Unit 23

The Immune System: Defense Against

Disease
Table of Contents

Table of Contents 1

The Immune System: Defense Against Disease 3

Essential Questions 4

Review 4

Lesson 23.1: Parts of the Immune System 5

Objective 5
Warm-Up 5
Learn about It 6
Key Points 15
Web Links 15
Check Your Understanding 15
Challenge Yourself 16

Lesson 23.2: Innate Immune Response 17

Objective 17
Warm-Up 17
Learn about It 18
Key Points 23
Web Links 24
Check Your Understanding 24
Challenge Yourself 25

Lesson 23.3: Adaptive Immune Response 26

Objective 26
Warm-Up 26
Learn about It 27
Key Points 35
Web Links 35

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 Check Your Understanding 36
Challenge Yourself 36

Lesson 23.4: Immunity and Vaccination 38

Objective 38
Warm-Up 38
Learn about It 39
Key Points 44
Web Links 44
Check Your Understanding 45
Challenge Yourself 45

Laboratory Activity 46

Performance Task 48

Self Check 50

Key Words 50

Wrap Up 51

Photo Credits 51

References 52

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GRADES 11/12 | EARTH AND LIFE SCIENCE

Unit 23
The Immune System:
Defense Against Disease

There are many agents that can lead to sicknesses in humans. These can include
viruses, bacteria, fungi, parasites, and many more. Over the course of the
evolutionary history of animals, they have developed various means to protect
themselves from these agents. One such means and a very effective one is the
development of the immune system.

The immune system has several components, both organs, and cells, that protect
the body from different disease-causing agents. Without the immune system, then
animals would probably have died thousands of years ago. What is the function of
the immune system? What are its components?

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 Essential Questions

At the end of this unit, you should be able to answer the following questions.

● What are the components of the immune system?

● How does the immune system protect against diseases?
● What are the different strategies of the immune system?
● What is vaccination and how does it work?

Review

● Homeostasis is the ability of the body to maintain a constant internal

equilibrium. It keeps the body functioning well even when there are changes
in the environment.
● One way to maintain homeostasis is by preventing disease-causing
organisms from disrupting the body’s normal functioning. The immune
system defends the body from these organisms through adaptive and innate
immune responses.

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 Lesson 23.1: Parts of the Immune System

Objective
In this lesson, you should be able to:
● describe the different parts of the immune system and their
functions.

The immune system has multiple components to help keep the body safe from
pathogens that can cause diseases. These components are either cells or organs,
and all are parts of the responses of the immune system. What are these organs
and cells and how do they work?

Warm-Up

Modeling the Immune System

The human immune system is a complex network of cells and organs that work
together to protect our body against infection. These cells and organs are
distributed all over the body. In this activity, you will be able to locate the
components of the immune system.

Materials:
● blue, red, and yellow yarn
● clay
● illustration board

Procedure:
1. Draw an outline of a human on an illustration board.
2. Draw a heart in the outline where the heart should be. Attach blue and red
yarn to the heart going up until the head and arms, and going down,
branching from the groin area to the legs. Place the yellow yarn beside these.

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 3. Shape the clay according to the different organs shown in the given figure
below.
4. Place them in their appropriate locations.

Guide Questions:
1. Why are the immune organs scattered around the body?
2. What do the different colors of yarn represent?

Learn about It

The Immune System

The immune system is a collection of cells, organs, and processes that protect the
body against foreign substances that can cause certain diseases. Examples of
foreign substances that the body protects against are bacteria, viruses, fungi, or
parasites. When these enter the body and are detected by the immune system, it
will trigger a series of responses to help fight off the invasion.

Immunity
Immunity is the body’s ability to fight certain illnesses, damages, and diseases

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caused by disease-causing agents. This system is crucial for the survival of humans.
In the absence of an immune system, the body may not be able to survive even
with minor infections. This is the reason why people with compromised immune
systems are more prone to getting certain infectious diseases.

Recognition by the Immune System

The body has the ability to distinguish objects that are “self” from “non-self” through
the immune system. Each body cell bears distinct molecules or markers that
distinguish it as “self.” The immune defenses do not attack cells bearing
self-markers and just concur with other cells in a state known as self-tolerance.

The body’s immune defenses only

respond and attack when they
encounter foreign bodies or
“invaders,” which trigger an immune
response. An antigen is a substance
that can trigger an immune response.

In rare cases, as seen in some

diseases, the body may recognize its
own cells as “non-self” and will tag
these cells as invaders. These are
disorders that are known as
autoimmune. There are many autoimmune diseases and an example of an
autoimmune condition is alopecia, which leads to baldness.

Antigens
An antigen can be a part of a virus, a
parasite, a bacterium, or a fungus.
Antigens can elicit an immune
response within the host.

In some cases, harmless substances

like dust and cat hair can provoke the
immune system to produce a
response known as an allergy. The
antigen, in this case, is known as an
allergen. Cases of allergy usually lead
to rashes and itching, but more

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severe cases include the closing up of airways which can prevent the patient from
breathing properly. Even a tissue or a cell from another person can contain an
antigen because the immune system recognizes them as foreign. This is the reason
why some organ transplant cases end up with the new owner’s body rejecting the
newly-transplanted organ.

Cells of the Immune System

Leukocytes, also known as
white blood cells, are the
main “soldiers” of the immune
system. There are many types
of leukocytes found
throughout the body. Each
type of leukocyte performs
specific functions, and all of
these contribute to protecting
the body against infections
and diseases.

The general process of how

the white blood cells fight infection is shown in Fig. 4. The WBCs engulf and digest
the infectious agents via phagocytosis.

Fig. 4. The general process of how white blood cells fight infection.

The major types of leukocytes are lymphocytes, basophils, eosinophils, neutrophils,

and monocytes.

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Lymphocytes
Lymphocytes are white blood cells that carry the major responsibility of defending
the body against antigens. There are three major types of lymphocytes: natural
killer (NK) cells, B cells, and T cells.

B cells are cells that do not grow in the thymus. They secrete special substances
called antibodies, which interact with the antigen but are unable to penetrate living
microorganisms such as bacteria and fungi. T cells are cells that mature inside the
thymus. They directly interact with the antigens by attacking the body cells that are
infected or malignant. Natural killer cells are lymphocytes that serve many
functions, including protecting the body against viruses, tumors, and other
invaders.

Neutrophils
Neutrophils travel to where the invaders are detected in the body. Neutrophils are
phagocytic cells, meaning they devour the invaders in order to break them down.
Not all invaders can be devoured by neutrophils, however. This means that the aid
of other leukocytes will be needed to prevent disease.

Eosinophils
Eosinophils, also known as acidophils, are responsible for fighting parasites,
viruses, or allergies. Eosinophils are also phagocytic cells. They have a wide range of
functions which include fighting off invaders, coordinating with other cells to
prevent infections, and secreting chemicals to help in destroying invaders.

Basophils
Basophils are the leukocytes that secrete molecules known as histamines, which
play a role in allergic reactions. They are also phagocytic cells and can help in
recruiting other types of leukocytes to fight off invaders.

Monocytes
Monocytes are phagocytes and are responsible for “displaying” pieces of the
invaders that have been killed by the T-cells. This will allow the immune system to
properly recognize and fight off the invaders.

Organs of the Immune System

The immune system is composed of several components. Each component plays a
vital role in strengthening the defense against foreign bodies that enter the body.
There are different organs and cells of the immune system that are distributed

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throughout the body.

Lymphoid organs are the organs that are concerned with the growth,
development, and production of lymphocytes—these are leukocytes essential for
the performance of defense by the immune system. They also include the tonsils
and adenoids, thymus, lymph nodes, spleen, Peyer’s patches, appendix, bone
marrow, and lymphatic vessels.

Lymphatic Vessels
Lymphatic vessels carry lymph—the fluid that coats the body tissues,
lymphocytes, and antigens—to the lymph nodes where the antigens are presented
to the immune cells.

Lymph is a fluid that contains white blood cells that serve to protect the body from
infections. As lymph moves around the body through the lymphatic vessels, it
collects bacteria which it brings to the lymph nodes for destruction. Aside from this,
lymph also collects waste products from the cells for disposal. This is done through
lymphatic capillaries, which are very small vessels found in organs and tissues
that lymph uses when going to lymphatic circulation.

The flow of lymph is unidirectional and goes upward to the neck. Lymph nodes in
the neck will filter this lymph as it rejoins the circulatory system through veins in
that area.

Fig. 5. Structure of lymph capillaries. The arrows indicate the direction of fluid flow.

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Lymph Nodes
Lymph nodes are bean-shaped clusters that contain lymphocytes such as B cells, T
cells, and other cells capable of trapping antigens and are found in the neck,
armpits, abdomen, and groin.

The direction at which lymph flows is upward, from the area around the knees to
the neck where lymph rejoins the veins. There are multiple lymph nodes that are
scattered in between these areas, and these have both afferent lymph vessels
and efferent lymph vessels. Afferent lymph vessels carry lymph to the nodes,
whereas efferent lymph vessels carry them away from the nodes. There are more
afferent vessels compared to efferent vessels to increase the time by which the
lymph remains inside the node. This increases the time by which the lymphatic fluid
is cleaned of any bacteria or other wastes. This is the reason why lymph glands
swell when there is an infection, and some cancers also cause swelling.

Fig. 6. Structure of a lymph node.

Tonsils
Tonsils are parts of the body found in the respiratory tract, which contains clusters
of lymphoid tissues.

There are different types of tonsils, which are the following:

● The pharyngeal tonsils, also known as the adenoids, are found at the roof
of the pharynx. These produce mucus which serves functions like moving
substances and bacteria.
● The palatine tonsils are found at the back of the throat, on both sides.
These play a role in fighting infections through contact from the nose or
mouth.

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 ● The lingual tonsils are found on both sides of the base of the tongue. These
produce antibodies in order to fight off infections.

Fig. 7. Three groups of tonsils. Part of the palate is removed (dotted line) to show
pharyngeal tonsil.

Thymus
The thymus is a multilobed organ found
behind the upper breastbone. The size of
the thymus is larger during the first year of
life but remains fairly the same size
throughout a person’s life until 60 years of
age, after which it becomes smaller. This is
the site where T cells, a major type of
lymphocytes, migrate to, multiply, and
mature into cells that are capable of
producing an immune response. The
thymus is the only organ that does not
directly attack antigens. Its role is solely for
the maturation of T cells.

Spleen
The spleen acts as a large lymph node capable of destroying and segregating
malfunctioning cells as well as old cells. The spleen has two major components that
perform these functions: the white and the red pulp.

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The spleen filters blood and this process of filtration removes old or damaged
blood cells and bacteria. This happens because the spleen has multiple blood and
lymphatic vessels. This is primarily performed by the red pulp. Aside from these
functions, the spleen also produces antibodies and can contain T-cells and B-cells.
This part is the white pulp.

Fig. 9. Structure of a spleen.

Peyer’s Patches
Peyer’s patches are clumps of
lymphoid tissues found in the small
intestine. These structures are
thickened areas of the walls of the
small intestines. The inner area of the
digestive system is full of
microorganisms, and it is the role of
the Peyer’s patches to monitor
microorganism activity inside. Many
immune cells are present within the
Peyer’s patches to counteract
microorganisms and infections.

Appendix
The appendix is an organ surrounded
by lymphatic tissues but has no
distinctive function as a lymphatic
organ. The overall function of the
appendix is still unknown, but some scientists believe that it acts as an area that
houses beneficial bacteria. Other scientists believe that it is a mere vestigial organ.

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Bone Marrow
Bone marrow is responsible for the production of different types of white blood
cells, which provide defense against infections. Bone marrow is usually found in the
inner layers of bone.

Bone marrow is also considered to be a lymphoid organ, as these are capable of

producing lymphocytes aside from the many blood cells that it can produce. It also
prevents the backflow of lymph.

Fig. 11. The bone marrow is where the blood cells are produced.

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 Key Points

● The immune system is a collection of cells, organs, and processes that

protect the body against foreign substances that can cause certain diseases.
● Immunity is the body’s ability to fight certain illnesses, damages, and
diseases caused by disease-causing agents.
● The body has the ability to distinguish objects that are “self” from “non-self”
through the immune system.
● An antigen can be a part of a virus, a parasite, a bacterium, or a fungus that
can trigger an immune response from the body.
● Leukocytes, also known as white blood cells, are the main “soldiers” of the
immune system.

Web Links
For further information, you can check the following web links:

● To learn more about how the immune system works, watch the
video using the link below.
TED-Ed. 2018. ‘How does your immune system work? - Emma Bryce’
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PSRJfaAYkW4&t

● The lymphatic system also plays a role in spreading cancer. The

video, through the link below, will give you an idea of how it
works.
TED-Ed. 2014. ‘How does cancer spread through the body? - Ivan Seah Yu Jun’
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OcigJn8UJNQ

Check Your Understanding

A. Identify the correct immune system cell or organ being described in each item.
1. These are also known as acidophils which are responsible for fighting
parasites, viruses, or allergies.

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 2. These are the leukocytes that secrete molecules known as histamines, which
play a role in allergic reactions.
3. These are phagocytes and are responsible for “displaying” pieces of the
invaders that have been killed by the T-cells.
4. This is a multilobed organ found behind the upper breastbone.
5. This acts as a large lymph node capable of destroying and segregating
malfunctioning cells as well as old cells.
6. These refer to clumps of lymphoid tissues found in the small intestine.
7. This is an organ surrounded by lymphatic tissues but has no distinctive
function as a lymphatic organ.
8. This is a structure that is found in the inner layers of bone and produces
many types of blood cells.
9. These carry lymph or the fluid that coats the body tissues, lymphocytes, and
antigens to the lymph nodes.
10. These can be classified into T-cells, B-cells, or NK cells.

B. Write true if the statement is accurate, and false if otherwise.

1. All leukocytes are manufactured by the thymus.
2. Neutrophils can be T-cells or B-cells.
3. Histamines play a role in allergic reactions.
4. Alopecia is an autoimmune condition.
5. The cells of the immune system travel in the bloodstream and lymph.

Challenge Yourself

Answer the following questions.

1. Why are there different types of immune cells?
2. Can immune cells travel without the bloodstream or lymph? Justify.
3. How does bone contribute to the immune system?
4. How does the immune system play a role in allergic reactions?
5. What is the function of lymph?

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 Lesson 23.2: Innate Immune Response

Objective
In this lesson, you should be able to:
● explain how an innate immune response protects the body.

All humans suffer from infectious diseases because the immune system takes time
to build its strongest defense against the pathogens, allowing the reproduction and
production of a disease or an infection. But before infection occurs, the body uses
several lines of defense against infection. How does the innate immune system
work?

Warm-Up

Modeling the Innate Immune System

Once a foreign body enters our system, our body immediately activates a
non-specific defense that would respond to it through our body’s innate immune
system. In this activity, you will create a simple model of how an innate immune
response generally works.

Materials:
● plastic bottle ● clay ● tape
● red paint ● string

Procedure:
1. Make a “wound” on a plastic bottle’s side by placing a small cut. Paint it red.
2. Using different colors of clay, shape the following:
● White blood cell: blue clay, large circles
● Pathogen: red clay, circles of different sizes
● Serum proteins: yellow clay, small triangles
● Cytokines: green clay, small ovals
3. Attach some of the proteins to the pathogens, and string them up inside the

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 wound.
4. Show some white blood cells releasing proteins by stringing them up close to
each other.
5. Attach cytokines to some white blood cells and pathogens.
6. Show some white blood cells “eating” pathogens.

Guide Questions:
1. What do you think the cytokines and proteins do?
2. Why do the white blood cells “eat” the pathogens?

Learn about It

The innate immune system

serves as the frontline of defense
by the body against pathogens
and invaders. It is a very old type
of immunity, as it can also be
found in more primitive animals.
Innate immunity involves surface
barriers that protect against
infections, like the skin. It also
involves non-specific immunity
cells, and these non-specific cells
are able to act against any
microorganism invasion present.
In humans and other vertebrates,
the innate immune system is one
of the two strategies of immunity,
the other being the adaptive
immune system. Adaptive immunity, on the other hand, is specific. It uses an
immunological memory to memorize the identity of invaders in order to have a
faster response.

Some of the other functions performed by the innate immune system include the
recruitment of other cells to fight infections, the removal of invaders from different
body parts, and the activation of the adaptive immune system.

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Innate Defenses
Innate defenses are called such because they are already present at birth.
Sometimes, the action of an innate defense is enough to attack foreign invaders,
but there are also times when the help of adaptive defenses is needed to ward off
pathogens. Either way, the innate defenses decrease the workload of the adaptive
defenses by serving as a barrier for the entry and spread of microorganisms in the
body. Innate immunity action happens at the same speed every time there are
invasions since it does not rely on immunological memory.

Surface Barriers (Skin and Mucous Membranes)

The skin is the first line of defense of the body. It is equipped with an impenetrable
layer of epithelium, or the layers of cells found in the outer surface and the inner
cavities of the body.

When the skin is wounded, burned, or has undergone surgical procedures, the skin
becomes vulnerable and accessible to disease-causing agents called pathogens
(e.g., bacteria, fungi, viruses, and parasites). When this happens, the second line of
defense comes into play.

The mucosal surfaces or mucosae, on the other hand, are internal surfaces that
are constantly bathed in the mucus that they secrete. They are more vulnerable to
infection than the skin. They protect the epithelial cells from damage and help in
limiting infections.

Fig. 13. The mucosa of the stomach.

For instance, in the respiratory tract, the mucus is continually removed by the
epithelial cells bearing cilia, which are hair-like structures that serve to clean the

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tract. Therefore, the mucus, together with unwanted materials and pathogens that
enter the respiratory tract through inhalation, is regularly removed. Another
example is the mucosa of the stomach, which provides a barrier against bacterial
infection of the deeper levels of the layers of the stomach. Stomach acid also plays
a role in destroying bacteria.

Internal Defenses
(Cellular Components)
There are many cells
involved with the innate
immune response. All of
the leukocytes mentioned
in Lesson 1 are involved
with the innate immune
system, and all of them
perform different functions
after the pathogens have
penetrated the surfaces of
the skin or mucosal
surfaces.

Another important cellular

component of the innate
immune system is the
presence of natural killer
cells. These cells respond to bacterial infections and the formation of tumors by
controlling their spread. Natural killer cells are capable of targeting pathogens as
well as “tagging” any infected cells that need to be destroyed.

There are also innate immune cells that are phagocytic, which means they engulf
pathogens in order to destroy them through a process known as phagocytosis.
This happens through the following steps:
1. The phagocytic cell (examples of which are monocytes and macrophages)
attaches to the pathogen.
2. The cell forms structures known as pseudopods, which are projections that
capture and engulf the pathogen inside a phagocytic vesicle.
3. The lysosomes of the cell will fuse with the phagocytic vesicle, and this forms
a phagolysosome.

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 4. The enzymes inside the lysosome are corrosive, and these enzymes will
break down the contents of the phagolysosome. This process forms waste
materials.
5. The waste materials are removed from the cell in a process known as
exocytosis.

The Innate Immune Response

The innate immune response provides immediate actions to protect the body
against pathogens and other toxins. It consists of two parts: recognition of the
pathogen and the effector mechanism.

Recognition of Pathogen
When the pathogen enters the body, soluble proteins and cell-surface receptors
recognize and bind with the pathogen.

Effector Mechanism
Various effector cells provide the effector mechanism by engulfing, killing, or
attacking pathogens. A complement, which contains serum proteins, helps the
effector cells by marking the pathogens with molecular flags while simultaneously
attacking them.

Fig. 15. The innate immune response.

For instance, a child trips and gets wounded. The following will be the steps that the
innate immune response takes:
1. The cells and the proteins in the damaged tissue recognize the presence of
bacteria that entered the wounded tissue.
2. The cells send soluble proteins called cytokines that interact with other cells
within the wounded area to stimulate the innate immune response.

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 3. An inflammation, accompanied by pain, heat, redness, and swelling, is
induced as an innate immune response in the presence of the bacteria.
4. The cytokines are responsible for the heat and reddening of the inflamed
tissue by inducing local dilation or enlargement of blood capillaries,
therefore, increasing the blood flow.

Note that inflammation is not

caused by an infection, but only
an immune response in the
presence of pathogens, in this
case, bacteria. Inflammatory
cells are white blood cells that
are commonly present in
inflamed tissue and discharge
substances that contribute to
inflammation.

The inflammatory response is a

series of steps undertaken by
the immune system to combat
injuries caused by multiple
causes, which include bacteria
or wounding. When damage
occurs to tissues, the following
steps happen:

1. The injured area will release chemical mediators to signal the presence of an
injury.
2. The area will have increased permeability in order to increase the amount of
blood that flows into the area.
3. The increased blood flow also increases the number of white blood cells and
chemical mediators in the injured area. This allows the body to better
combat infections.
4. Pathogens are destroyed and are phagocytosed. Any of the two can occur:
● If bacteria remain in the injured area, more chemical mediators will be
activated to combat the infection.
● If the bacteria are eliminated, tissue repair starts.

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 Fig. 17. Inflammatory response

Key Points

● The innate immune system serves as the frontline of defense by the body
against pathogens and invaders.
● The skin is the first line of defense of the body. It is equipped with an
impenetrable layer of epithelium.
● The mucosal surfaces or mucosae are internal surfaces that are constantly
bathed in the mucus that they secrete.
● The innate immune response provides immediate actions to protect the
body against pathogens and other toxins. It consists of two parts:
recognition of the pathogen and effector mechanism.
● Inflammatory cells are white blood cells that are commonly present in
inflamed tissues and discharge substances that contribute to inflammation.

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 Web Links

For further information, you can check the following web links:
● To learn more about the different defenses of the body, watch
the video below through the link.
TED-Ed. 2014. ‘Cell vs. virus: A battle for health - Shannon Stiles’
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oqGuJhOeMek

● Wound healing is an important process that occurs after the

immune response. To learn more, watch the video below
through the link.
TED-Ed. 2014. ‘How a wound heals itself - Sarthak Sinha’
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TLVwELDMDWs

Check Your Understanding

A. Identify the terms being described by the statements below.

1. This organ is the body’s first line of defense against invaders.
2. These are disease-causing agents.
3. These are internal surfaces that secrete mucus.
4. These are hairlike structures of the respiratory tract used for cleaning.
5. This is the step of the innate immune response when soluble proteins and
cell-surface receptors recognize and bind with the invaders.
6. This is the step of the innate immune response when various effector cells
act by engulfing, killing, or attacking pathogens.
7. These are white blood cells that are commonly present in inflamed tissues
and discharge substances that contribute to inflammation.
8. This is a state accompanied by pain, heat, redness, and swelling, and induced
as an innate immune response in the presence of the bacteria.
9. The other strategy of the immune system that follows the first line of
defense.
10. Between the skin and mucosa, which is more vulnerable to infection?

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B. Write true if the statement is accurate, and false if it is not.
1. The innate immune system can only be found in mammals.
2. Pathogen recognition is necessary for the innate immune system.
3. The skin is impenetrable to pathogens even with wounds.
4. The effector mechanism follows pathogen recognition.
5. The adaptive immune system and the innate immune system work together
to protect the body.

Challenge Yourself

Answer the following questions.

1. What is the immune function of the skin?
2. How does the body recognize pathogens?
3. How does inflammation help in fighting pathogens?
4. How do injuries lower the skin’s resistance against pathogens?
5. How do the complements aid in immunity?

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 Lesson 23.3: Adaptive Immune Response

Objective
In this lesson, you should be able to:
● explain how an adaptive immune response protects the body.

The previous lesson discussed the innate immune system, which is non-specific.
Some of the descriptions of the functions of the innate immune system in the last
lesson were contrasted with the adaptive immune system, which is mostly
specific and relies on immunological memory. How does the adaptive immune
response work?

Warm-Up

Pathogen Recognition Activity

Compared with the innate immune response, the adaptive immune response,
which is also referred to as the acquired immune response, is more specialized. In
this activity, you will investigate how this type of immune response generally works.

Materials:
● 5 colors of beads, 3 pieces each
● 2 jars

Procedure:
This activity will be done in pairs. Each student should hold one jar. One jar
represents the environment and the other represents the body. Each color of bead
represents a different pathogen.

Preparation:
1. The student with the “environment” jar randomly hands over 2 beads. These
are placed into the “body” jar. This means that the colors of these 2 beads

26
 are now recognized by the body.
Activity:
1. There will be 4 "invasions." Each invasion will have the student holding the
“environment” jar handing over a random bead.
2. The idea is that for every invasion that a bead of the same color is given, the
immune response of the body is faster. Record the "time" it takes for the
body to fight off the infection according to the following guide: first invasion
exposure: 2 weeks, and every subsequent invasion exposure: subtract 2
days. Each invasion should last no more than two minutes.

Table 1. Invasion results

Time: bead Time: bead Time: bead Time: bead Time: bead
Invasion
color 1 color 2 color 3 color 4 color 5

Guide Questions:
1. Why do you think time reduces with more exposures? What does this imply?
2. How does this response differ from the innate immune system?
3. Which initial response is faster?

Learn about It

The Adaptive Immune System

The adaptive immune system is the more specific component of the immune
system. It is also known as the acquired immune system. Adaptive immune
response refers to a highly specific mechanism of the immune system that
recognizes a particular pathogen.

Initial exposure to a pathogen by the adaptive system results in a relatively slow

response. However, this type of immunity provides long-lasting protection because

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it has the ability to remember its actions to a particular pathogen. Therefore, it
provides a highly specialized defense. This also means that subsequent interactions
with the same pathogen will have a faster and more effective response.

The Innate and Adaptive Immune Response

The effector mechanism of the adaptive immune response is similar to the innate
immune response; the only difference is how the lymphocytes recognize the
presence of pathogens. Fig. 18 differentiates the two types of immunity.

Fig. 18. Difference between innate and adaptive immunity.

Adaptive Immunity is Specific

The lymphocytes are specific in recognizing a particular pathogen by using
cell-surface receptors that bind with that pathogen. The adaptive immune response
can be made specific to a certain pathogen by using lymphocyte receptors that bind
only to invasive and infectious pathogens.

Cells of the Adaptive Immune System

The cells of the adaptive immune system undergo a series of steps for them to
develop and mature. This ensures that the cells are fully functional and capable of
performing their assigned immunological functions.

T-cells and B-cells (named for where they mature) are the major cells of the
adaptive immune system. T-cells are involved with the activation of phagocytic cells,
and the release of chemicals and antigen-specific cells. B-cells, on the other hand,
are involved in the steps that deal with the release of antibodies. They develop in
nearly similar ways, with a few key differences, described in the following steps:
1. Lymphocyte precursors originate from the bone marrow.

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2. The precursor cells that will become T-cells migrate to the thymus where
they mature. On the other hand, those that will become B-cells will mature
within the bone marrow. These cells develop the ability to participate in
immune response as they mature. This is known as immunocompetence.
They also learn to recognize the body’s own cells as non-targets, and this is
known as self-tolerance.
3. The immunocompetent cells, but still not fully mature at this point, will leave
the bone marrow and thymus. They are relocated to blood and lymph while
circulating through the secondary lymphoid organs.
4. When the antigen receptors bind to the cell, the lymphocyte can then be
activated.
5. These activated cells can then multiply and further differentiate into effector
cells and memory cells that circulate through blood or lymph.

Fig. 19. Lymphocyte development, maturation, and activation

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Table 2 below summarizes the differences between B-cells and T-cells.

Table 2. Overview of B and T lymphocytes

B-cells T-cells

Type of immune
humoral cellular
response

Antibody secretion yes no

Primary targets extracellular pathogens

intracellular pathogens
(e.g., bacteria, fungi,
(e.g., virus-infected cells)
parasites, some viruses in
and cancer cells
extracellular fluid)

Site of origin red bone marrow red bone marrow

Site of maturation red bone marrow thymus

Effector cells cytotoxic T-cells, helper

plasma cells
T-cells, regulatory T-cells

Memory cell formation yes yes

Steps of the Adaptive Immune Response

The adaptive immune response consists of three major parts: recognition of the
infectious pathogen, selection of pathogen-specific lymphocytes, and the effector
mechanism.

Recognition of the Infectious Pathogen

During an infection, the lymphocytes with receptors that can recognize the infecting
pathogen are selected to participate in the adaptive immune response.

Selection of Pathogen-specific Lymphocytes

The lymphocytes multiply and differentiate, producing large numbers of effector
cells with different specificity to provide a match with the infecting pathogen.
Proliferation and differentiation of lymphocytes are processes called clonal
selection and clonal expansion, respectively.

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Both T-cells and B-cells undergo positive and negative selection. T-cells are selected
for positive selection based on their ability to recognize their major
histocompatibility complex or MHC. The MHC is a group of proteins on the
surface of cells that will aid the immune system in recognizing pathogens. If the
T-cell fails to recognize self-MHC, then it undergoes apoptosis. If it does, then the
T-cell will survive. Negative selection, on the other hand, tests the T-cell’s ability to
recognize self-antigens. Self-antigens are compounds that cannot provoke an
antibody response within the organism that “owns” it but can do so in other
organisms. If the T-cell recognizes the self-antigen, then it undergoes apoptosis. It
survives otherwise. This process makes sure that the T-cell does not attack the
other cells that the organisms own.

Fig. 20. T-cell selection.

B-cells have B-cell receptors, also known as BCRs. In B-cell positive selection, if the
BCR does not bind to its corresponding molecules (known as a ligand) to form the
proper complex, then the B-cell stops developing. Development continues
otherwise. B-cell negative selection, on the other hand, involves the binding of the
self-antigen to the BCR. This leads to the self-recognizing B-cells being eliminated to
prevent autoimmune diseases.

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Effector Mechanism
As the clonal selection and clonal expansion take time, the adaptive immune
response can be felt mostly a week after the infection started.

Fig. 21. Clonal selection of a B-cell.

Example of an Adaptive Immune Response

For instance, a person is infected with influenza. Influenza is caused by an influenza
virus that causes an infection of epithelial cells found in the lower respiratory tract.

32
The symptoms, which include fever, can be felt 3–4 days after the infection and will
continue to persist for 5–7 days while waiting for the adaptive immune response to
take place.

Fig. 22. The symptoms of influenza are most felt while the adaptive immune
response is preparing.

When the adaptive immune response is ready, the fever subsides, and gradually
the patient recovers at the beginning of the second week of infection.

Immunological Memory
There are times when selected lymphocytes during an adaptive immune response
continue to work inside the body and provide a long-term immunological memory
of the pathogen. Immunological memory refers to the body’s ability to quickly
recognize and act against an antigen as a response to previous exposure.

The cells involved are called memory T-cells and memory B-cells. The memory
T-cells and memory B-cells are in contrast with the naive T-cells and B-cells, which
are non-memory cells.

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The memory cells are cells that allow succeeding encounters with the same
pathogen and provide a stronger and faster adaptive immune response. Acquired
immunity or protective immunity is a type of adaptive immunity that provides an
immunological memory.

Fig. 23. Memory cells are part of the adaptive immune system.

The body’s ability to form an immunological response because of the actions of the
adaptive immune system make vaccinations possible.

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 Key Points

● Adaptive immune response refers to a highly specific mechanism of the

immune system that recognizes a particular pathogen.
○ Initial exposure to a pathogen by the adaptive system results in a
relatively slow response.
○ The adaptive immune response consists of three major parts:
recognition of the infectious pathogen, selection of pathogen-specific
lymphocytes, and the effector mechanism.
● Immunological memory refers to the body’s ability to quickly recognize and
act against an antigen as a response to previous exposure.
○ The memory cells are cells that allow succeeding encounters with the
same pathogen and provide a stronger and faster adaptive immune
response.

Web Links

For further information, you can check the following web links:

● It’s not just the body that adapts. The bacterium does too.
TED-Ed. 2014. ‘What causes antibiotic resistance? - Kevin Wu’
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=znnp-Ivj2ek

● Learn how viruses infect people.

National Geographic. 2009. ‘Virus Crisis | National Geographic’
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=91b3MCAlYSI

35
 Check Your Understanding

A. Identify what is being described in each item.

1. This is the more specific component of the immune system.
2. Subsequent interactions with the same pathogen will have a response of this
speed.
3. These are leukocytes of the adaptive immune response that are specific in
recognizing a particular pathogen by using cell-surface receptors that bind
with that pathogen.
4. This is the proliferation of lymphocytes.
5. This is the differentiation of lymphocytes.
6. These are cells that allow succeeding encounters with the same pathogen
and provide a stronger and faster adaptive immune response.
7. This is a type of adaptive immunity that provides an immunological memory.
8. These are the three major parts of the adaptive immune response.
9. These are the receptors in B-cells that bind to ligands in the positive selection
mechanism.
10. These are compounds that do not provoke an immune response in the
organism that owns them.

B. Write true if the statement is true and false if otherwise.

1. The adaptive immune response is slower than the innate immune response.
2. All animals have an adaptive immune response.
3. The adaptive immune response builds memory.
4. The adaptive immune response becomes faster after the initial exposure.
5. The innate immune response is more efficient on the first exposure.

Challenge Yourself

Answer the following questions.

1. Why is the adaptive immune system slow on the first exposure?
2. How do the innate and adaptive immune systems work together on the first
exposure?

36
3. What are memory cells for?
4. How does immunological memory aid in immunity?
5. Why is the adaptive immune response considered to be more specific?

37
 Lesson 23.4: Immunity and Vaccination

Objective
In this lesson, you should be able to:
● describe how vaccination provides immunity against a strong
infectious pathogen.

Vaccination is a way of exposing the body to certain pathogens in order to trigger

the immune system’s response to creating an immunological memory. It is a good
way of protecting the body against future encounters with the same pathogen.
How does vaccination work?

Warm-Up

Vaccination Game
Vaccination protects people from severe symptoms of viral diseases or from
contracting them. It also helps in controlling the spread of these diseases. In this
activity, you will virtually investigate how vaccination helps reduce a viral disease
outbreak.

Material:
● internet-capable device

Procedure:
1. Click this link to play a game about vaccination. Then, answer the questions
that follow.

● Play a game about vaccination here:

Salathe Group. 2014. ‘Vax: Gamifying Epidemic Prevention’
http://vax.herokuapp.com/

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Guide Questions:
1. What is the most effective way in the game to prevent the epidemic from
occurring?
2. Does this game reflect reality? How?

Learn about It

When the innate immune response is not enough to fight off an invasion by a

strong infectious pathogen, like the influenza virus, the body’s response is to
facilitate an adaptive immune response.

Primary and Secondary Immune Response

The formation of immunological memory involves exposure to antigens and can be
classified into primary immune response and secondary immune response.

Primary Immune Response

The first time that an adaptive immune response takes place due to the presence of
a pathogen is called the primary immune response. The main responders are
naive T-cells and B-cells, and this is when the body learns to recognize the identity
of the antigens involved. After the body has learned the identity, it can then start to
produce antibodies that can specifically act against these antigens.

Secondary Immune Response

The second and the succeeding time that adaptive immune response is made to an
antigen, given that an immunological memory was done, is called a secondary
immune response. Since the body has already learned how to respond to the
antigen, the memory T-cells and memory B-cells aid in fighting off the invasion.

Because of the body’s ability to quickly recognize the antigens involved, it can also
act more quickly in eradicating the source of the invasion. The body can start to
produce antibodies more quickly.

Figure 24 illustrates a graph that shows the difference between the primary and
secondary responses in terms of how fast their responses are after an antibody
titer (a blood test that detects the presence and measures the amount of
antibodies in the blood).

39
 Fig. 24. Primary and secondary immune responses.

Structure and Function of an Antibody

Antibodies are proteins produced by B-cells through B-cell activation. These
proteins, also known as immunoglobulins, are Y-shaped structures that bind to
antigens found in pathogens. Figure 25 shows the general structure of an antibody.
Antigen-antibody binding is specific and is known as a lock-and-key mechanism.
After the binding occurs, the cascade of events associated with adaptive immunity
takes place.

Types of Antibody
There are multiple types of antibodies, and these perform specific functions and
are found in different parts of the body.

The different types of antibodies are as follows:

● Immunoglobulin A: IgA is commonly found associated with mucous
membranes of the digestive and respiratory tract. It can also be found as a
part of some of the body’s secretions, like saliva.

40
● Immunoglobulin G: IgG is the most common type and can also be found in
the fluids of the body.
● Immunoglobulin M: IgM is the first to respond to infections. It is mostly
produced in the spleen.
● Immunoglobulin E: IgE is produced by plasma cells and fights against
parasitic infections.
● Immunoglobulin D: IgD’s role is to bind to other cells of the immune system
in order to allow them to help out with the immune response.

Fig. 25. The general structure of antibody.

Fig. 26. Types of antibody.

41
Acquired Adaptive Immunity
There are different types of acquired adaptive immunity, and these can be obtained
through natural and artificial means.

Fig. 27. Acquired adaptive immunity.

Active immunity refers to acquired adaptive immunity that originates from the
organism’s own immune system. This occurs when the immune system is exposed
to antigens and starts to produce antibodies to combat them. Natural means of
acquiring active immunity include normal exposure to the antibody. Artificial
means include vaccination.

Passive immunity, on the other hand, refers to the transference of immunity from
one organism to another. This usually occurs when antibodies are transferred from
an animal to a person. A natural way by which this happens is when antibodies are
transferred from mother to child through breastmilk. An artificial means of doing
this is the injection of antibodies produced by an animal into a person.

Vaccination
Vaccination has been practiced by
many human societies in ancient times.
There are pieces of evidence that the
Chinese, Africans, Europeans, and
other civilizations have used early
versions of vaccines.

The modern use of the vaccine was due

to an English doctor named Edward

42
Jenner, who created the world’s first vaccine which was a vaccine against smallpox
in the 1700s. Methods employed for making vaccines have improved and
developed since then, and many diseases have effectively been prevented.

What Are Vaccines?

Vaccines are substances that can be administered orally or injected into a person
so that he or she can develop an immune response against a certain disease.

Vaccines contain pathogens or parts of the pathogens that have been altered to
induce an immune response but will not be able to produce a disease or an
infection. This is the reason why most vaccines contain weakened or altered
versions of the pathogens being vaccinated against, so that the person being
vaccinated can easily fight off the pathogen while developing an immunological
memory against it.

What Are Vaccines For?

The purpose of vaccination is to provide an immunological memory of a pathogen
so that the succeeding infection of the same pathogen would trigger a stronger and
faster adaptive immune response.

Note that since the adaptive immune response is only activated when the innate
immune response fails to terminate infection, vaccination should be facilitated to
induce both innate and adaptive immune responses.

How Are Vaccines Made?

Most vaccines contain live viruses or bacteria that have been attenuated or
weakened through several cycles in an animal or in cell cultures. The bacteria or
viruses are first grown in cells under controlled conditions. An example of where
viruses are grown is in chicken eggs when making influenza vaccines. Bacteria can
be grown in devices known as bioreactors.

The antigens are extracted from the cells or the bioreactors and then purified.
Other substances are then added to the antigen. Many substances may be added,
depending on the need. Adjuvants can be added, and these improve immune
response. There are also substances that prolong the shelf-life of the vaccine.

43
 Key Points

● When the innate immune response is not enough to fight off an invasion by a

strong infectious pathogen, like the influenza virus, the body’s response is to
facilitate an adaptive immune response.
● The formation of immunological memory involves exposure to antigens.
● The first time that an adaptive immune response takes place due to the
presence of a pathogen is called a primary immune response.
● The second and the succeeding time that adaptive immune response is
made to an antigen, given that an immunological memory was done, is called
a secondary immune response.
● Vaccines contain pathogens or parts of the pathogens that have been
altered to induce an immune response but will not be able to produce a
disease or an infection.

Web Links
For further information, you can check the following web links:

● To learn more about the different defenses of the body, watch:

TED-Ed. 2014. ‘Cell vs. virus: A battle for health - Shannon Stiles’
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oqGuJhOeMek

● To learn more about vaccines, watch:

TED-Ed. 2015. ‘How do vaccines work? - Kelwalin Dhanasarnsombut’
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rb7TVW77ZCs&t

44
 Check Your Understanding

A. Write true if the statement is accurate, and false if not.

1. Vaccines use large amounts of viruses and bacteria.
2. The pathogens are usually weakened in vaccines.
3. Vaccines rely on the body’s immunological memory.
4. There are substances to increase a vaccine’s shelf life.
5. Some vaccines have substances to increase immune response.
6. Vaccines are a recent discovery.
7. Only humans can be vaccinated.
8. Vaccines are manufactured using cells or bioreactors.
9. Vaccination speeds up subsequent immune responses.
10. The primary immune response is accompanied by the first exposure.

B. Identify the terms being described by the statements below.

1. These are substances that increase the shelf life of vaccines.
2. This refers to the second and succeeding times that the immune system
responds.
3. These are disease-causing agents.
4. This is a kind of immunity triggered by the initial infection and speeds up
subsequent exposures.
5. These are substances that can be administered orally or injected and contain
weakened bacteria or viruses.

Challenge Yourself

Answer the following questions.

1. What are the advantages of vaccination?
2. Is it advantageous for a child to be vaccinated or not? Justify.
3. How do vaccines provide immunity?
4. How can vaccines help in preventing epidemics?
5. Can all diseases be vaccinated against? Why?

45
 Laboratory Activity

Activity 23.1
Adaptive Immunity Activity

Objectives
At the end of this laboratory activity, the students should be able to:
● describe and explain the processes involved with adaptive immunity; and
● define the components of the immune system.

Materials and Equipment

● 4 colors of balloons, 5 each (red, blue, green, yellow)
● colored toothpicks (same color as the balloons)
● 40 purple, yellow, blue, and green pieces of paper (with tape at the back)
● box
● pathogen printouts shown below for each “pathogen” student

46
Procedure
1. This activity will be done as a class.
2. Give one group of students the box of balloons. This group will also be given
pathogen cards, indicating what pathogen they are. They should stand
outside the classroom and await further instructions.
3. The students enter the classroom with one balloon each. The pathogen
printouts will indicate what color balloon they can stick to the antibodies
(colored pieces of paper).
4. The antibodies will be given to the rest of the class. The rest of the class
should be standing as the group with the balloons enters. Each of them
should pick a classmate inside the room to “infect”. When they stick the
balloons to the corresponding antibodies, the person that attached the
antibody should sit down if the colors match.
5. If the colors do not match, the cytotoxic cell “kills” the pathogen. Use a
colored toothpick to pop the “pathogen” balloon.
6. Repeat steps 2-6 thrice and differentiate the results.

Data and Results

Table 1. Results of each of the trials for the activity.

Number of matching Number of balloons
Trial
colors popped

1.

2.

3.

4.

Guide Questions
1. What is the percent average of pathogens being popped? What about the
succeeding pathogens ?
2. How does the activity show the actions of the immune system?

47
 Performance Task

Dengvaxia Research

Goal
● Your goal is to do comprehensive research on the Dengvaxia incident.

Role
● You are young health professionals that aim to shed light on the beneficial
and harmful effects of vaccines.

Audience
● Your audience will include members of your school community.

Situation
● Vaccines are effective if administered and created properly. We should be
aware of these processes and their effects if not properly done.

Product, Performance, and Purpose

● You should compile news articles and reports about the Dengvaxia vaccine
and the incident that occurred in the Philippines.
● Your output should be a news report skit that shows the conclusion of your
research, and should answer the following:
○ Is dengvaxia a usable vaccine?
○ What steps should be taken?
○ How can we make sure that other vaccines are properly administered
and created?

Standards and Criteria

● Your performance will be graded using the following rubric.

Needs Successful Exemplary

Below Expectations,
Criteria 0% to 49%
Improvement Performance Performance
50% to 74% 75% to 99% 100%

Content. Details not Details are Details are Details are

presented. presented but not presented in an presented in an

48
Detailed facts are Content is not organized. There is organized manner. organized matter
presented well. related to the task. some content that Content is related that can be easily
Content is related to is not related to to the task. understood.
the task. the task. Content is related
to the task.
Additional
supporting details
are presented.

Communication Presentation was Presentation was Presentation was Presentation was

not done. done but in a done smoothly but done clearly.
Skills.
disorganized and the concepts are Concepts were
Presentation was illogical manner. presented in such presented in a
done in a clear and a way that should logical manner
logical manner. be rearranged for and easily
better understandable by
understanding. the audience.

Audiovisual No audiovisual Audiovisual Audiovisual Audiovisual

materials used. materials are used materials are well materials are well
materials.
but are messy and organized and organized and
Materials presented disorganized. done neatly. Some done creatively.
in a creative way but There is no attention is paid to There is also a
not sacrificing the attention to detail. great attention to
accuracy of facts. details. details.

Integrating No concept of The concept of The concept of The concept of

vaccines discussed vaccines was vaccines was vaccines was
concepts on
in the task. mentioned but not properly integrated in an
vaccines. integrated into the integrated into the organized and
Subject matter is task. task. Concepts logical way.
integrated and were properly Additional
properly used in presented in concepts about
presenting facts. relation to the vaccines related to
task. the task were
presented.

49
 Self Check

Check the statements that apply to you.

Check I can…

explain the components and functions of the immune system.

differentiate between innate and adaptive immune responses.

explain how vaccines work.

Key Words

Adaptive immune Adaptive immune response refers to a highly specific

response mechanism of the immune system that recognizes a
particular pathogen.
Antigens Antigens can elicit an immune response within the host.

Autoimmune The body may recognize its own cells as “non-self” and
disorders thus will tag these cells as invaders. These are disorders
that are known as autoimmune.
Immunity Immunity is the body’s ability to fight certain illnesses,
damages, and diseases caused by disease-causing agents.
Inflammatory cells Inflammatory cells are white blood cells that are
commonly present in inflamed tissues and discharge
substances that contribute to inflammation.
Innate immune The innate immune system serves as the frontline of
system defense by the body against pathogens and invaders.
Leukocytes Leukocytes, also known as white blood cells, are the main
“soldiers” of the immune system.

50
 Wrap Up

The Immune System

Photo Credits

Fig. 3. Blausen_0909_WhiteBloodCells by BruceBlaus, is licensed under CC BY 3.0

via Wikimedia Commons.

51
 References

Derkins, Susie. 2001. The Immune System. The Rosen Publishing Group.

Johnson, Dean. I Am A Pathogen! Adaptive Immunity. The University of Arizona

PULSE.

Klosterman, Lorrie. 2009. Immune System. Marshall Cavendish.

Moritz, Andreas. 2007. Timeless Secrets of Health and Rejuvenation. Ener-Chi

Wellness Center.

Parham, Peter. 2015. The Immune System, 4th ed. Garland Science.

Schindler, Lydia Woods. 1991. Understanding the Immune System. DIANE

Publishing.

Tenney, Louise. 1984. The Immune System: A Nutritional Approach. Woodland

Publishing.

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