Libro de Inmunologia Porcina

IMMUNOLOGY
Background Science
Training Program
Copyright© 1998 XiVet Inc. All rights reserved.

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Page 1 of 156
A Xivet, Inc., Animal Health Learning Program Copyright© Publication
TABLE
OF
CONTENT
Instructions i
Section 1 : The Immune Response……………………………………………………...1-1
Section 2 : Resistance Mechanisms……………………………………………………..2-1
Section 3 : Humoral and Cellular Responses…………………………………………...
3-1
Section 4 : Antigens and Antibodies……………………………………………………
4-1
Section 5 : Acquired Immunity…………………………………………………………
5-1
Section 6 : Stimulating Active Immunity……………………………………………….6-1
Section 7 : The Anamnestic Response………………………………………………….
7-1
Section 8 : Hypersensitivity……………………………………………………………..8-1
Section 9 : Serology……………………………………………………………………..9-1
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INSTRUCTIONS
USING THIS TEXTP
This is programmed instruction textbook designed to help you attain specific behavioral
learning objectives in measured step-by-step segments. It consists of nine main sections, each
with its own glossary.
1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Learning objectives appear at the beginning of appropriate sections. They are the specific
goals you are required to archieve by the end of the program. Read each objective for a
particular section before doing that section.
2. BACKGROUND INFORMATION OR INFORMATION FRAME

This portion of each section follows the learning objectives and develops information
necessary for attaining those objectives.
3. SUMMARY
Each section has a summary highlighting the major points of the background information
portion. These are the areas to be covered in the Evaluation and Reinforcement Frames.
4. EVALUATION FRAME
After studying the background information and summary, you will complete the
Evaluation Frame section which tests your learning. The answers follow. If your answers
are correct, you will be directed to the next section of the program. If your answers are
wrong, you will be directed to go through the programmed instruction enforcement frames
which follow the Evaluation Frames.
Page 3 of 156
5. REINFORCEMENT FRAME
These frames are designed to reinforce the Evaluation Frames and to help you meet the
objectives. Each Reinforcement Frames consists of segments of information that require a
response of some sort, followed by the correct response. The purpose of giving you the
correct response is to let you know,immediately, whether or not you understand what was
read before proceeding with the next frame. A sequence of Reinforcement Frames
concentrates on one learning objective, which is tested for at the end of that sequence.
The structure of the Reinforcement Frames is varied and may be composed of any one of
the following types :
 Completion or fill-in-the blank,

 Definition : Define a word, idea, or concept.
 Multiple-choice : From a list of possibilities, choose one or more correct answers.
 No Response : At times, information will be presented which requires no
response on your part. After reading the material simply go on
to
the next frame.
In the ANSWER section of Response Frames, supplemental phrases may appear such
as Equiv. Ans., meaning equivalent answer is acceptable ; Any Order, meaning the answers
could be listed in any order, or Either Order, meaning answers are acceptable in one of two
orders.
6. RESPONSES
The correct response to each frame is given to the right of the information portion. Use the
mask provided to cover the correct responses while reading the question and then give your
own response. After writing your answer, slide the mask down to reveal the correct one. If
your response was in general agreement with the program’s, go on to the next frame. If not,
reread the question and try again. Sometimes it may be necessary to reread the background
information pertaining to the particular learning objective.
Page 4 of 156
AN INTRODUCTION TO IMMUNOLOGY
SECTION 1
THE IMMUNE RESPONSE
You are about to begin a study of immunity. Immunity is

resistance to specific foreign Substances such as bacteria,
viruses and other microorganisms and the toxic substances
they produce and secrete. A number of immune mechanisms
are involved in immunity whereby cells such as lymphocytes
and macrophages recognize the presence of foreign
substances and then proceed to destroy them.
In Section 1 of this program you will learn about the immune

response, barrier defense mechanisms, antigens and
antibodies, and other important features of the immune
system.
Page 5 of 156
SECTION 1
THE IMMUNE RESPONSE
OBJECTIVES : Upon completing this section, you will be able to :
1. Briefly describe the immune response.
2. Define the following terms : immunity, immune response, and

immunology.
3. Briefly describe the two components of the immune system : 1)

the barrier defense mechanisms, and 2) the systemic immune
response.
4. Define the terms antigen and antibody.
5. Name three important features of the immune system.
Page 6 of 156
SECTION 1
THE IMMUNE RESPONSE
When a piece of living tissue is transplanted from one animal to another, the tissue will
live for only a short time before it is rejected by the recipient. The tissue is rejected because
the immune system of the body recognizes it as foreign, and destroys it. This recognition and
destruction of foreign tissue is called the immune response. The ability of the body to resist
and protect itself against foreign particles is called immunity. The study of immune
responses is the science of immunology.
Man and other animals are constantly exposed to an environment that contains irritating
foreign substances. For example, bacteria, viruses, allergens, and pollutants are constantly
assaulting the body. Fortunately, most of these foreign substances never get a chance to cause
illness, because the immune system protects the body against invasion by foreign substances.
The immune system has two major components : the barrier defense mechanisms and the
systemic immune response.
Barrier Defense Mechanisms
Barrier defense mechanisms prevent foreign substances from entering the body. The skin,
mucous membranes such as the intestinal lining or sinus/nasal passages, and the various fluids
of the body are examples of barrier defense mechanisms.
Systemic Immune Response
The systemic immune response comes into play when foreign substances escape the
barrier defenses and enter the body.
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Antigens and Antibodies
Like ll science, immunology has its own specific vocabulary. The foreign substances that
enter the body and stimulate (or initiate) the immune response are known as antigens. The
proteins that the immune system produces in response to the antigens are known as
antibodies. In other words, antibodies are produced in response to an antigen. Antibodies are
specific to specific antigens. This means that the produced antibody reacts to only a particular
antigen. The ability of antigens to cause specific antibodies to be formed is called the
antigenic response. Stated simply, antigen induce immunity. There are three important
features of antibody mediated immunity.
Specificity
One important feature of the antigen-antibody reaction is that a specific antibody is

produced in response to a specific antigen. This property is known as specificity. When a
strain of flu virus enters the body, antibodies are formed which can destroy that strain of
virus. The formed antibodies cannot destroy a different strain of flu virus. New antibodies
must be formed to destroy each different virus to which the body is exposed. Thus, being
immune to one disease does not usually confer immunity to any other disease.
Memory
Another important feature of the immune system is memory. Memory refers to the fact
that once a body has been exposed to an antigen, it automatically produces antibodies against
that antigen if exposed to it again. The memory of the immune system for specific antigens is
the reason why humans contract diseases like mumps and chickenpox only once.
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Recognition
The bird important feature of immunity is recognition. Recognition means that the
immune system can recognize and distinguish between parts of the individual’s body and
very similar particles which are foreign to the body. For example, the immune system can tell
the difference between the skin of the body and foreign skin grafted to the body. Normally,
the body does not produce antibodies against itself. However, sometimes the immune system
fails to recognize its own tissue and produces antibodies against itself. This failure of
recognition is known as autoimmune disease. Rheumatoid arthritis is an example of an
autoimmune disease where antibodies attack and destroy the joints.
Page 9 of 156
SUMMARY
The immune response is the recognition and destruction of foreign substances by the
immune system. Most bacteria, viruses, allergens and pollutants are recognized and destroyed
by the immune system so as to prevent illness.
Immunity refers to the ability of the body to resist and protect itself against foreign
substances. Immunology is the science that deals specifically with the study of the immune
response.
To prevent illness, the body employs defense mechanisms which protect it against invasion
by foreign substances. First, the body has barrier defense mechanisms. These prevent foreign
substances from entering the body. Examples of such defenses are the skin, mucous
membranes, and various body fluids such as tears. Next, if the foreign substances escape the
barrier defenses, the systemic immune response becomes active.
An antigen is a foreign substance that enters the body and stimulates the immune response.
Bacteria, viruses, allergens and pollutants are antigens. An antibody is a protein that the
immune system produces in response to a specific antigen.
The three important features of the immune system are specificity, memory, and
recognition. Specificity is the property where a specific antibody is produced to only a
specific antigen. An example of this is when an antibody binds to one strain of virus. The
antibody can only recognize one strain of virus. If an additional different strain of virus enters
the body, a different antibody must be produced. Memory is a feature of the immune system
where once the body has been exposed to an antigen, it automatically produces antibodies
against that antigen if exposed to it again. The memory feature is the reason why humans
contract diseases like mumps and chickenpox only once. Recognition is a feature of the
immune system where it can recognize and distinguish between parts of the individual’s body
and very similar particles which are foreign to the body. For example, the immune system can
tell the difference between the skin of the body and foreign skin grafted to the body.
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SECTION 1
THE IMMUNE RESPONSE
EVALUATION FRAME
1. By now you should be able to define the immune responses. The immune response
is
2. MATCHING :
(1) Antibody A. The ability of the body to resist and

protect itself against foreign
substances.
(2) Antigen B. Any of the various proteins that the
immune system produces to destroy
antigens.
(3) Immunity C. Once the body has been exposed to an
antigen is automatically produces
antibodies against that antigen.
(4) Immunology D. A foreign substance that enters the
body to cause the immune response.
E. The science that deals specifically with
the study of the immune response.
3. The two components of the immune system of the body are

(A) and (B) .
Page 11 of 156
4. FILL IN THE BLANCKS :
THE IMMUNE SYSTEM
Component Example
(A)
(B)
5. The three important features of the immune system are ,

, and .
6. Fill in the blanks with one of the three features of the immune system :
You had the chickenpox when you were twelve. You are now thirty-five. A
chickenpox epidemic is spreading through your apartment building, but you do not
contract the disease.
A.
Last week, a strain of influenza virus entered your body. An antibody was produced
that aided in the destruction of the virus. Today, another influenza virus of a different
strain entered your body. The antibody formed to the first influenza virus strain cannot
bind to the second strain. A new antibody must be formed to prevent illness from the
second strain of virus.
B.
You were in a motorcycle accident. Your leg was badly injured and skin grafting was
required. Your body could distinguish your natural skin from the foreign, grafted skin.
C.
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THIS PAGE LEFT BLANK INTENTIONNALLY
Continue with the Reinforcement Frames that follow.

SECTION 1
THE IMMUNE RESPONSE
REINFORCEMENT FRAME
1.1 In the section, we have dealt with immunology. Immunology is a science that deals
specifically with the study of the response.
immune
1.2 Immunology is a .
science
1.3 The science of deals specifically with the

study of the .
immunology immune response
1.4 The immune is the recognition and destruction of foreign

substances by the immune system.
response
Page 14 of 156
1.5 The and of foreign substances by the immune
system is the immune response.
recognition destruction
1.6 The immune response is the recognition and destruction of

by the immune system.
foreign substances
1.7 The immune response is
the recognition and destruction of foreign substances by the immune system.
1.8 The immune response is the recognition and destruction of foreign substances, called
(antigens/antibodies) by the immune system.
antigens
Page 15 of 156
1.9 Antigens are that enter the body and stimulate
the immune response.
foreign substances
1.10 stimulate the immune response.
antigens
1.11 Once an antigen causes the response, a specific

is produced to the antigen.
immune antibody bind inactivate (Equiv. Ans.)
1.11 bind to antigens.
antibodies
1.13 The ability of the body to resist and protect itself against foreign substances is
called .
immunity
Page 16 of 156
1.14 Immunity is the ability of the body to and
itself against substances.
resist protect foreign
1.15 To protect itself against diseases, the body relies upon barrier defense mechanisms and
the systemic response.
immune
1.16 Two components of the immune system are defense

mechanisms and the immune response.
barrier systemic
1.17 Skin, mucous membranes, and the various fluids of the body are examples of
defense mechanisms.
barrier
1.18 Three examples of barrier defense mechanisms are ,

, and the various body .
skin mucous membranes fluids
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1.19 Besides the defense mechanisms, the body also has a
immune response.
barrier systemic
1.20 The immune response is provided by the

system.
systemic immune
1.21 The immune system provides the systemic response.
immune
1.22 As we have learned, three important features of the

system are specificity, memory, and recognition.
immune
1.23 One important feature of the immune system is .

Another feature is . A third feature is .
specificity memory recognition
Page 18 of 156
1.24 Specificity is the property where a antibody
is produced to in response to a antigen.
specific specific
1.25 Because of specificity, a specific antibody that a

specific antigen (can/cannot) bind to a second, different antigen.
binds to (Equiv. Ans.) cannot
1.26 The that acted was produced in response to a virus strain that entered
your body (can/cannot) bind to a virus
strain that enters your body. Another specific must be
formed in response to the second .
antibody cannot different antibody antigen
1.27 Besides , the body employs the property of memory.

is a feature of the system where once the
body has been exposed to an antigen, it automatically produces against
that if exposed to it again.
specificity memory immune antibodies antigen
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1.28 Humans contract mumps and chickenpox only once, because of the of
the immune system.
memory
1.29 and are features of the immune system. A third

feature is recognition. means that the system
can recognize and distinguish between parts of the individual’s body and very similar
particles which are to the body.
specificity memory Recognition immune foreign
1.30 The body being able to between grafted foreign skin and the natural
skin of the body is an example of .
distinguish recognition
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SECTION 2
RESISTANCE MECHANISMS
Not all of the mechanisms of the body that protect the animal
from disease are part of the immune system. The processes of
nonsusceptibility and natural resistance also work to keep
animals free of disease. These two processes, along with
innate immunity, provide the three main types of natural
protection from disease.
We will discuss and explain each of these three types of

natural protection in detail in this section.
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SECTION 2
1. Name the two non-immune system mechanisms

that protect the body from disease.
2. Briefly describe the actions of the enzyme lysozyme.
3. Briefly describe the actions of interferon.
4. Name the two types of white blood cells involved in “cellular

eating.”.
5. Give an example of innate immunity.
Page 22 of 156
SECTION 2
Nonsusceptibility
Animals of one species are not always infected by diseases that occur in other animal
species because they have a natural resistance to such diseases. This resistance to the diseases
of another species is know as nonsusceptibility. Man has nonsusceptibility to canine
hepatitis1, a diseases of dogs. Dogs have a nonsusceptibility to fowl cholera. Differences in
the body chemistry of different animals produce nonsusceptibility. Antigens that cause
disease in one species may find “living conditions” unacceptable in another species. Body
temperature, hormonal environment and diet all affect the susceptibility of a species to a
particular antigen. It is important to recognize, however, that nonsusceptibility is not
produced by the immune system. This protection against disease is not result of a species
having an internal chemical environment that is unfavorable to the antigens that flourish in
other species.
Experiments in producing anthrax in frogs and chickens illustrate the concept of

nonsusceptibility. Frogs and chickens are normally not susceptible to anthrax. The internal
body temperature of these animals is normally unfavorable to anthrax growth. If the body
temperature of infected frogs is raised to 35°C (95°F), conditions become favorable to
anthrax growth, ant the frogs are killed by the disease. In chickens, the normal body
temperature is too high to permit anthrax growth. When the body temperature of anthrax-
infected chickens is artificially lowered from the normal 41°C (105.8°F), the chickens
contract the fatal disease. As was mentioned earlier, the hormonal environment and diet are
also important in producing protection due to nonsusceptibility.
1
Canine hepatitis currently is thought to be caused by the K-9 distemper virus.
Page 23 of 156
Natural Resistance
The second nonimmune system protection that the body has against disease is the
mechanism of natural resistance. The primary defense mechanisms that were mentioned in
Section 1 of this program are important to natural resistance. Primary defense mechanisms
provide barriers and traps for invading foreign particles. These primary defenses can be either
chemical or physical is nature.
The primary defense mechanisms alone do not, however, confer natural resistance. Several
chemical compounds which occur naturally in the body have been found to be involved.
These compounds are capable of chemically destroying small numbers of pathogens (disease-
causing materials). Lysozymes and interferon are two of the major compounds of the body.
Lysozyme
Lysozyme are enzymes capable of lysing or dissolving foreign particles, particularly gram-
positive bacteria. Lysozyme are abundant in most of the body fluids, and are found in high
concentrations in egg whites.
Interferon
Like lysozyme, interferon is a naturally occurring product of the body’s immune system
and it is a non-specific response to viruses. It is a short lived part of the body’s earliest
response to arrest the replication of a virus. Interferon is most effective in protecting the body
against viruses. The production of interferon is stimulated by host cells which have already
been infected with a virus. Interferon production occurs too late to protect the already invaded
cells, but interferon is capable of defending neighboring, healthy cells from viral infection.
Interferon protection is not specific to a particular virus. Once produced, interferon protects
cells from both the same and different viruses by somehow interfering with the reproduction
of these viruses. Interferons are specific to a particular species. Human interferons cannot be
used to protect other animals, and animal interferons do not protect humans from viral
infection. Interferons can be used to confer viral protection from one animal within a species
to another member of that species.
Page 24 of 156
Phagocytes
Phagocytic white blood cells called leucocytes constitute an important mobile cellular
defense against infection. These white blood cells, also known as phagocytes, engulf of “eat”
foreign substances or particles that enter the body. When foreign particles enter the body
phagocytes rush to the site of invasion to engulf and destroy them. If the phagocytes destroy
the foreign particles, there will be no immune response because no antigen will remain to
stimulate the immune system.
In the engulfed antigen is not destroyed, the antigen may remain alive inside the
phagocytic leucocyte. When the antigen-carrying phagocytes dies, the foreign substances or
particles may be released elsewhere in the body.
Note : Phagocytes can destroy the antigen themselves, present the antigen to T-
lymphocytes, or allow the antigen to be coated by antibodies and removed.
Macrophages
Antigens that escape phagocytosis by leucocytes do not necessarily escape destruction.

Special large phagocytes known as macrophages are stationed throughout the body. Unlike
regular phagocytes, these cells do not circulate, but remain fixed in one body location. The
bloodstream, liver, connective tissue, spleen, bone marrow, lymph nodes, lungs and brain are
some of the sites of macrophage concentration. The macrophages located in these tissues “lie
in wait” for circulating foreign particles to pass through. When a foreign particle passes
through macrophage-rich tissue, the particle is trapped and engulfed by the process of
phagocytosis.
Page 25 of 156
Innate Immunity
Most microorganisms encountered are detected and destroyed within hours by an animal’s
defense mechanisms that are not antigen-specific and do not require a prolonged period of
induction. Innate immunity mechanisms act immediately within minutes of infection and in
most cases, prevent infection from becoming established.
An example of innate immunity is the inflammatory response. Inflammation is

characterized by changes in local blood flow, particularly vasodilation and increased vascular
permeability, which, if occurring in the skin, presents as redness, heat and swelling, resulting
in pain and lost of function. According to Tizard, 2 “The response culminates in the invasion
of the affected area by neutrophils that phagocytose and destroy altered or damaged tissue and
foreign material. Once the cause of inflammation has been eliminated, and final removal of
the damaged tissue by macrophages has occurred, then the area will return to normal.”
Other examples of innate immunity include innate complement, natural barriers, natural
killer cells, cytokine release, interferon, and lyozymes.
2
Tizard IR : An Introduction to Veterinary Immunology, W.B. Saunders Company, 1977, p. 103.
Page 26 of 156
SUMMARY
The two nonimmune system mechanisms that protect the body from disease are
nonsusceptibility and natural response.
Animals of one species are not always infected by diseases that occur in other animal
species because they have a natural resistance to such diseases. This resistance to the diseases
of another species is known as nonsusceptibility. Nonsusceptibility is a result of a species
having an internal chemical environment that is unfavorable to the antigens that flourish in
other species.
Natural resistance is the ability of an animal to remain unaffected by certain antigens in its
environment.
Lysozymes and interferons are two major chemical compounds in the body that confer
natural resistance. Lyzozymes are enzymes capable of destroying the cell wall of some
bacteria. Interferon is a naturally occurring chemical compound produced by host cells in
response to the presence of viruses in these cells.
Two types of white blood cells involved in “cellular eating” are phagocytes and
macrophages.
Innate immunity is the protection mechanism of the body that depends on the actions of
antibodies which are present from birth. The antibodies that confer innate immunity are
uniquely formed without antigen stimulation. Innate immunity protects the body from the
invasion of foreign tissues. An example of innate immunity is the inflammatory response.
Page 27 of 156
SECTION 2
EVALUATION FRAME
1. Nonsusceptibility is
2. Natural resistance is
3. MATCHING :
(1) Interferon A. An enzyme found in some body fluids

that is destructive to the cell wall of
certain bacteria.
(2) Phagocytes B. A class of soluble small proteins that
inhibit virus multiplication.
(3) Lysozyme C. A cell that engulfs, ingests, and
destroys foreign substances.
D. An infectious agent capable of
replicating only within living host
cells.
Page 28 of 156
4 Name three factors that affect the susceptibility of a species.
1.
2.
3.
5 Explain innate immunity
Page 29 of 156
Page 30 of 156
SECTION 2
REINFORCEMENT FRAME
2.1 In this section we have studies the two nonimmune system mechanisms that protect the
body from disease. Those mechanisms are non and
.
nonsusceptibility natural resistance
2.2 Nonsusceptibility and natural resistance are two system mechanisms

that help protect the body from disease.
nonimmune
2.3 Nonsusceptibility and natural resistance are not part of the

system.
immune
Page 31 of 156
2.4 Two mechanisms that protect the body
from disease are and
resistance.
nonimmune system nonsusceptibility natural
2.5 Lysozyme is a chemical which occurs naturally in the body.
no Response
2.6 A chemical compound which occurs naturally in the body and affects bacteria is
.
lysozyme
2.7 Lysozyme is an capable of dissolving foreign particles.
enzyme
2.8 An enzyme called occurs naturally in the body and acts to

disrupt bacterial cell walls.
lysozyme
Page 32 of 156
2.9 A chemical compound, , which occurs naturally in the body, acts
to kills disease-causing .
lysozyme pathogens
2.10 Interferon is a naturally occurring chemical compound in the body.
no Response
2.11 is produced by host cells in response to the presence of viruses in

these cells.
interferon
2.12 Interferon is most effective in protecting the body against

.
viruses
2.13 In response to the presence of viruses on the cells, is

produced.
interferon
Page 33 of 156
2.14 The production of is stimulated by host cells which have
already been infected with a .
interferon virus
2.15 cannot help the already-infected cells, but it prevents neighboring

healthy cells from infection.
interferon viral
2.16 protection is not specific to a virus.
interferon particular
2.17 Once produced, protects cells from both the same and
viruses by interfering with the of the
virus.
interferon different reproduction
2.18 The two types of white blood cells involved in “cellular eating” are phagocytes and
macrophages.
no Response
Page 34 of 156
2.19 and are involved in “cellular eating.”
phagocytes macrophages
2.20 Both phagocytes and macrophages are important cellular defenses

against .
infection
2.21 The white blood cells known as and engulf

or “eat” foreign particles that enter the body.
phagocytes macrophages (Either Order)
2.22 If the does note stop the antigen, the

macrophage is used as a “back up.”
phagocytes
2.23 If the foreign substance or particle is not killed by the phagocyte, the
“lies in wait” to engulf and destroy the antigen.
macrophage
Page 35 of 156
2.24 and engulf and destroy foreign particles in the
body.
phagocytes macrophages
2.25 Innate immunity is the protection mechanism of the body that depends on the action of
antibodies which are present from birth.
no Response
2.26 Antibodies present from birth produce immunity.
innate
Page 36 of 156
SECTION 3
HUMORAL AND CELLULAR RESPONSE
The animal body has two main immune systems : humoral

and cellular. How these systems develop is the topic of this
section.
Page 37 of 156
SECTION 3
1. Name the two types of immune response.
2. Briefly describe the difference between cellular and humoral

responses.
3. Define lymphocyte.
4. Briefly describe plasma cells and memory cells.
Page 38 of 156
SECTION 3
The immune system can respond to the presence of antigens with two different types of
responses : the humoral response and the cellular response. In order to explain the
responses, we must first briefly discuss special types of white blood cells, the lymphocytes.
Origin of Lymphocytes
Like all blood cells, lymphocytes are derived from ancestor cells called stem cells in the
bone marrow. At some point in their growth, lymphocyte cells leave the bone marrow by way
of lymphatic vessels and enter the bloodstream. About fifty percent of these cells are carried
to the thymus gland, located in the chest, where they mature into adult lymphocytes. They are
called T-lymphocytes (thymus derived lymphocytes). T-lymphocytes leave the thymus gland
via the bloodstream which distributes them among the various lymphoid structures such as
lymph nodes and the spleen.
Those lymphocytes that do not go directly to the thymus gland from the bone marrow are
called B-lymphocytes (bursa derived lymphocytes). These cells were thought to mature in the
burse of chickens, however, their site of maturation in mammals is unclear. It is currently
believed that they may mature in the gastrointestinal tract.
A comparison of T-lymphocytes and B-lymphocytes is given in Chart 1.
In some way, lymphocytes are programmed to recognize and respond to specific antigens
that enter the body. They are called sensitized lymphocytes. The mechanism of sensitivity
appears to be special receptors on the lymphocyte’s surface, which, like a lock and key
arrangement, accept the shape of a specific antigen, and no other.
Page 39 of 156
CHART 1
COMPARISON OF T-LYMPHOCYTES AND B-LYMPHOCYTES
T-Lymphocyte B-Lymphocyte
Site of origin
Stem cell in bone Stem cell in bone
marrow marrow
Gut-associated lymphoid
tissue (GALT) or bone
Site of maturation Thymus gland marrow
Various lymphatic organs

Lymph nodes, spleen,
such as lymph nodes
Location after maturation thymus, other lymphatic
organs
No
Circulate in the blood Yes
Secretes antibodies when

transformed into plasma
cells ; provides the memory or
Critical to the development of
anamnestic response (when
all cell-mediated immune
Immune Response transformed into memory
reactions ; helps in regulation
cells) by secreting antibodies
of humoral immune response
when exposed to the same
antigen a second time
Page 40 of 156
Cellular Response
T-lymphocytes attach themselves to, and attack invading specific antigens, by secreting
toxin. This type of response is called cellular response. Cellular immunity is a major defense
against viral, fungal and certain bacterial infections.
Humoral Response
After an antigen is introduced to the body, it is engulfed and processed by circulating

macrophages. With the assistance of helper T-cells, macrophages present the antigen to B-
lymphocytes, which become activated. Activated B-cells divide and multiply, and
differentiate into either plasma cells or memory cells. Plasma cells produce antibody,
secreting about 300 antibodies per second. Body fluids, including the blood, carry the
antibodies to sites of infection. Ancient medicine referred to body fluids as “humors,” the
Latin word for fluid. The type of immune response mediated by antibodies circulating in
body fluids, therefore, is “humoral immunity”.
As mentioned above, B-lymphocytes differentiate into either plasma cells or memory cells
upon exposure to a specific antigen. Memory cells are lymphocytes that develop to a certain
degree and then become dormant. Their function is to be prepared for the next exposure to
that specific antigen. Memory cells are responsible for the memory or anamnestic response,
which will be discussed in a later section.
Page 41 of 156
SUMMARY
The two types of immune response are the humoral response and the cellular response.
Both responses involve lymphocytes. A lymphocyte is one of a variety of white blood cells
that reside in the lymph nodes and other lymphoid tissue.
The cellular response is a major defense against viral, fungal, and certain bacterial
infections. It is mediated by T-lymphocytes. T-lymphocytes attack invaders by attaching
themselves to the invading antigens. These lymphocytes are sensitized in that they can
recognize and respond to a specific antigen and no other.
The humoral response is a major defense against viral and bacterial infections. When
antigen is first introduced to the body, circulating macrophages engulf the antigen and begin
to process it. With the assistance of helper T-cells, the antigen is presented to B-lymphocytes.
These activated B-lymphocytes multiply and differentiate into either plasma cells or memory
cells. Plasma cells produce antibodies, which are carried by body fluids to sites of infection.
Memory cells are responsible for the memory or anamnestic response, which occurs with the
next exposure to that specific antigen.
Page 42 of 156
SECTION 3
EVALUATION FRAME
1. The immune system can respond to the presence of antigens with two different types of
responses : the
and the .
2. Scan the chart below and then fill in the blanks.
THE AND THE RESPONSES
A. Type : Type :
B. Lymphocyte involved : Lymphocyte

involved :
C. What Specifically Attacks the What Specifically Attacks the

Antigens : Antigens :
D. Major Defense Against Major Defense Against

infections Infections.
3. By now you should be able to define a lymphocyte. A lymphocyte is
Page 43 of 156
Page 44 of 156
SECTION 3
EVALUATION FRAME
3.1 Section 3 deals with two different responses of the system.
immune
3.2 Both responses involve lymphocytes. A is a variety of a (red, white)

blood cell.
lymphocytes white
3.3 The is a major defense against bacterial and viral infections.
humoral response
3.4 When bacterial or viral antigen is first introduced to the body, circulating macrophages
engulf the and begin to process it.
antigen
Page 45 of 156
3.5 With the assistance of helper T-cells, macrophages present the antigen to B-lymphocytes.
This occurs after the bacterial antigen has been engulfed and processed by circulating
.
macrophages
3.6 These activated B-lymphocytes begin to divide and multiply, and then differentiate into
either plasma cells or memory cells. B-lymphocytes are activated with the assistance of helper
after being presented with antigen processed by macrophages.
T-cells
3.7 Plasma cells produce antibodies, which are carried by body fluids to sites of infection.
Activated B-lymphocytes begin to divide and multiply, and then differentiate into either
cells or cells.
plasma memory
3.8 Memory cells are responsible for the memory or anamnestic response, which occurs with
the next exposure to that specific antigen. Plasma cells produce .
antibodies
Page 46 of 156
3.9 Memory cells are responsible for the memory or anamnestic response, which occurs with
the next exposure to that specific .
antigen
3.10 The cellular immune response is a major defense against viral, fungal, and certain
bacterial infections.
no Response
3.11 The cellular response is mediated by T-lymphocytes. The cellular response is a major
defense against , , and certain bacterial infections.
viral fungal
3.12 T-lymphocytes attack invaders by attaching themselves to the invading antigens. T-

lymphocytes are the type of lymphocytes that is mainly responsible for (humoral/cellular)
cellular
Page 47 of 156
SECTION 4
ANTIGENS AND ANTIBODIES
As we have already learned in Section 1, immunity cannot be

induced without antigen irritation. Antigens are the necessary
stimulus for antibody production. It is the production of
antibodies to a microorganism that provides the animal with
immunity from disease. Many different substances have
antigenic properties and are capable of stimulating antibody
production. On the other hand, antibodies are a diverse group
of proteins that are similar in their ability to respond to
antigen irritation.
We will look at antigens and antibodies in detail in this

section of the program.
Page 48 of 156
SECTION 4
1. Name the two requirements for a substance to be a good

antigen.
2. Define the term antigenic determinants.
3. Briefly explain how the structure of antigens may be varied.
4. Name the most effective way to stimulate antibody production.
5. Name the three ways in which antibodies react with foreign

particles.
6. Name and briefly describe each of the five major

immunoglobulin groups.
Page 49 of 156
SECTION 4
Introduction
As we have learned, an antigen is a foreign substance that stimulates the immune response.
An antibody is a protein, produced by B-lymphocytes in response to the presence of an
antigen, that binds with the antigen to inactivate it.
Antigens
There are two requirements for a substance to be antigenic : specific chemical structure
and foreignness.
First Requirement : Specific Chemical Structure
The first requirement for a substance to be antigenic is specific chemical structure.

Highly antigenic substances are usually large, rigid molecules, which are chemically
complex. Simple lipids and carbohydrates are not usually good antigens because they tend to
form small and easily digested molecules. Flexible molecules such as gelatin cannot be easily
recognized by the immune system because they do not maintain a stable configuration.
Flexible molecules are usually poor antigens for this reason. Complex protein molecules
make the best antigens.
Page 50 of 156
Second Requirement: Foreignness
The second requirement for a substance to be antigenic is foreignness. The immune

system is normally activated only by particles which are recognized as being intruders. The
whole purpose of the immune system is the surveillance and protection of the body from
foreign particles that could cause irritation or infection.
Antigenic Determinants
Antigens may be found on bacterial cells, viruses and other foreign particles that enter the
body. On the surface of every antigen are molecules against which the body’s immune
response is directed. These molecules are called antigenic determinants. They are the
protein constituents of the antigen surface to which antibodies tend to bind. Antigenic
determinants are recognized by the body as being foreign. The are the substances that
actually trigger the immune response. Antigenic determinants that are too small to produce an
immune response by themselves are called haptens. When haptens are linked to the surface
of larger molecules called carriers, they produce an immune response by stimulating the
production of antibodies. In some cases very similar antigens may produce some cross-
resistance to each other, but a complete protective reaction cannot be achieved.
Stimulating Antibody Production
In general, antibody production is stimulated when an animal is exposed to an antigen.

Antigens enter the body through a variety of routes: through wounds, via the gastrointestinal
tract, via the mucous membranes. Some antigens that cause respiratory disease are most
effective when introduced into the body via the mucous membrane of the respiratory tract.
Infectious Bovine Rhinotracheitis (IBR) and Parainfluenzae Type 3 (PI3) are two diseases
that infect the body penetrating the mucous membrane of the respiratory tract.
Page 51 of 156
Antibodies
Antibodies are proteins produced during the immune response. Antibodies bind with and
inactivate specific antigens. Individual antibodies will only bind with the specific antigen for
which they were produced.
Types of Antibodies
Chemically, antibodies are proteins. The greatest concentration of antibodies is found in

the serum. Serum is rich in proteins. These proteins can be classed into two protein groups,
the albumins and the globulins. The globulins can be further separated into three subtypes or
fractions by classification of their electrical charges.
The subgroups are designated by the Greek letters alpha, beta, and gamma. The gamma
globulin protein group is produced and secreted by B-lymphocytes, and are called
immunoglobins. They include most of the antibodies found in serum. Immunoglobulins can
be found in lymphatic tissue and fluid and parts of the intestinal tract as well as being
concentrated in the blood. We’ll discuss immunoglobulins in more detail in a moment.
Antibodies react differently with specific antigens. Basically, the three ways that
antibodies prepare antigens for removal from the body are : 1) by coating antigens, 2) by
neutralization, and 3) by clumping of antigen. Each reaction will be discussed below.
Coating
When foreign particles enter the body, antibodies react by binding with the antigenic
determinants of the molecule. Depending on the antigen, antibodies may react with the
foreign molecule by coating the molecule. Coating the molecule covers the surface antigenic
determinants and prevents the antigen from penetrating and infecting tissue.
Page 52 of 156
Neutralization
Antibodies also may react to antigens by neutralizing non-cellular portion of the antigen.
For examples, antibodies can neutralize toxins, viruses or enzymes produced by invading
molecules. Antibodies accomplish this neutralization through binding or covering the active
sites on the surface of the molecule. Viruses infect tissues by penetrating the tissue with a
spike-like portion of their structure. Antibodies against a specific virus would be able to cover
the spike portion of the virus, preventing tissue penetration.
Agglutination (Clumping)
A third way in which antibodies react with antigens is by clumping. Clumping is also
known as agglutination of antigens. All antibodies contain at least two areas which may
bind to antigens. This means that each antibody molecule is capable of capturing at least two
invading molecules. The cross-linking of antigens to antibody molecules causes the clumping
of agglutination of the antigens. Agglutinated antigens are too large to be circulated through
the body, thus preventing the spread of infection, and making the clumped molecules
vulnerable to phagocytosis.
Immunoglobulins
We have already l earned that antibodies (also known as immunoglobulins) can be

fractionated into subgroups on the basis of electrical charge. In this section we will discuss
the five structural classes to which immunoglobulins belong.
Immunoglobulin is abbreviated Ig. The five structural classes of immunoglobulin are

identified by the letters G, A, M, D and E and are often referred to as IgG, IgA, IgM, etc.
Since immunoglobulin D is found in man, but not in the major domestic animals, we will not
consider it here.
Page 53 of 156
IgG
Immunoglobulin G is found in tissue fluids and blood plasma. It is very active against
bacteria, viruses and certain toxins. IgG makes up about 75 percent of an animal’s antibodies.
It appears to be most active during the body’s second exposure to an antigen. This reaction is
known, appropriately, as the secondary or anamnestic response. Since IgG molecules are
very small, this immunoglobin can easily pass out of the bloodstream and into the tissues.
Because it moves across the placental barrier, IgG is also important in producing immunity in
the fetus. The first milk secreted after birth, colostrums, is important to the health of the
newborn animal. IgG is a major immunoglobulin found in colostrums.
IgG works against antigens in one of two ways: 1) it causes microorganisms (bacteria,
viruses, etc.) antigens to form insoluble precipitates, or, 2) when combined with an antigen,
this complex activates components in the plasma called complement that act to lyse or
destroy the cell wall of the invading antigen-bearing cell.
IgA
Immunoglobulin A makes up about 13 percent of all immunoglobulins. It is produced by

the lymphoid tissue located on body surfaces such as the lungs, gastrointestinal (GI) tract, and
mucous membranes. IgA is bound to a protein molecule that protects it from digestive
enzymes.
The mechanism of action of IgA is not completely clear, but it is thought to react with
antigens by coating them. Coating antigens, as we said earlier, destroys their ability to
penetrate and infect tissues. IgA is also thought to cause antigen-bearing particles to
agglutinate and to form insoluble precipitates. IgA is an important component of maternal
colostrums and milk.
Page 54 of 156
IgM
Only 6 percent of immunoglobulins are of the IgM type. IgM is found in plasma and
provides first line defense against infection. It is activated at the earliest sign of antigen
invasion.
Structurally, IgM is too large to pass out of the circulating bloodstream; thus, they remain
in the blood inactivating circulating antigens. Because of its size, IgM is a particularly good
agglutinator. The molecule cannot cross the placenta to the developing fetus. An abundance
of naturally occurring antibodies belong to this IgM class.
IgE
Immunoglobulin E is involved in 1) allergic reaction, 2) immunity to internal parasites,

and 3) anaphylactic shock.
Immunoglobulin E is found in relatively high concentrations in secretions such as saliva,

intestinal fluid, nasal and tracheal secretions, milk, colostrums, urine and secretions of the
genitourinary tract. IgE antibodies have very powerful actions in the body. For example, IgE
is responsible for allergic reactions like asthma. These antibodies produce the allergic
reaction by binding or fixing to tissue mast cells, stimulating an acute local inflammatory
response.
IgE is bound to mast cells. Found throughout the body, mast cells are responsible for
synthesizing and releasing chemical irritants such as histamine. Antigens that stimulate
allergic reactions damage mast cells, causing them to release their supply of histamine, which
then irritates the surrounding tissue, thereby causing the characteristic anaphylaxis
accompanying an allergic reaction.
IgE also plays a major role in protecting animals against some intestinal parasites.
The characteristics of immunoglobulins is summarized in Chart 2.
Page 55 of 156
As we will discuss later, vaccines allow animals to develop antibodies to disease without
giving to experience the disease itself. Tetanus toxoid is an example of such a vaccine.
Tetanus toxoid is the neutralized toxin of the tetanus bacteria. After it is injected into an
animal, the animal develops antibodies against tetanus toxins.
While antibodies are normally produced upon antigen irritation, they may be administered
to protect an animal exposed to a disease for which it has no antibody defense. Injections of
antibodies provides passive immunity. An example of this is the tetanus antitoxin used in
injured animals that have not been immunized with the tetanus toxoid. Immediate protection
against tetanus toxin can be conferred by injecting a tetanus antitoxin. Antitoxin is produced
by removing serum from a horse that has already been protected from tetanus through
injection of tetanus toxoid. The antibody (gamma globulin) portion of the serum is extracted.
This extract of highly concentrated antibodies is injected into the vulnerable animal. The
injected antibodies recognize and inactivate the tetanus toxin, and provide immediate
protection to the exposed animal.
CHART 2
CHARACTERISTICS OF IMMUNOGLOBULINS
Class Mechanism
Where Found Active Against
Of Action
IgG 1. Forms insoluble
Plasma and tissue Bacterial cells,
precipitates with
fluid viruses, some toxins
antigen
IgA Antigens that attack 1. Clumps cells
Lungs, G.I. tract,
mucous membranes, 2. Forms insoluble
bladder, tears, nasal
e.g., lungs, G.I. tract precipitates with
passages
lining, bladder antigen
IgE Bacterial cells, some Binds to surface
Body secretions
intestinal parasites antigens
IgM Initial invasion of
Plasma Agglutinates cells
viruses and bacteria
Page 56 of 156
SUMMARY
In this chapter we have learned about antigens and antibodies. Antigens are foreign
substances that stimulate cells to produce antibodies. Antibody is a protein produced by
B-lymphocytes in response to the presence of antigen and reacts with the antigen to inactivate
it.
The two requirements for a substance to be antigenic are: specific chemical structure and
foreignness. The specific chemical structures of antigens are usually large, rigid molecules
which are inflexible and chemically complex.
Foreignness refers to the fact that antigens must be recognized as intruders to activate the
immune system.
Antigenic determinants are those molecules on the surface of every antigen against which
the body’s immune response is directed.
The most effective way to stimulate antibody production is to administer antigens into the
body by injection, thereby bypassing the natural defense barriers. The three ways that
antibodies prepare antigens for removal from the body are 1) by coating antigens, 2) by
neutralization, and 3) by clumping of antigens.
Antibodies are also called immunoglobulins. Immunoglobulins may be broken down into
five structural classes which are identified by the letters G, A, M, D, and E. Immunoglobulin
(D) is not discussed here. The characteristics of immunoglobulin (abbreviated, Ig) are as
follows :
 IgG is found in plasma and tissue fluid. It is active against bacterial cells, viruses,
and some toxins. IgG causes antigen-carrying particles to form insoluble
precipitates.
 IgE is found in body secretions. It is active against bacterial cells and some
intestinal parasites and actually binds to cells.
 IgM is found in plasma and provides the first line of defense against infection.
 IgA is found at body surfaces and prevents antigen binding.
Page 57 of 156
SECTION 4
EVALUATION FRAME
1. Name the two requirements for a substance to be a good antigen.

a)
b)
2. The specific chemical structures of antigens are :
3. Explain foreignness.
4. What is an antigen ?
5. What is an antibody ?
6. Those molecules on the surface of every antigen against which the body’s immune
response is directed are called
Page 58 of 156
7. The most effective way to stimulate antibody production is to administer antigens into the
body by .
8. The three ways that antibodies prepare antigens for removal from the body are :
1)
2)
3)
9. Antibodies are also known as :
10. The four types of immunoglobulins important in animals are

1)
2)
3)
4)
11. Complete the table on the following page.
Page 59 of 156
CHART 2
Mechanism
Class Where Found Active Against
Of Action

IgG
Antigens that attack

1. Clumps cells
mucous membranes,
Lymphoid tissue of 2. Forms insoluble
e.g., lungs, G.I. tract
body surfaces precipitates with
lining, urinary
antigen
bladder
Bacterial cells, some Binds to surface
IgE
IgM Plasma Agglutinates cells
Page 60 of 156
Page 61 of 156
SECTION 4
EVALUATION FRAME
4.1 In this section we learned that an antigen is a foreign substance that stimulates cells to
produce antibodies.
No Response
4.2 A foreign substance that stimulates cells to produce antibodies is an .
antigen
4.3 Antigens are foreign substances that stimulate cells to produce

.
antibodies
4.5 The two requirements for a substance to be antigenic are specific chemical structure and
foreignness.
No Response
Page 62 of 156
4.6 Specific chemical structure and are the two
requirements for a good antigen.
foreignness
4.7 In order for a substance to be antigenic it must have a

and be foreign to the body.
specific chemical structure
4.8 Antigenic determinants are those molecules on the surface of every antigen against which
the body’s immune response is directed.
no Response
4.9 The molecules on the surface of antigen against which the body’s immune response is
directed is called the .
antigenic determinant
4.10 are those molecules on the surface of every antigen against

which the body’s is directed.
antigenic determinants immune response
Page 63 of 156
4.11 There are three ways antibodies react to remove the antigens. They are coating.
Neutralizing and agglutination.
no Response
4.12 The three ways antibodies react to remove antigen are : ,

and .
coating neutralizing agglutination
4.13 One of the three ways antibodies react to remove antigens is coating. The two other
ways are and .
neutralizing agglutination
4.14 Coating, neutralizing and agglutination are the three ways react
to remove from the body.
antibodies antigens
Page 64 of 156
4.15 CHART #1 summarizes the various immunoglobulins and their functions in the
body.
CHART 1
Mechanism
Of Action
1. Forms insoluble
Plasma and tissue Bacterial cells, precipitates with
IgG
fluid viruses, some toxins antigen
Antigens that attack 1. Clumps cells

Lymphoid tissue of
mucous membranes, together
lungs, G.I. tract, nasal
IgA e.g., lungs, G.I. tract 2. Forms insoluble
passages and other
lining, urinary precipitates with
body surfaces
bladder antigen
Body secretions Bacterial cells, some Binds to surface
IgE
Initial invasion of
IgM Plasma viruses and bacteria Agglutinates cells
NO RESPONSE REQUIRED
Page 65 of 156
4.16 CHART #2 : Fill in the blanks
CHART 2
Mechanism
Of Action

IgG
1. Clumps cells
together
IgA 2. Forms insoluble
precipitates with
antigen
Bacterial cells, some

IgE
intestinal parasites
IgM Plasma Agglutinates cells
ANSWER SHOWN ON FOLLOWING PAGE
Page 66 of 156
4.16 ANSWER
CHART 2
Mechanism
Of Action
Forms insoluble
IgG

Lymphoid tissue of
lungs, G.I. tract,
passage
bladder antigen
IgE
Initial invasion of
Page 67 of 156
CHART 3
Mechanism
Of Action
Bacterial cells,
IgG
viruses, some toxins
Lymphoid tissue of
lungs, G.I. tract,
IgA
urinary bladder, tears,
nasal passage
Binds to cells
IgE
IgM Plasma
ANSWER SHOWN ON FOLLOWING PAGE
Page 68 of 156
4.17 ANSWER
CHART 2
Mechanism
Of Action
Forms insoluble
IgG

Lymphoid tissue of
lungs, G.I. tract,
passage
bladder antigen
IgE
Initial invasion of
Page 69 of 156
CHART 3
Mechanism
Of Action
IgG
IgA
IgE
IgM
Page 70 of 156
4.18 ANSWER
CHART 2
Mechanism
Of Action
Forms insoluble
IgG

Lymphoid tissue of
lungs, G.I. tract,
passage
bladder antigen
IgE
Initial invasion of
Page 71 of 156
SECTION 5
ACQUIRED IMMUNITY
As we learned in a previous section of this program, the body

is defended by a system of inborn on innate immunity that
functions without acquired antigen sensitization.
While innate immunity is an extremely important defense

against the invasion of foreign particles, most immunity is of
a second type known as acquired immunity. Acquired
immunity occurs when antibody production is stimulated by
antigens.
In this section we will discuss a number of ways in which

immunity can be acquired.
Page 72 of 156
SECTION 5
ACQUIRED IMMUNITY
1. Define acquired immunity.
2. Name the two major types of acquired immunity.
3. Briefly define passive immunity.
4. Give an example of artificially acquired passive immunity.
5. Name and describe two types of maternal passive immunity.
6. Briefly define active immunity.
7. Name the four types of nonvirulent vaccines.
8. Give an example of naturally acquired active immunity.
Page 73 of 156
SECTION 5
ACQUIRED IMMUNITY
Acquired immunity, as shown in Chart 5, may be either passive or active. Passive

immunity usually lasts for a short period of time, while active immunity lasts for several
years, and in some cases for life. (Note : for parvovirus, infections, antibodies can persist 18
weeks.)
CHART 5
TYPES OR ACQUIRED IMMUNITY
TYPES STIMULUS RESPONSE

A. PASSIVE
1. Artificially Acquired Temporary immunity ;
Injection of antibodies
Passive Immunity No immune response
Mother with active immunity Temporary immunity for
2. Naturally Acquired transfers antibodies to newborn ; No immune
newborn via colostrums response
B. ACTIVE
Immune response ; Minor
Vaccinations with attenuated disease symptoms may occur
1. Artificially Acquired (weakened) or dead pathogens with live vaccines ; no disease
(antigens) symptoms occur with killed
vaccines
Exposure to live virulent
2. Naturally Immune response ; Signs and
antigens, i.e., bacteria,
Acquired Active Immunity symptoms of active disease
viruses, etc.
Page 74 of 156
Naturally Acquired Passive Immunity
Natural passive immunity is acquired when the fetus or newborn animal receives
temporary immunity from the mother. The fetus acquires natural passive immunity through
the placenta, the newborn through colostrum. Such natural passive immunity is also called
maternal passive immunity, and the method of acquiring it varies with the species of animal.
Placental Transfer
The placenta is a semi-permeable membrane separating the fetal environment from the
maternal environment. The placenta selectively allows transfer of some maternal substances
to the developing fetus. In some animals, including man, immunglobulins are one of the
substances that can be transferred across the placenta to the fetus. The fetus is protected by
the maternal immunoglobulins from the same foreign particles against which the mother has
produced antibodies.
The mother can only protect the fetus against those diseases for which she has been
immunized, or to which she has been exposed. Like all passive immunity, immunity
transferred through the placenta is temporary.
Colostrum
Another important way in which a mother can pass immunoglobulins to her offspring is
through colostrums, the first milk produced after birth. Colostrum contains high levels of
immunoglobulins. Normally, these protein immunoglobulins would be destroyed in the
digestive tract. However, during the first twenty-four to seventy-two hours of an animal’s
life, the digestive tract absorbs rather than destroys these immunoglobulins. If the mother is to
transfer her immunoblobulins to her offspring, the young animal must have access to
colostrums shortly after birth. As in placental transfer, an animal can only pass the antibodies
which she has produced to her young. Colostrum need not come from a young animal’s own
mother. Any animal of that species can provide effective colostrums, but it will still only
contain antibodies against those diseases to which the donor is immune.
Page 75 of 156
Artificially Acquired Passive Immunity
An animal that receives an injection of gamma globulins is said to have artificially

acquired passive immunity. The antibody-rich gamma globulins are produced in the
following manner.
Repeated injections of a specific antigen are administered to an animal to stimulate the

production of high levels of an antibody. An animal with these high levels of antibody is said
to be hyperimmune, because it has more antibodies than needed to confer immunity. The
serum of hyperimmune animals can be separated from the blood by allowing the cellular
portions of the blood to clot. The serum extract that remains contains gamma globulins with
high concentrations of antibodies. The gamma globulins with high concentrations of
antibodies. The gamma globulins may then be injected into another animal to produce an
artificial passive immunity to protect it against disease.
Active Immunity
The second major type of acquired immunity is active immunity. Active immunity is the
result of antigen-stimulated antibody production by B-lymphocytes. Active immunity does
not provide immediate protection from disease. A time lapse of several days is required for
immunity to develop. Unlike passive immunity, active immunity protects the animal from
disease over long periods of time.
Active immunity can be restimulated by re-exposure to the same antigen.
There are two types of active immunity : natural active immunity and artificial active
immunity. We will discuss both of these important forms of active immunity.
Page 76 of 156
Naturally Acquired Active Immunity
Natural active immunity is stimulated by natural infection-that is, exposure to a disease

causing microorganism or toxin. Natural infection occurs when antigens enter the body via
some natural route. The invading antigens may cause actual disease, or may simply exist at
low levels which do not produce disease. These infecting antigens stimulate the production of
antibodies. As a general rule, bacterial antigens stimulate production of low levels of short-
lived antibodies.
Immunity to bacterial diseases normally lasts for only a short period of time. Viruses, on
the other hand, stimulate antibodies which may survive for longer periods of time. Protection
against viral diseases may persist for years, or even throughout a lifetime.
Artificially Acquired Active Immunity
Artificial active immunity is produced by injecting antigens (vaccine) into the body. This
produced is known as vaccination. Effective vaccines produce immunity by stimulating
protective levels of antibodies within the body which can be reactivated at future exposures to
a particular antigen.
Vaccines must be strong enough to stimulate antibodies, by weak enough not to actually
produce disease. The strength or pathogenic ability of antigen is known as its virulence.
Virulent antigens are strong, disease-producing antigens. Obviously, the use of virulent
vaccines would cause disease, defeating the purpose of vaccination. Antigens that are used for
vaccination are altered to decrease their virulence.
Page 77 of 156
There are four major types of nonvirulent vaccines. The type of vaccine used depends on
the specific antigen against which the vaccine acts. The four major types of vaccines are :
1) Modified Live (MLV)

2) Killed Virus & Bacteria
3) Toxoid
4) Recombinant
Page 78 of 156
SUMMARY
You have just completed the section on acquired immunity. The outline below will help you
with the key points of the section.
ACQUIRED IMMUNITY
(Immunity that is not innate but instead occurs only when antibody production is stimulated
by antigens. Most immunity is acquired, rather than innate.)
I. PASSIVE
Temporarily acquired immunity from a disease due to antibodies obtained from the mother
or another animal.
A. Naturally Acquired (Maternal Passive Immunity)
Colostrum The newborn receives the immunoglobulins from colostrum, which is

the thin, yellow milk secreted by the mother. The newborn must have
access to the colostrums after birth. Otherwise, the newborn’s
digestive tract will destroy, rather than absorb, the immunoglobulins.
A mother can only pass the antibodies which she has produced to the
young.
Colostrum need not come from the young animal’s own mother. A
donor of the same species can provide effective colostrum. But again,
the colostrums will only contain antibodies against those diseases to
which the donor is immune.
B. Artificially Acquired Passive Immunity
An animal receives an injection of antibody-rich gamma globulins. These gamma

globulins are obtained by injecting high levels of antigens into a second animal. Next, the
serum of the second animal is separated from the whole blood by allowing the cellular
portions of the blood to clot. Finally, this serum, which contains the antibody-rich gamma
globulins, is injected into the first animal. This is done to produce an artificial passive
immunity against infection.
Page 79 of 156
II. ACTIVE
Long-lasting, acquired immunity from a disease due to the production of antibodies.

Active immunity is not immediate, but requires several days to develop. Active immunity
occurs as a result of stimulation of an immune response.
A. Naturally Acquired Active Immunity
Infecting antigens, which enter the body via some natural route, stimulate the production
of antibodies. (Note : Drug companies now have 1 year duration of immunity for many
bacteria.)
1. Immunity to bacterial diseases normally lasts from a few months to a year. (Drug
companies now have 1 year duration of immunity for many bacteria.)
2. Immunity to viruses may last from several years to a lifetime.
`
B. Artificially Acquired Active Immunity
Antibodies are produced by injecting weakened antigens (attenuated vaccine) into the
body. This procedure is known as vaccination. A nonvirulent vaccine is one that stimulates
antibody production without causing diseases. Four major types of nonvirulent vaccines are :
1. Modified Live (MLV)

2. Killed Virus & Bacteria
3. Toxoids
4. Recombinant
Page 80 of 156
SECTION 5
ACQUIRED IMMUNITY
EVALUATION FRAME
1. By now you should be able to define acquired immunity. Acquired immunity occurs
when
2. The two major types of acquired immunity are : and

.
3. FILL IN THE BLANKS. Supply the name(s) of one or both type(s) of acquired
immunity.
Which of the two types of acquired immunity :
a) is temporary ?
b) is stimulated by antigens ?
c) is obtained from another
animal ?
d) is long-lasting ?
e) creates the immune response ?
f) produces antibodies ?
g) is produced by the animal itself ?
h) requires a time lapse of several
days for the immunity to develop ?
Page 81 of 156
4. An animal that receives an injection of gamma globulins is said to have
immunity.
5. FILL IN THE BLANKS
Maternal Passive Immunity
TYPE
RECIPIENT Newborn
DONOR
Antigens Against Which the Recipient Is Protected :
Following Transfer, Length of

Effectiveness :
6. A nonvirulent vaccine is
Page 82 of 156
7. The four major types of nonvirulent vaccines are :
8. Production of antibodies by injecting nonvirulent vaccines into an animal is an example of
immunity.
9. Infecting antigen, which enter the body via some natural route as a disease in order to
stimulate antibody production, is an example of
immunity.
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Page 84 of 156
SECTION 5
ACQUIRED IMMUNITY
REINFORCEMENT FRAME
5.1 In a past section, you studied innate immunity, which functions without acquired antigen
sensitization. In contrast, Section 5 focuses on immunity.
acquired
5.2 only occurs when antibody production is stimulated by

antigens.
acquired immunity
5.3 (Antigens/Antibodies) stimulate the production of (antigens,

antibodies) in .
antigens antibodies acquired immunity
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5.4 occurs when
production is by . Acquired immunity can be active
or passive.
acquired immunity antibody stimulated antigens
5.5 The two major types of are

and .
acquired immunity active passive
5.6 Active acquired immunity from a disease is due to the production of by

the animal itself. The “actively” its own .
antibodies animal produces antibodies
5.7 occurs as a result of stimulating the immune .
active acquired immunity response
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5.8 Although active acquired immunity occurs as a result of stimulation of the ,
it takes several days for the takes days to
develop.
immune response active acquired immunity several
5.9 Once the develops, it remains for long periods of time. The
(temporary/long-lasting) active acquired
immunity may be natural or artificial.
immunity long-lasting
5.10 acquired active immunity is stimulated by

infection. An infecting antigen (or exposure to a disease) enters the body via some
route and stimulates the production of .
naturally natural natural antibodies
5.11 Besides ,there is artificially acquired active

immunity.
naturally acquired active immunity
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5.12 active immunity is produced by injecting into the
body. The vaccine is nonvirulent. This means that the stimulates
antibody production without disease.
artificially acquired vaccine vaccine causing
5.13 Four types of nonvirulent vaccines which (do/do not) cause disease are
modified live vaccines, killed virus and bacteria vaccines, and toxoids.
do not
5.14 Modified live virus vaccine, virus and bacteria vaccines, and
stimulate production without
.
killed toxoids recombinant antibody causing disease
5.15 Four types of vaccine are , (MLV)

, and .
nonvirulent modified live killed virus bacteria toxoids recombinant
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5.16 REVIEW FRAMES :
Active immunity : (does/does not) stimulate antibody production, (is/is not)

stimulated by antigens, (does/does not) require a time lapse of several days, (is/is
not)
temporary, (does/does not) occur as a result of stimulation of the
immune response, and (is/is not) obtained from another animal.
does is does is not does is not
5.17 Two types of acquired active immunity are :

and .
artificially acquired active immunity naturally acquired immunity
5.18 Exposure to disease is an example of .
naturally acquired active immunity
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5.19 Four major types of nonvirulent vaccines include :
, , and .
modified live vaccines killed virus and bacteria vaccines toxoids recombinant
5.20 A nonvirulent vaccine stimulates production without causing

.
one that antibody disease.
5.21 We have discussed acquired active immunity. Another type of immunity is

immunity.
acquired passive
5.22 is temporarily acquired immunity due to antibodies

obtained from another .
passive immunity animal
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5.23 The are passed from one
to another.
antibodies animal
5.24 One type of acquired passive immunity is artificially acquired .

This involves the injection of gamma globulins into an animal. These
have been “passed on” by another animal through .
passive immunity gamma globulins injections
5.25 An animal that receives an of is said to have

immunity. Still another type of passive
immunity is naturally acquired passive immunity or maternal passive immunity.
injection gamma globulins artificially acquired
5.26 occurs when the newborn acquires temporary

immunity from the mother through the colostrum.
maternal passive immunity
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5.27 is the thin, yellow milk secreted by the mother after the birth
of the offspring.
colostrum
5.28 The donor of may be either the or a donor of

the same species.
colostrum mother
5.29 If the receives the colostrums shortly after birth, it will receive
immunoglobulins.
newborn
5.30 The protect the newborn against the same particles or

against which the donor is protected.
immunoglobulins foreign antigens
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5.31 REVIEW FRAMES :
Passive immunity : (does/does not) produce antibodies, (is/is not) stimulated by

antigens, (does/does not) require a time lapse of several days, (is/is not)temporary,
(does/does not) stimulate an immune response, (is/is not) obtained
from another animal.
does not is not does not is does not is
5.32 Two types of acquired passive immunity are , maternal passive immunity,
and immunity.
natural artificially acquired passive
5.33 An animal that receives an injection of gamma globulins is said to have

immunity
artificially acquired passive
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SECTION 6
STIMULATING ACTIVE IMMUNITY
As we briefly previewed in Section 5, artificial active

immunity can be produced by four different types of
vaccines. Those four vaccines are modified live virus
vaccine, killed virus and bacteria vaccine, toxoids and
recombinant.
This section of the program will discuss each of these three

vaccines in some detail.
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SECTION 6
1. Name the four kinds of vaccine used to produce artificial active

immunity.
2. List the three classes of modified live vaccine.
3. Name the vaccine that is most effective in producing immunity.
4. Briefly describe the role of adjuvants in producing artificial

active immunity.
Page 95 of 156
SECTION 6
Introduction
Vaccination with living microorganisms is the most effective way of stimulating active
artificial immunity. Modified live vaccine has the advantage of being able to multiply in the
body after injection. This antigen multiplication stimulates a high-level, sustained immune
response. Although modified live vaccine confers a strong and lasting immunity, there are
potential disadvantages to its use.
There is a perception that the living microorganisms in a modified live vaccine can
sometimes regain their virulence. However rare, it is possible that a modified live vaccine can
cause responses in some hosts that are seen as harmful. For example, some pregnant mares
may abort when given certain types of modified live vaccines. Therefore, it is critical to
follow all label instructions so vaccines are safely used without adverse effects.
A second disadvantage of modified live vaccine is that it must be handled and stored
carefully. If the living microorganisms in modified live vaccine are destroyed by careless
handling and storage, the vaccine becomes virtually worthless.
Live vaccines can be classified as attenuated, heterologous or virulent. Each of these

classifications further defines the way in which a modified live vaccine is prepared, and how
it reacts in the body. A discussion of each of the three modified live vaccine types will
follow.
Attenuated Vaccines
Some living microorganisms can be reduced in virulence if they are grown under
unfavorable circumstances. This process of reducing virulence through laboratory techniques
is known as attenuation. Attenuated organisms are grown in abnormal or unfavorable
conditions. These microorganisms are forced to adapt to the artificial environment. When
they are injected into an animal, they are exposed suddenly to a normal environment. The
adaptations made by the microorganisms that allowed them to survive in the artificial
environment also prevent them from causing disease.
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Louis Pasteur, the French chemist and bacteriologist, was the first scientist to employ the
process of attenuation to produce vaccines. Pasteur attenuated the microorganism that causes
fowl cholera by growing it at artificially high temperatures. When these attenuated
microorganisms were injected into normal birds, production of antibodies occurred, without
production of the disease itself. Unfortunately, Pasteur’s results with modified live vaccine
for fowl cholera have never been satisfactorily duplicated. The principle of attenuation,
however, has been retained as a method of producing safe, effective, modified live vaccine.
As we have seen, attenuation can be produced by the use of artificial temperatures. Other
attenuation processes include cultivating microorganisms in environments low in oxygen or
on unfavorable media. Viruses are commonly attenuated by growing them in tissues of
animals that are not normally invaded by the particular virus. A few viruses used for live
vaccine are attenuated by repeated passages through chick embryos. These vaccines have a
safe, lowered virulence. Within recent history, modified live vaccine for canine distemper is
attenuated by passing the virus through mink. Other animals whose tissues are commonly
used to attenuate viruses include goasts, horses and rabbits.
Heterologous Vaccines
Earlier in the program, we noted that antigens that were very similar to each other in
structure could stimulate some cross-resistance to each other. To an extent, these similar
molecules can react with each other’s antibodies. When antigens and antibodies are similar,
but do not match exactly, they are said to be heterologous. Vaccines that use antigens not
exactly matching the antibody being stimulated are called heterologous vaccines.
Heterologous vaccines employ “imposter” antigens. These imposter antigens look like the
harmful antigen molecules and can sometimes fool the body into producing antibodies against
the harmful antigen. (For example, adenovirus II completely protects dogs against challenge
by adenovirus I.) Heterologous vaccines can be as effective as vaccines that contain the actual
pathogenic antigen ant there are several reasons why they are useful. This type of vaccine
contains live, less virulent organisms. An example is the sore-mouth vaccine (used in sheep)
which contains live, unattenuated pox viruses. This vaccine does cause the disease but at a
much reduced level and severity than what would occur otherwise. Heterologous vaccines can
be given to young animals who still have a high level of maternally transferred passive
immunity. Young animals with undeveloped immune systems may not be able to react
properly to the needed antigen. Instead, the antigens in a heterologous vaccine are used to
stimulate the desired antibody.
The measles vaccines that is used to protect puppies from distemper is an example of a
heterologous vaccine. Maternal antibodies within puppies interfere with antibody production
if the distemper vaccine is given too early in life. The measles virus in enough like the
distemper virus to stimulate production of protective antibodies. The measles vaccine protects
puppies from distemper until they are old enough to respond to the more effective distemper
virus vaccine.
Virulent Vaccines
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The third type of modified live vaccine is the most dangerous, and is only used to
immunize a population as a last resort. This dangerous vaccine contains live, virulent
organisms. Virulent organisms are used in immunization of populations that have already
been exposed to a disease. Injecting virulent microorganisms helps minimize the amount of
time that a pathogenic microorganism can be active within an animal group. All the animals
suffer the disease during the same period of time, rather than spreading the disease through
the group over a period of several weeks.
It is possible to reduce the virulence of an organism until, although living, it is not capable
of causing disease. This process of reduction of virulence is know as attenuation. Brucellosis
vaccine Strain 19, administered to give life-long immunity in cows against Brucella abortus
and prevents abortions, is an example of an attenuated live bacterial suspension.
Killed Vaccine
The second major type of vaccine used to confer artificial active immunity is killed
vaccine. The term used to describe vaccines containing killed bacteria is bacterin.
Killed vaccine contains whole, nonviable or dead microorganisms. Microorganisms for

these vaccines are inactivated by laboratory methods. A common way to kill vaccine
organisms is to treat them with the chemical formaldehyde. Ultraviolet irradiation can be used
to inactivate bacteria, but is ineffective in destroying viral materials. The pathogenic activity
of killed microorganisms is destroyed, but their antigenicity is maintained. Killed
microorganism vaccine trade effectiveness for safety. These vaccines are incapable of
producing disease, but they also provide less effective protection against disease. Killed
vaccine has the advantage of being easier to store than delicate live vaccines. The vaccine
used to protect animals from leptospirosis is an example of a killed vaccine.
The diminished effectiveness of killed vaccine can be overcome by the addition of

adjuvants. These agents heighten the normal immune response making killed vaccine more
effective. Adjuvants are capable of making the antigen more attractive to the antigen sensitive
cells of the body.
They may also work by binding with the antigen and protecting it from destruction.
Adjuvant bound antibodies are retained in the system for longer periods of time. They are
therefore capable of stimulating a heightened immune response.
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Toxoids
The third way that artificial active immunity can be induced is by immunization with the
metabolic products of microorganisms. Metabolic products are any substances produced by
the organism as a result of cellular activity. For example, exotoxin is a toxin (poison) secreted
by bacteria. Exotoxin is highly effective in stimulating antibody production, but is too
poisonous to be used in its normal form as a vaccine. Treating toxins with a chemical, usually
formaldehyde, neutralizes the poison without destroying the antigenicity. Toxins neutralized
in this manner are known as toxoids. Toxoids can be safely used to protect animals against
the antigen that produced the toxoid. Antibodies which are stimulated by toxoid
immunization are called antitoxins. Tetanus antitoxin is a familiar antibody used to combat
tetanus antigens.
Recombinant Technology
The fourth way that artificial active immunity can be induced is by immunization with
recombinant vaccines. Recombinant vaccines use genetic material that code for a specific
virulent antigen and place it in another microorganism, or inject only that part of the
microorganism that is immunogenetic.
Page 99 of 156
SUMMARY
Artificial active immunity is resistance to disease conferred by antibodies produced in

response to an antigen which was not naturally introduced into the body. There are four kinds
of vaccines used to produce artificial active immunity : 1) modified live vaccine, or vaccines
containing living disease organisms 2) killed vaccine, or vaccines containing dead organisms,
and 3) toxoid, which uses the by-products of an organism’s cellular activity to stimulate
immunity, and 4) recombinant vaccines which use genetic material that code for a specific
virulent antigen and place it in another microorganism, or inject only that part of the
microorganism that is immmunogenic.
Live vaccine is most effective in stimulating artificial active immunity. Most live vaccines
are classified as modified live or live attenuated.
The effectiveness of killed vaccine can be increased by using an adjuvant agent. Adjuvants
increase antigenicity to produce a heightened immune response.
A toxoid is a toxin that has been neutralized to destroy its toxic properties without
destroying its ability to stimulate an immune response. Tetanus toxoid is a familiar vaccine
used to combat the tetanus antigen and produce artificial active immunity.
Recombinant vaccines use genetic material that code for a specific virulent antigen and
place it in another microorganism, or inject only that part of the microorganism that is
immunogenetic.
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SECTION 6
EVALUATION FRAME
1. Name the four kinds of vaccine most often used to produce artificial active immunity.
a)
b)
c)
d)
2. Name the vaccine that is most effective in stimulating artificial active immunity.
3. Briefly describe the role of adjuvants.
Page 101 of 156

Page 102 of 156

SECTION 6
EVALUATION FRAME
6.1 Artificial active immunity is resistance to disease conferred but

introduced into the body.
artificially
6.2 Vaccines are substances that can be introduced into the body
by unnatural means to stimulate active immunity.
artificial artificial
6.3 There are four kinds of that can be introduced into the body to
stimulate active .They are modified live
vaccine, killed vaccine, toxoid, and recombinant.
vaccines artificial immunity
Page 103 of 156

6.4 One type of used to stimulate active immunity contains
living microorganisms that are capable of stimulating protective antibodies. This vaccine,
known as vaccine, along with killed vaccine, toxoid, and recombinant,
compose the four kinds of vaccines that produce artificial active immunity.
vaccine artificial live
6.5 While vaccines containing living microorganisms are known as vaccines, a second
important type of vaccine contains dead or killed microorganisms capable of stimulating
protective antibodies and is known as vaccine. Along with toxoid
and recombinant these are the four kinds of vaccines used to produce artificial active
immunity.
live killed
6.6 vaccine containing living microorganisms, and vaccine

containing dead microorganisms are two types of vaccine that can produce artificial active
immunity. Recombinant vaccine contains only a small part of a microorganism. A fourth type
of vaccine contains neutralized toxins. These neutralized toxins are capable of stimulating
protective antibodies and give this type of vaccine the name .
live killed toxoid
Page 104 of 156

6.7 There are four kinds of vaccines used to stimulate artificial active immunity. One kind
contains living microorganisms and is called vaccine. A second type
contains dead microorganisms and is known as vaccine. The third
kind of vaccine contains neutralized toxin and is named . The fourth type
contains only a small part of the microorganism and is known as recombinant vaccine.
live killed toxoid
6.8 Name the four kinds of vaccine used to produce artificial active immunity.
, , ,
.
live killed toxoid recombinant (Any Order)
6.9 Immunity or resistance to disease is due to the production of antibodies that protect the
animal from disease. When antibodies are produced in large numbers the ,
or resistance to disease is greater.
immunity
6.10 Not all vaccines stimulate the same degree of , or resistance to

disease. For example, the vaccine that contains living microorganisms or
vaccine is the most effective vaccine in producing artificial active immunity.
immunity live
Page 105 of 156

6.11 vaccine containing living microorganisms (is/is not) the most effective
vaccine for stimulating artificial immunity.
Live is active
6.12 Name the type of vaccine that is most effective in stimulating artificial active immunity:
.
live vaccine
6.13 vaccine is the most effective type of vaccine for stimulating artificial
active immunity. The most common type of live vaccine is the modified live or live
attenuated vaccine.
live
6.14 The most common type of live vaccine is the live

vaccine or live vaccine.
modified attenuated
Page 106 of 156

SECTION 7
THE ANAMNESTIC RESPONSE
In Section 1 of this program we learned that an important

feature of the immune response was memory. Memory refers
to the ability to an antibody to recognize antigens to which it
previously has been exposed. This “memory,” or anamnestic
response is the subject of discussion in Section 7 of this
program.
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SECTION 7
1. Briefly describe the anamnestic response.
2. Define the term latent phase.
3. Define the term titer.
4. Briefly describe the rationale behind the use of booster

vaccinations.
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SECTION 7
Introduction
In Section 1 of this program we learned that an important feature of the immune system
was memory. Memory refers to the fact that once a B-lymphocyte or T-lymphocyte is
sensitized to an antigen, it automatically recalls the particular antigen on re-exposure. In this
section we will look at “memory” of the immune system in more detail. The reexposure to an
antigen stimulates the anamnestic or memory response. The word anamnestic response has
also been referred to as the secondary response elsewhere in this program.
The anamnestic response occurs because an antibody has the ability to remember an
antigen to which antibody has been previously exposed. We will discuss all the steps of the
anamnestic response in the paragraphs below.
The First Injection
The first injection or a modified live vaccine into a previously unimmunized animal is
followed by a latent phase. The latent phase is the lag time, usually several days, when no
antibodies can be detected in the serum. At the end of this latent phase, there is a sharp rise in
the level of antibodies detectable in the serum. The amount of antibodies produced in
response to an antigen is called the titer. The titer reaches peak levels a week or two after the
initial injection. The titer continues to remain high for about a week after peak levels are
reached. After the second week, the high antibody levels begin to gradually decline.
Antibodies may actually decline to undetectable levels. The animal does not, however, lose its
immunity.
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The Second Injection
A second injection of the same antigen causes a rapid rise in the level of serum antibodies.
Memory cells recognize the antigen as an invader and immediately stimulate antibody
production. Thus, the anamnestic secondary response is more rapid and effective and
produces a much higher level of antibodies than the first response to an antigen. By referring
to Figure 2, you can see how antibody serum levels for first and anamnestic responses
compare.
The anamnestic response is not confined to the second exposure to an antigen. All future
exposure to antigens will produce an anamnestic response, until maximum antibody levels are
reached. Once the maximum antibody level has been reached, further injections of an antigen
will produce only these maximum serum antibody levels.
The series of exposures to an antigen that occur when several injections are given usually
gives an animal prolonged immunity against a disease. This protection may last from a few
months to a few years. Booster vaccinations of an antigen are given periodically to stimulate
the anamnestic response, and to prolong immunity to a disease.
Page 110 of 156

Fig. 2 : Anamnestic Response or the Secondary Immune Response
Darkened Portion represents immediate protection by homologous serum, and quick

decline.
Following a single injection of an antigen into an animal, no response is detectable

for several days. This period is known as the lag period. Antibodies become detectable
in about a week and the amount in the serum climbs to a peak level, then rapidly
declines. This is the primary response. If, sometime after the first, a second injection
of an antigen is given, the lag period is much shorter, usually 2-3 days. The amount of
antibody rises rapidly to a high level, then gradually declines. This is the secondary
response. If a third dose is given, the lag period is even shorter, and the antibody
response is higher and more prolonged.
Page 111 of 156

FAILURE OF VACCINATION
Following vaccination, animals may fail to become immune for a variety of reasons. If an
animal is already infected with a pathogen, vaccination may not establish immunity quickly
enough to protect the animal against disease. The vaccine may be administered improperly, or
it may be out of date, damaged, or contain the wrong strain for local environment. In young
animals, maternal antibodies can interfere with successful vaccination. Young animals cannot
be vaccinated against some diseases until maternal antibody levels are reduced. Examples
include canine parvovirus and feline panleukopenia.
Page 112 of 156

SUMMARY
The memory of B-lymphocytes for antigens to which they have been previously exposed is
responsible for the anamnestic response. A second exposure to a particular antigen can
stimulate a rapid rise in the level of serum antibodies. The amount of antibodies produced in
response to an antigen is called the titer.
The anamnestic response differs from a first time immune response in that the immune
reaction is stronger and there is not latent phase. The latent phase is a period of time
following exposure to an antigen when no antibodies are produced.
The use of booster vaccinations is based on the anamnestic response phenomena. Booster
injections of antigens are given periodically after initial vaccination. The memory cells
produced at the initial vaccination have a memory for the vaccine antigens. When the booster
vaccination is given, these memory cells “recognize” the antigen and produce the heightened
anamnestic response. The anamnestic response gives the animal an added degree of immunity
against that particular disease antigen.
Vaccination may fail due to interference by maternal antibodies.
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SECTION 7
EVALUATION FRAME
1. Briefly describe the anamnestic response.
2. Define the phrase “latent phase.”
3. Define the term “titer.”
4. Briefly explain why booster vaccinations are beneficial.
Page 114 of 156

Page 115 of 156

SECTION 7
EVALUATION FRAME
7.1 The word anamnestic comes from the Greek word memory. Memory cells have a
memory for antigens to which they have been previously exposed, and produce a heightened
of memory response to these antigens on second exposure.
anamnestic
7.2 The memory or response is a heightened immune response that occurs

when the body is invaded by an antigen to which it has been previously exposed.
anamnestic
7.3 The response is a immune response that

occurs when the body is invaded by an antigen to which it has been
previously.
anamnestic heightened exposed
Page 116 of 156

7.4 The response is a
response that occurs when the body is invaded by an
to which it has been exposed.
anamnestic heightened immune antigen previously
7.5 Briefly describe the anamnestic response.
The anamnestic response is a heightened immune response that occurs when the body is
invaded by an antigen to which it has been previously exposed.
7.6 The response occurs on the , not the first, exposure to

an antigen.
anamnestic second
7.7 The exposure to an antigen does not produce the anamnestic response, and
is instead, a weaker immune response.
first
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7.8 The first exposure to an antigen produces a immune response that
is characterized by a marked latent phase.
weaker
7.9 The latent phase, which occurs on exposure to an antigen is a period of time
after exposure to the antigen when no antibodies are produced.
first
7.10 The , not the second exposure to an antigen, produces a

immune response that is characterized by a period of time after exposure to an antigen when
antibodies are produced. This period of time is known as the
phase.
first weaker no latent
7.11 One important difference between the first and second exposure to an antigen is that the
first exposure is characterized by a marked phase, which is a
period of after exposure to an , when no
are produced.
latent time antigen antibodies
Page 118 of 156

7.12 Define the term latent phase.
The latent phase is a period of time after first exposure to an antigen when no antibodies are
produced.
7.13 As you already know, the exposure to an antigen produces a weaker

immune response, while the second exposure to the same antigen produces a heightened
, or memory response. The level of these responses is measured by the
titer. The titer is simply the level of antibodies produced in response to an antigen.
first anamnestic
7.14 The , or level of antibodies produced in response to an antigen, is used

to measure immune responses.
titer
7.15 Titer can be defined as the level of produced in response to an .

is used to measure response.
antibodies antigen titer immune
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7.16 Define the term titer.
Titer is the level of antibodies produced in response to an antigen, used to measure immune
responses.
7.17 Compare the first and second exposures in terms of titer by graphing the two responses.
Mark or label the latent phase on your graph. Use a broken line ----- to represent the first
exposure and a solid line to represent the second exposure to the disease-causing antigen.
7.18 Booster vaccinations are beneficial because they make use of the ,
or memory response. Booster vaccinations are given periodically after an initial
vaccination to stimulate this anamnestic response, and confer greater immunity to the
animal.
anamnestic
7.19 vaccinations are given periodically after an initial vaccination to

stimulate the response, and confer immunity to the
animal.
booster anamnestic greater
Page 120 of 156

7.20 After an initial vaccination, vaccinations are given
periodically to the anamnestic response, and confer
to the animal.
booster stimulate greater immunity
7.21 Briefly explain the reason for giving booster vaccinations.
Booster vaccinations are given periodically after an initial vaccination to stimulate the
anamnestic response, and confer greater immunity.
Page 121 of 156

SECTION 8
HYPERSENSITIVITY
We have already discussed the fact that once an animal has

been exposed to an antigen, a later exposure will result in
an anamnestic or heightened immune response. The
anamnestic response helps the animal to respond to
infection or disease, but another possible response to a
second exposure to an antigen is a damaging or
hypersensitivity reaction.
Hypersensitivity is the topic of this section.
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SECTION 8
HYPERSENSITIVITY
1. Define hypersensitivity.
2. Name the four different types of hypersensitivity reactions.
3. State the effects of serotonin on heart rhythm, blood vessels and

blood pressure.
4. State the effects of histamine on blood vessels and smooth

muscle of the bronchi, intestinal tract, arteries and urinary
bladder.
5. State the overall overt effects of histamine.
6. Define anaphylactic shock.
7. List the general symptoms of anaphylactic shock.
8. Briefly describe Type II, III and IV hypersensitivity reactions.
Page 123 of 156

SECTION 8
HYPERSENSITIVITY
The hypersensitivity reaction is an exaggerated, often harmful response to antigens that

have little or not effect on normal nonsensitive animals. Four different types of
hypersensitivity or allergic reactions have been identified.
Type I or Immediate Hypersensitivity Reactions
Immediate hypersensitivities are also called allergies or, if very severe, anaphylaxis. They
occur within minutes of an animal’s exposure to the irritating antigen. Antigens which trigger
allergic responses are commonly known as allergens. Allergies may be develop to a variety of
factors including food, inhalants, vaccines, drugs and parasites.
Immediate hypersensitivities are mediated by the humoral antibodies, especially IgE. These
humoral antibodies can be passively transferred from one animal to another by a serum
injection. The allergic effects in the body are caused by the release of about five different
chemicals. The two major chemicals involved are serotonin and histamine.
Serotonin
Serotonin, a derivative of tryptophan, is found in blood platelets, central nervous tissue, and
certain cells of the intestine. A number of factors cause its release. It acts to stimulate heart
rhythm and constrict blood vessels, thereby raising blood pressure. In cattle, however,
serotonin causes a drop in blood pressure.
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Histamine
Histamine, the second important chemical involved in allergic reactions, is found in all
plant and animal tissues. In the latter, histamine is stored in granules within mast cells. Mast
cells are found throughout the body, with particularly high concentrations centered around
minute blood vessels called capillaries and venules. The release of histamine is caused by IgE
binding to receptor sites on the mast cell walls, allowing histamine to escape into the
bloodstream.
Histamine’s primary effect is on blood vessels and smooth muscle. Its effect on blood
vessels is to dilate or open them, excepts in the liver of dogs where it acts to constrict or close
veins. It causes the constriction of smooth muscle found in the bronchi, intestinal tract, uterus
and urinary bladder.
Other effects of histamine are the stimulation of the production of mucus in the bronchi of
the lungs, and the secretion of tears and saliva.
The overt physical effects of histamine include dyspnea (difficult breathing), and
uncontrolled urination and defecation.
Anaphylactic Shock
A severe hypersensitivity reaction is known as anaphylactic shock. Anaphylactic shock

is a medical emergency that can lead to rapid death if not treated promptly. For anaphylactic
shock to develop, three events must occur : 1) an animal must be exposed to an antigen, 2) an
interval of time must elapse, usually 21 days, and 3) the animal must be re-exposed to the
same allergen. When these three conditions have been met, an anaphylactic shock can occur,
but only in an allergen sensitive animal.
Anaphylactic shock that occurs following vaccination is not due to a faulty vaccine. These
reactions are due to the fact the animal was previously exposed to an allergen.
Page 125 of 156

Anaphylactic shock reactions most severely affect the respiratory and intestinal tracts in
mammals. The respiratory tract receives the main shock in sheep and cattle. Pigs, cats and
horses are most severely affected in the respiratory and intestinal tracts. The liver receives the
main shock in dogs.
Sign and Symptoms of Anaphylactic Shock
The signs and symptoms (Chart 6) accompanying anaphylactic shock are caused by the
malfunctioning of the affected organs. The major symptoms in cattle include dyspnea, couth
and collapse. Contractions of the smooth muscle of the bladder and intestines cause bloating
and uncontrolled urination and defecation. The symptoms in horses are cough, dyspnea, and
severe diarrhea. Pigs are affected by blueness of the skin (cyanosis) and death. Severe itching
of the face and head are the symptoms of anaphylactic shock in cats. These symptoms are
followed by dyspnea, excessive salivation, vomiting, and collapse. In dogs, the liver is the
major organ affected during anaphylactic shock. The physical symptoms that accompany
malfunction of the liver are vomiting, defecation and urination. As the shock reaction
progresses, the animal experiences dyspnea, coma, convulsions, and eventually, death.
Anaphylactic shock can be successfully reversed if it is promptly treated. The drug of choice
to treat anaphylactic shock is epinephrine, followed by appropriate use of corticosteroids,
fluids and antihistamines.
Type II Hypersensitivity Reactions
Type II hypersensitivity reactions result when an animal develops antibodies to antigens

on its own cells. This leads to destruction of those cells. Autoimmune hemolysis is an
example of a Type II hypersensitivity reactions. It occurs when an animal produces antibodies
that attack its own red blood cells. Some rabies vaccines used to contain neural tissues that
can induce a Type II hypersensitivity reactions that affects the brain.
Page 126 of 156

Type III Hypersensitivity Reactions
In a Type III hypersensitivity reaction, certain types of antibody-antigen complexes are

deposited in tissues, causing inflammation. After antibodies combine with antigen in tissues,
complement is activated. Activation of complement attracts white blood cells to the area. The
white blood cells phagocytize the antibody-antigen complexes, releasing destructive enzymes
and particles. Blue-eye in the dog, in response to Adenovirus Type I vaccines, and serum
sickness, with the use of foreign passive antibodies such as tetanus antitoxin, are examples of
Type III reactions.
Type IV or Delayed Hypersensitivity Reactions
The fourth type of hypersensitivity reaction is delayed hypersensitivity. Delayed

hypersensitivities occur hours or days after exposure to the irritating antigen. The cell-
mediated immune response is responsible for delayed hypersensitivity. Tuberculin skin
reactions, allergic dermatitis and rejection of skin grafts art some examples of delayed
hypersensitivities.
Page 127 of 156

CHART 6
ANAPHYLACTIC SHOCK
Signs and Symptoms
 dyspnea
 cough
 collapse
Cattle ;  contraction of smooth muscle of
Sheep bladder and intestines causes bloating
and uncontrolled urination and
defecation
 dyspnea
 cough
Horses
 severe diarrhea
 cyanosis
Pigs  death

 severe itching of head and face
Cats  dyspnea, excessive salivation,
vomiting, collapse
 vomiting
 diarrhea
Dogs
 dyspnea
 collapse
Page 128 of 156

SUMMARY
Hypersensitivity is an exaggerated, potentially harmful reaction to substances which do not

affect nonsensitive animals. There are four types of hypersensitivity reactions.
Type I or immediate hypersensitivity reactions are the most common. Also known as
allergic reactions, these take place as soon as the animal is exposed to an agent to which it is
sensitive or allergic. Two chemicals, serotonin and histamine, are important in producing this
reaction. Serotonin constricts blood vessels, causing a rise in blood pressure. Histamine is
released from mast cells in tissue membranes and acts to dilate blood vessels and to constrict
smooth muscle. The overt physical effects of histamine include dyspnea (difficult breathing)
and uncontrolled urination and defecation.
A severe hypersensitivity reaction is known as anaphylactic shock. Anaphylactic shock is a

medical condition that can lead to death if not rapidly treated. Three events must occur for
anaphylactic shock to develop : 1) an animal must be exposed to an antigen, 2) a period of
time (usually 21 days) must elapse, and 3) the animal must be re-exposed to the same antigen.
The physical symptoms that accompany anaphylactic shock are caused by malfunctioning of
the affected organs. Treatment consists of epinephrine, fluids, corticosteroids and
antihistamines.
Type II hypersensitivity reactions occur when a host develops antibodies to its own tissues.
Autoimmune hemolytic anemia is an example.
Type III hypersensitivity reactions occur when certain types of antigen-antibody

complexes are deposited in tissue, leading to inflammation. An example is blue eye in dogs.
Type IV or delayed hypersensitivity is a cell-mediated immune response. Tuberculin skin

reactions, allergic dermatitis, and rejection of skin grafts are some examples of delayed
hypersensitivities.
Page 129 of 156

SECTION 8
HYPERSENSITIVITY
EVALUATION FRAME
1. Briefly define the term hypersensitivity.
2. Name the most common type of hypersensitivity reaction.
3. State the effects of serotonin on the body.
4. State the effects of histamine on the body.
5. Briefly define anaphylactic shock.
6. Match the name of the hypersensitivity reaction with its description.

1. Type I Reaction a. Immediate hypersensitivity
2. Type II Reaction b. Occurs when certain types of immune

complexes are deposited in tissues,
leading
to inflammation
3. Type III Reaction c. Delayed hypersensitivity ; due to cell-

mediated immune response.
4. Type IV Reaction d. May cause autoimmune hemolysis
Page 130 of 156

Page 131 of 156

SECTION 8
HYPERSENSITIVITY
REINFORCEMENT FRAMES
8.1 Hypersensitivity reactions are exaggerated responses to agents that have little or not effect
on normal, nonsensitive animals. reactions may be harmful to an animal’s
health.
hypersensitivity
8.2 reactions are an often harmful response to

that have little or no effect on normal, animals .
hypersensitivity exaggerated agents nonsensitive
8.3 reactions are an , often response to

that have or effect on
animals
hypersensitivity exaggerated harmful agents little no nonsensitive
Page 132 of 156

8.4 Define hypersensitivity reaction
The hypersensitivity reaction is an exaggerated, often harmful response to agents that have
little or no effect on nonsensitive animals
8.5 There are four types of reaction that characterize the exaggerated, often harmful response
known as . The most common is type I, immediate hypersensitivity.
hypersensitivity
8.6 The first and most common type of hypersensitivity reaction that we will review occurs
immediately after an animal is exposed to an antigen to which it is sensitive, and is known as
hypersensitivity.
immediate
8.7 There are about five chemicals in the body that cause the symptoms of the immediate
allergic response to an allergen which is known as hypersensitivity.
The two major chemicals involved are histamine and serotonin.
immediate
Page 133 of 156

8.8 The chemical , along with histamine, are the two major chemicals
responsible for immediate hypersensitivity. Serotonin stimulates heart rhythm and constricts
the blood vessels, thereby raising the blood pressure.
serotonin
8.9 Serotonin works on the body by stimulating rhythm, narrowing

or the blood vessels, and raising the blood pressure.
heart constricting
8.10 and histamine are the two major chemicals responsible for the symptoms of
an allergic reaction. Serotonin acts in the body by heart ,
and the , thereby raising the blood .
serotonin stimulating rhythm constricting blood vessels pressure
Page 134 of 156

8.11 Serotonin has three major effects in the body. List them below.
1)
2)
3)
1) stimulate heart rhythm

2) constricts blood vessels
3) raises blood pressure
8.12 Besides serotonin, is the second important chemical involved in

allergic reactions. Histamine is stored in the mast cells of body membranes, and causes blood
vessel dilation and smooth muscle constriction when it is released.
histamine
8.13 causes blood vessel enlargement or . This allows body

fluid to seep out of the blood vessels, causing swelling. The muscle of
the bronchial air tubes, the intestinal tract, the uterus, and the urinary bladder is made to when
histamine is released.
histamine dilation smooth constrict
Page 135 of 156

8.14 Histamine affects the body by blood and by
smooth . Other effects of histamine are the stimulation of mucus,
saliva and tear production.
dilating vessels constricting muscle
8.15 Besides blood and muscle, other

effects of histamine include the of mucus, ,
and tear production.
dilating vessels constricting smooth stimulation saliva
8.16 The effects of histamine on the body produce internal changes that cause the ,
or visible, effects of , or difficult breathing, and uncontrolled
and .
overt dyspnea urination defecation
Page 136 of 156

8.17 Histamine affects the internal body by blood ,
smooth , and the of , ,
and production. The overt or visible physical effects of histamine on the body
include dyspnea, or difficult breathing, and uncontrolled urination and defecation.
dilating vessels constricting muscle stimulation mucus saliva tear
8.18 The effects of histamine on the body produce internal changes that cause the ,
or visible, effects of , or difficult breathing, and uncontrolled and
.
over dyspnea urination defecation
8.19 A visible way of determining that an hypersensitivity reaction was taking place would
be to look for the physical effects of , and uncontrolled
and .
immediate overt dyspenea urination defecation
Page 137 of 156

8.20 State the overt physical effects of histamine on the body.


dyspnea uncontrolled urination and defecation
8.21 For each of the physical events listed below, mark either an S, for the results of
serotonin, or an H for the event being a result of histamine release.
increased blood pressure

constricted smooth muscle
increased saliva
stimulation of heart rhythm
uncontrolled urination
difficult breathing
narrowed blood vessels
dyspnea
increased mucus production
increased secretion of tears
S increased blood pressure

H constricted smooth muscle
H increased saliva
S stimulation of heart rhythm
H uncontrolled urination
H difficult breathing
S narrowed blood vessels
H dyspnea
H increased mucus production
H increased secretion of tears
Page 138 of 156

8.22 A severe exaggerated reaction is known as anaphylactic shock.
Anaphylactic shock is a medical emergency that will cause death if not rapidly treated with
epinephrine.
hypersensitivity
8.23 For the life-threatening medical emergency known as shock to

occur, three events must take place : 1) an animal must be exposed to an antigen, 2) a time
period, usually 21 days, must elapse and 3) re-exposure to the same antigen must occur.
anaphylactic
8.24 events must occur for an animal to go into shock :

1) an animal must be to an ,
2) a time , usually days must elapse and
3) to the same antigen must occur
Three anaphylactic
1) exposed antigen
2) period 21
3) re-exposure
Page 139 of 156

8.25 Number the following phrases to provide a correct description of the sequence of
anaphylactic shock.
Re-exposure
Exposure
Time lapse
3
1
2
8.26 Anaphylactic shock is a exaggerated hypersensitive reaction that will cause

if not rapidly treated. For anaphylactic shock to occur, three events must take
place. 1) An animal must be to an ,a
period -- usually days – must elapse, and 3)
to the same must occur.
Severe death exposed antigen time 21 re-exposure antigen
8.27 Briefly define anaphylactic shock.
Anaphylactic shock is a severe, exaggerated hypersensitivity reaction, that will cause death if
not rapidly treated. For anaphylactic shock to occur, three events must take place : 1)
exposure to an antigen, 2) time lapse, usually 21 days, and 3) re-exposure to the same antigen.
Page 140 of 156

8.28 During the severe, exaggerated hypersensitivity reaction known as
, physical symptoms occur due to the malfunctioning of affected
organs.
anaphylactic shock
8.29 The physical symptoms that accompany anaphylactic shock are due to the
of affected .
malfunctioning organs
8.30 The physical symptoms of anaphylactic shock vary according to the of

the particular affected .
malfunctioning organs
8.31 Type II hypersensitivity reactions result when an animal develops antibodies that attack
its own cells. Autoimmune hemolysis occur if an animal develops against its
own red blood cells.
antibodies
Page 141 of 156

8.32 Type III hypersensitivity reactions occur when antigen-antibody complexes are
deposited in tissue, leading to inflammation. Type II hypersensitivity reactions result when an
animal develops antibodies that attack its own .
cells
8.33 Type IV hypersensitivity reactions are also known as delayed hypersensitivity reactions.
Type III hypersensitivity reactions occur when antigen-antibody complexes are deposited in
tissue, leading to .
inflammation
8.34 The cell-mediated immune response is responsible for Type IV hypersensitivity

reactions. Type IV hypersensitivity reactions are also known as
hypersensitivity.
delayed
8.35 Type IV hypersensitivity reactions are produced by the

.
cell-mediated immune response
Page 142 of 156

SECTION 9
SEROLOGY
Serology is the in vitro study of the immune response.

Serological tests provide valuable information in veterinary
medicine such as what kind of organism is responsible for an
infection, whether or not an animal has been previously
exposed to an antigen, and the degree of immunity that an
animal has to a particular antigen.
In Section 9 we will discuss some of the more important

serological test in detail.
Page 143 of 156

SECTION 9
SEROLOGY
1. Define serology.
2. Define the term in vitro.
4. List four serological tests used in veterinary medicine.
5. Name three things serology tests can determine.
Page 144 of 156

SECTION 9
SEROLOGY
Serology is the study of antibodies and antigens in the serum of the blood. Serological
tests are used in veterinary medicine to provide information about the antibodies and antigens
present in an animal’s serum. These studies are done in vitro, which translates literally from
the Latin to mean “in glass.” The phrase, test in vitro, means that the test is carried out in the
laboratory where the antibody-antigen reaction can be studied carefully.
Serological tests are used to identify pathogenic organisms, to measure an animal’s

antibody level, and to measure the potency of vaccines. Serological tests are also known as
immunological assays, or immunoassays.
There are many different types of serological tests. Several important ones are listed
below.
Serological Test
Agar Gel Immunodiffusion
Agglutination
Complement Fixation
Direct Immunofluorescence
Enzyme Linked Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA)
Indirect or Passive Hemagglutination
Precipitin Reactions
Radial Immunodiffusion
Radioimmunoassay
Serum Neutralization
Western Blot
Page 145 of 156

Estimating Degree of Immunity (Titration)
Serological tests may be performed after vaccination to estimate the antibody level that an
animal has to a specific disease. The traditional test is the agglutination test. This test mixes a
known amount of antigen with undiluted serum in one test tube. In a second test tube, the
same amount of antigen is mixed with serum that has been diluted by one-half with saline
solution. A series of test tubes is prepared in this way, with the serum being diluted by one
half each time. For example :
1/2 – I/4 – I/8 – I/16 – I/32 – I/64 – I/128 – I/256
If an antibody to a disease is present, a reaction between the antigen and that antibody will
occur in the test tubes with more concentrated serum. Serum which contains a large amount
of antibodies will continue to react with antigens even after it has been highly diluted. The
last serum dilution to produce a positive reaction is called the titer of the serum. The higher
the original concentration of antibodies in the serum, the higher the titer will be.
Animals that are vaccinated with a vaccine that produces a titer of 1 : 256 are carrying
more antibodies against disease than animals vaccinated with a product that produces a titer
of 1:16.
Besides the agglutination method described above, there are many other serological tests
that measure antibodies or detect the presence of antigen.
The Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbant Assay (ELISA) is a relatively recent technique

developed for measuring antibodies and antigen. The ELISA uses antibodies or antigen linked
to enzyme capable of color change. For example, feline leukemia virus may be detected with
an ELISA that uses monoclonal antibodies to a feline leukemia virus antigen. A feline blood
sample is mixed with the antibody-enzyme conjugate. If feline leukemia virus antigen is
present in the feline blood sample, it will bind with the antibody-enzyme conjugate. The
enzyme changes color to indicate the presence of the antigen.
Page 146 of 156

Antibodies to feline immunodeficiency virus (FIV) are also detected with an ELISA. In
this test, FIV antigen is also linked to enzyme. A feline blood sample is mixed with the FIV
antigen-enzyme conjugate. If antibodies to FIV are present in the feline blood sample, they
will bind with the FIV antigen-enzyme conjugate. The enzyme changes color to indicate the
presence of antibodies.
The Agar Gel Immunodiffusion Test is used for detection of viruses that cause such
diseases as bovine leucosis, bluetongue, and equine infectious anemia. The basis of the test is
the migration of antigen and antibody toward each other through an agar gel. In the
immunodiffusion test for equine infectious anemia a serum sample from an animal is
incubated in test wells on an agar plate. Other wells on the agar plate contain antibodies to
EIA virus and EIA virus antigen. The test serum is considered positive for EIA when
continuous lines are seen between test serum wells and the antigen well.
The Complement Fixation Test is used for anaplasmosis, bluetongue, brucellosis,

glanders, leucosis, and other animal diseases. When an antigen unites with its specific
antibody, complement is taken into the combination and becomes inactive or fixed. The
presence or absence of free, active complement in a serum sample can be shown by adding
sensitized blood cells to the sample. If free complement is present, the blood cells break
down. If no free complement is present, no hemolysis is observed.
The Serum Neutralization Test is used extensively in veterinary medicine for detection
of a wide range of viruses or antibodies, including canine distemper, canine parvovirus,
herpes viruses, and pseudocowpox. This test measures viral antibodies using a serial dilution
of a serum sample. Tissue is cultured with each dilution. The amount of viral antibody
present is measured by examining tissue culture cells. The test seeks to determine the last
dilution of antibody in which virus does not cause a cytopathic effect (visible harm) to tissue
culture cells.
These four tests are all being used by veterinary diagnostic laboratories and by veterinary
hospitals that can afford the test kits.
Page 147 of 156

Other serological tests include the following.
Direct Immunofluorescence Test (Fluorescent Antibody Test)
The Direct Immunofluorescence or Fluorescent Antibody Test, abbreviated F.A., is used to

identify the type of microorganism responsible for an infection. By isolating the infecting
microorganism, the veterinarian can choose the most effective and appropriate treatment. The
F.A. test can be used to identify bacteria, viruses, protozoa, and protein, and almost any body
fluid may be used for analysis.
The actual laboratory procedure in an F.A. Test involves 1) fixing a specimen to a glass
slide (normally, by heating the specimen) 2) spreading a fluorescent anti-serum over the
specimen, 3) washing off excess anti-serum, and 4) examining the slide under ultraviolet
light, through an ultraviolet microscope. Wherever antibodies have combined with antigens,
they will fluoresce or glow.
Rabies virus, for example, can be isolated from brain tissue by the F.A. techniques.
Antirabies virus anti-serum would be placed on the specimen slide. After washing of the
slide, the anti-serum would remain and glow if the rabies virus were present in the specimen.
Precipitation Test
Precipitation tests rely on one of the mixed materials settling out. An Antigen solution is
mixed with antibody. If the reaction between the antigen and antibody is positive, a cloudy
precipitate will settle to the bottom of the container.
S.A.T. Test
The Serum Agglutination Test, abbreviated S.A.T., is used to determine of an animal has
had a certain disease. It is based on the ability of serum antibodies to agglutinate or clump
specific microorganisms. When agglutination occurs in treated serum, it confirms that the
animal has been exposed to the microorganism. A positive agglutination reaction does not
mean that the animal is infected with a disease. It merely shows that the animal has
Page 148 of 156

had contact with a disease organism at some time. The laboratory methods used in the S.A.T.
begin with the collection of venous blood. The solid particles of the collected blood (blood
cells, platelets) are settled out, leaving the clear serum. The serum is treated with either the
killed or live bacteria of the disease being tested for. The treated serum is then observed for
signs of agglutination. If the antibody to a disease agent is present in the serum, agglutination
will occur.
S.A.T. can be used to test for a variety of diseases, and is routinely used to diagnose
Bovine Brucellosis. S.A.T. can also be used to differentiate between vaccinated and infected
cows.
Hemagglutination Test
The Hemagglutination Test is similar to the serum agglutination, but uses red blood cells,
rather than serum, as the test medium.
Certain disease organisms can agglutinate the red blood cells of birds and mammals. If the
animal has been previously exposed to the organism, the organism will agglutinate the red
blood cells.
Flocculation Test
The word flocculate is derived from the Latin term flocculus, meaning a tuft, as in a tuft of
hair, grass or threads. The Flocculation Test is similar to the Agglutination Test, but involves
bacteria with whip-like processes called flagella reacting with antibodies. The test produces
loose masses of particles, tufts or flakes called floccular agglutinate.
Western Blot Test
The Western Blot Test is a technique for analyzing protein antigens : the proteins are
separated by electrophoresis in polyacrylamide gel, then transferred (“blotted”) onto a
nitrocellulose membrane or treated paper, where they bind in the same pattern as they formed
in the gel. The antigen is overlaid first antibody, then with anti-immunoglobulin or protein. A
labeled with a radioisotope fluorescent dye, or enzyme.
Western blot are used in many applications in basic research and clinical diagnosis, for
example for Lyme disease to determine the difference between antibodies stimulated from
vaccine and natural infection.
Page 149 of 156

SUMMARY
Serology is the study of the antibody-antigen reaction in vitro. In vitro is a term derived
from Latin which means within glass. In vitro tests are done within glass test tubes where the
reactions are observable. Several of these tests are important in telling whether animals have
been exposed to disease or whether vaccination has been effective.
The titer is a relative term that is used to describe the concentration of antibody or antigen
in a sample.
Common tests used in veterinary medicine to detect the presence of antibody or antigen in
animal serum include the Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA), Agar Gel
Immunodiffusion, Complement Fixation, and the Serum Neutralization Test.
Serological test like these are very useful for 1) determining if an animal has had a disease
in the past, 2) confirming present infections, and 3) estimating a particular animal’s degree of
immunity to some specific disease.
Page 150 of 156

SECTION 9
SEROLOGY
EVALUATION FRAME
1. Define the word serology.
2. Define the term in vitro.
4. List four serological tests used in veterinary medicine.
5. Name three uses for serological tests.

A.
B.
C.
Page 151 of 156

Page 152 of 156

SECTION 9
SEROLOGY
REINFORCEMENT FRAMES
9.1 Serology is the study of the antigen-antibody reaction in vitro. The suffix ology means
the study of. Antigen-antibody reactions occur in the serum. Therefore, it is appropriate that
the study of the antigen-antibody reaction in vitro be called .
serology
9.2 Serology is the study of the reaction in vitro. In vitro is a term

derived from the Latin phrase for within glass. In vitro studies are done in glass test tubes
where the reactions are observable.
antigen-antibody
9.3 , the study of the

reaction in vitro, uses studies done in to make antigen-
antibody reactions observable.
serology antigen-antibody vitro
Page 153 of 156

9.4 is the study of the - reaction
. In vitro means within , or observable in
.
serology antigen-antibody in vitro glass glass
9.5 Define the terms serology and in vitro.
Serology is the study of the antigen-antibody reaction in vitro. In vitro means within glass, or
observable in glass.
9.6 Serological tests are important in telling whether animals have been exposed to disease or
whether vaccination has been effective. The study of the antigen-antibody reaction in vitro is
the science of .
serology
9.7 Serological tests seek to determine an animal’s titer. Serological tests are important in
telling whether animals have been exposed to or whether
has been effective.
disease vaccination
Page 154 of 156

9.8 The titer is a relative term used to describe the concentration of antibody or antigen in a
sample. To determine titer, tests are performed.
serological
9.9 Common tests used in veterinary medicine to detect the presence of antibody or antigen in
animal serum include the Enzyme-Linked immunosorbent Assay (ELISA), Agar Gel
Immunodiffusion, Complement Fixation, and the Serum Neutralization Test. The titer is a
relative term used to describe the of antibody or antigen in a
sample.
concentration
9.10 Common tests used in veterinary medicine to detect the presence of antibody or antigen
in animal serum include the (ELISA),
Agar Gel , Complement , and the
Neutralization Test.
Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay Immunodiffusion Fixation Serum
Page 155 of 156

9.11 Serological tests like these are very useful for 1) determining if an animal has had a
disease in the past, 2) confirming present infections, and 3) estimating a particular animal’s
degree of immunity to some specific disease.
No Response
9.12 Serological tests like these are very useful for 1) determining if an animal has had a
in the past, 2) confirming present , and
3) estimating a particular animal’s degree of to some specific disease.
disease infections immunity
Page 156 of 156


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IMMUNOLOGY

Copyright© 1998 XiVet Inc. All rights reserved.

USING THIS TEXTP

2. BACKGROUND INFORMATION OR INFORMATION FRAME

 Completion or fill-in-the blank,

You are about to begin a study of immunity. Immunity is

In Section 1 of this program you will learn about the immune

OBJECTIVES : Upon completing this section, you will be able to :

1. Briefly describe the immune response.

2. Define the following terms : immunity, immune response, and

3. Briefly describe the two components of the immune system : 1)

4. Define the terms antigen and antibody.

5. Name three important features of the immune system.

Barrier Defense Mechanisms

Systemic Immune Response

One important feature of the antigen-antibody reaction is that a specific antibody is

(1) Antibody A. The ability of the body to resist and

3. The two components of the immune system of the body are

THE IMMUNE SYSTEM

5. The three important features of the immune system are ,

Continue with the Reinforcement Frames that follow.

1.3 The science of deals specifically with the

immunology immune response

1.4 The immune is the recognition and destruction of foreign

1.6 The immune response is the recognition and destruction of

1.7 The immune response is

the recognition and destruction of foreign substances by the immune system.

1.10 stimulate the immune response.

1.11 Once an antigen causes the response, a specific

immune antibody bind inactivate (Equiv. Ans.)

1.11 bind to antigens.

resist protect foreign

1.16 Two components of the immune system are defense

1.18 Three examples of barrier defense mechanisms are ,

skin mucous membranes fluids

1.20 The immune response is provided by the

1.21 The immune system provides the systemic response.

1.22 As we have learned, three important features of the

1.23 One important feature of the immune system is .

specificity memory recognition

1.25 Because of specificity, a specific antibody that a

binds to (Equiv. Ans.) cannot

antibody cannot different antibody antigen

1.27 Besides , the body employs the property of memory.

specificity memory immune antibodies antigen

1.29 and are features of the immune system. A third

specificity memory Recognition immune foreign

We will discuss and explain each of these three types of

OBJECTIVES : Upon completing this section, you will be able to :

1. Name the two non-immune system mechanisms

2. Briefly describe the actions of the enzyme lysozyme.

3. Briefly describe the actions of interferon.

4. Name the two types of white blood cells involved in “cellular

5. Give an example of innate immunity.

Experiments in producing anthrax in frogs and chickens illustrate the concept of

Antigens that escape phagocytosis by leucocytes do not necessarily escape destruction.

An example of innate immunity is the inflammatory response. Inflammation is

(1) Interferon A. An enzyme found in some body fluids

5 Explain innate immunity

Continue with the Reinforcement Frames that follow.

nonsusceptibility natural resistance

2.2 Nonsusceptibility and natural resistance are two system mechanisms

2.3 Nonsusceptibility and natural resistance are not part of the

nonimmune system nonsusceptibility natural