b0, b1, … bn} and {c0, c1, … cn}. Compute Δr and Δs.

14
Polynomial Methods: Bairstow Algorithm
 Step 1: input a0, a1, … an and initialize r and s.
 Step 2: compute b0, b1, … bn

 Step 3: compute c0, c1, … cn

 Step 4: compute Δr and Δs from

 Step 5: compute r new = r + Δr, snew = s + Δs

 Step 6: check for convergence, and b0, b1 ≤ εʹ

 Step 7: Stop if all convergence checks are satisfied. Else, set r = r new , s
= snew and go to step 2.
15
 Bairstow's Method
Step 8. The roots quadratic polynomial x2-rx-s are obtained as
r  r 2  4s
x
2
Step 9. At this point three possibilities exist:
1. The quotient is a third-order polynomial or greater. The previous
values of r and s serve as initial guesses and Bairstow’s
method is applied to the quotient to evaluate new r and s
values.
2. The quotient is quadratic. The remaining two roots are evaluated
directly, using the above eqn.
3. The quotient is a 1st order polynomial. The remaining single root
can be evaluated simply as x=-s/r.
Multiple Roots
 Definition: A root α of the equation f(x) = 0 is said to have a multiplicity of q
if,

when, q > 1, the order of convergence are no longer valid.

 Solution: Suppose a function f(x) is q-times continuously differentiable in the
neighbourhood of a root α of multiplicity q,
and
! !

where

Define

Therefore, α is a root of f(x) of multiplicity q but is a simple root of u(x)!

17
 Revision of Solution of Non-linear Equations

1. Graphical Method – Provide insights but tedious/subjective

2. Bracketing methods
1. Bisection method
2. False position method
3. Modified false position method
3. Open methods
1. Fixed-point iteration
2. Newton-Raphson
3. Secant & Modified Secant
Guaranteed convergence
Linear or better convergence
May diverge
FP - linear convergence
NR – quadratic convergence
Secant – between linear & quadratic
NR – problems near zero gradient
 Revision of Solution of Non-linear Equations

Hybrid Methods
Combination
1. Dekker method
- Bracketing method at the beginning
2. Brent method - Open method near convergence

Multiple roots
1. Bracketing method – Only for odd number of roots
2. Newton-Raphson - Linear convergence
3. Modified Newton Raphson – Quadratic convergence
a. Known multiplicity
b. Derivative function
 Revision of Solution of Non-linear Equations

Roots of polynomials
1. Evaluation of polynomials
2. Division of polynomials
3. Deflation of polynomials
4. Effective degree of polynomials
Method of finding roots
1. Müller method Real and complex rooots
2. Bairstow's method
 Revision of Solution of Non-linear Equations

1. Except for rare cases, computers will provide approximate

solution.
2. No method is “universally” better than others.
3. Domain knowledge should guide the selection of algorithm
and guess value(s).
Comparison of different algorithms