This article is about the large body of water.

For other uses, see Black Sea (disambiguation).

"Euxine" redirects here. For the town of ancient Caria, see Euxine (Caria).

Black Sea

The location of the Black Sea

Map of the Black Sea with bathymetry and surrounding relief

Location Europe and Western Asia

44°N 35°ECoordinates:  44°N 35°E
Coordinates

Type Sea

Primary Danube, Dnieper, Don, Dniester, Kuban

inflows

Primary Bosporus

outflows

Basin countri Bulgaria, Georgia, Romania, Russia, Turkey, U

es kraine

A large number of countries included

in drainage basins for inflow rivers

Max. length 1,175 km (730 mi)

 Surface area 436,402 km2 (168,500 sq mi)[1]

Average 1,253 m (4,111 ft)

depth

Max. depth 2,212 m (7,257 ft)

Water volume 547,000 km3 (131,200 cu mi)

Islands 10+

The estuary of the Veleka in the Black Sea. Longshore drift has deposited sediment along

the shoreline which has led to the formation of a spit, Sinemorets, Bulgaria

Black Sea coast of western Georgia, with the skyline of Batumi on the horizon

Swallow's Nest in Crimea
Coastline of Samsun in Turkey

A sanatorium in Sochi, Russia

The Black Sea is a marginal mediterranean sea of the Atlantic Ocean lying

between Europe and Asia; east of the Balkan Peninsula (Southeast Europe), south of the East
European Plain in Eastern Europe, west of the Caucasus, and north of Anatolia in Western Asia.
It is supplied by major rivers, principally the Danube, Dnieper, and Don. The watersheds of many
countries drain into the sea beyond the six that share its coast. [2]
The Black Sea covers 436,400 km2 (168,500 sq mi) (not including the Sea of Azov),[3] a maximum
depth of 2,212 m (7,257 ft),[4] and a volume of 547,000 km3 (131,000 cu mi).[5] Most of its coasts
ascend rapidly. These rises are the Pontic Mountains to the south, bar the southwest facing
peninsulas, the Caucasus Mountains to the east, and the Crimean Mountains to the mid-north. In
the west the coast is generally small floodplains below foothills such as the Strandzha; Cape
Emine, a dwindling of the east end of the Balkan Mountains; and the Dobruja
Plateau considerably further north. The longest east–west extent is about 1,175 km (730 mi).
[6]
 Important cities along the coast
include Istanbul, Odessa, Varna, Samsun, Sochi, Sevastopol, Constanța, Trabzon, Novorossiysk
, Burgas, Batumi, etc.
The Black Sea is bordered by Bulgaria, Georgia, Romania, Russia, Turkey, and Ukraine. It has a
positive water balance with an annual net outflow of 300 km3 (72 cu mi) per year through
the Bosporus and the Dardanelles into the Aegean Sea.[citation needed] While the net flow of water
through the Bosporus and Dardanelles (known collectively as the Turkish Straits) is out of the
Black Sea, generally water is flowing in both directions simultaneously. Denser, more saline
water from the Aegean flows into the Black Sea underneath the less dense, fresher outflowing
water from the Black Sea. This creates a significant and permanent layer of deep water that does
not drain or mix and is therefore anoxic. This anoxic layer is responsible for the preservation
of ancient shipwrecks which have been found in the Black Sea.
The Black Sea ultimately drains into the Mediterranean Sea, via the Turkish Straits and the
Aegean Sea. The Bosporus Strait connects it to the small Sea of Marmara which in turn is
connected to the Aegean Sea via the Strait of the Dardanelles. To the north, the Black Sea is
connected to the Sea of Azov by the Kerch Strait.
The water level has varied significantly over geological time. Due to these variations in the water
level in the basin, the surrounding shelf and associated aprons have sometimes been dry land.
At certain critical water levels, connections with surrounding water bodies can become
established. It is through the most active of these connective routes, the Turkish Straits, that the
Black Sea joins the world ocean. During geological periods when this hydrological link was not
present, the Black Sea was an endorheic basin, operating independently of the global ocean
system (similar to the Caspian Sea today). Currently, the Black Sea water level is relatively high;
thus, water is being exchanged with the Mediterranean. The Turkish Straits connect the Black
Sea with the Aegean Sea and comprise the Bosporus, the Sea of Marmara, and the Dardanelles.
The Black Sea undersea river is a current of particularly saline water flowing through the
Bosporus Strait and along the seabed of the Black Sea, the first of its kind discovered.

Contents

 1Extent
 2Coastline and exclusive economic zones
o 2.1Largest bays
 3Drainage basin
o 3.1Largest rivers
 4Geology and bathymetry
o 4.1Chronostratigraphy
  5Name
o 5.1Modern names
o 5.2Historical names and etymology
 6Hydrology
 7Hydrochemistry
 8Climate and ecology
o 8.1Climate
o 8.2Marine
 8.2.1Phytoplankton
 8.2.2Animal species
 8.2.3Ecological effects of pollution
 9Islands
 10History
o 10.1Mediterranean connection during the Holocene
 10.1.1Deluge hypothesis
o 10.2Recorded history
o 10.3Archaeology
 11Modern use
o 11.1Commercial and civic use
 11.1.1Navigation
 11.1.1.1Ports and ferry terminals
 11.1.1.2Merchant fleet and traffic
 11.1.2Fishing
 11.1.3Hydrocarbons exploration
 11.1.4Coastal and port cities on Black Sea coast
 11.1.5Population
o 11.2Modern military use
 12See also
 13Notes and references
o 13.1Informational notes
o 13.2Citations
o 13.3Bibliography
 14External links

Extent[edit]
The International Hydrographic Organization defines the limits of the Black Sea as follows:[7]
On the Southwest. The Northeastern limit of the Sea of Marmara [A line joining Cape
Rumili with Cape Anatoli (41°13'N)]. In the Kertch Strait. A line joining Cape Takil and Cape
Panaghia (45°02'N).

Coastline and exclusive economic zones[edit]

Main article: Black Sea trade and economy
 Coastline length and area of exclusive economic zones

Country Coastline length (km)[1] Exclusive economic zones area (km2)[8]

 Turkey 1,329 172,484

 Ukraine 2,782 132,414

 Russia 800 67,351

 Bulgaria 354 35,132

 Georgia 310 22,947

 Romania 225 29,756

Total 5,800 460,084

Largest bays[edit]
The largest bays on the Black Sea are Karkinit Bay, in Ukraine; Burgas Bay, in
Bulgaria; Dnieprovski Bay and Dniestrovski Bay, both in Ukraine; and Sinop
Bay and Samsun Bay, both in Turkey.[1]

Drainage basin[edit]
Main articles: Organization of the Black Sea Economic Cooperation and Black Sea drainage
basin

Main article Black Sea drainage basin now exists so add brief section

intro para from there.

The 2-million km2 (0.77-million sq mi) drainage basin that flows into the Black sea covers wholly
or partially 24 countries:[9][10][11][12][13]

1.  Albania
2.  Austria
3.  Belarus
4.  Bosnia and Herzegovina
5.  Bulgaria
6.  Croatia
7.  Czech Republic
 8.  Georgia
9.  Germany
10.  Greece
11.  Hungary
12.  Italy
13.  Montenegro
14.  Moldova
15.  North Macedonia
16.  Poland
17.  Serbia
18.  Slovakia
19.  Slovenia
20.   Switzerland
21.  Romania
22.  Russia
23.  Turkey
24.  Ukraine
Largest rivers[edit]
The largest rivers flowing into the Black Sea are:[1]

1. Danube
2. Dnieper
3. Don
4. Dniester
5. Kızılırmak
6. Kuban
7. Sakarya
8. Southern Bug
9. Çoruh
10. Yeşilırmak
11. Rioni
12. Yeya
13. Mius
14. Kamchiya
15. Enguri
16. Kalmius
17. Molochna
18. Tylihul
19. Velykyi Kuyalnik
20. Veleka
21. Rezovo
22. Kodori
23. Bzyb
24. Supsa
25. Mzymta
Geology and bathymetry[edit]

The bay of Sudak, Crimea

The Black Sea is divided into two depositional basins—the Western Black Sea and Eastern
Black Sea—separated by the Mid-Black Sea High, which includes the Andrusov Ridge, Tetyaev
High, and Archangelsky High, extending south from the Crimean Peninsula. The basin includes
two distinct relict back-arc basins which were initiated by the splitting of an Albian volcanic
arc and the subduction of both the Paleo- and Neo-Tethys Oceans, but the timings of these
events remain uncertain. Arc volcanism and extension occurred as the Neo-Tethys Ocean
subducted under the southern margin of Laurasia during the Mesozoic. Uplift and compressional
deformation took place as the Neotethys continued to close. Seismic surveys indicate that rifting
began in the Western Black Sea in the Barremian and Aptian followed by the formation of
oceanic crust 20 million years later in the Santonian.[14][15][16] Since its initiation, compressional
tectonic environments led to subsidence in the basin, interspersed with extensional phases
resulting in large-scale volcanism and numerous orogenies, causing the uplift of the Greater
Caucasus, Pontides, Southern Crimean Peninsula and Balkanides mountain ranges.[17]

Yavuz Sultan Selim Bridge in Istanbul, Turkey is on the Black Sea connecting Europe to Asia. One of the
longest suspension bridges in the world.

During the Messinian salinity crisis in the neighboring Mediterranean Sea, water levels fell but
without drying up the sea.[18] The collision between the Eurasian and African plates and westward
escape of the Anatolian block along the North Anatolian Fault and East Anatolian Faults dictates
the current tectonic regime,[17] which features enhanced subsidence in the Black Sea basin and
significant volcanic activity in the Anatolian region. [19] These geological mechanisms, in the long
term, have caused the periodic isolations of the Black Sea from the rest of the global ocean
system.
The large shelf to the north of the basin is up to 190 km (120 mi) wide and features a shallow
apron with gradients between 1:40 and 1:1000. The southern edge around Turkey and the
eastern edge around Georgia, however, are typified by a narrow shelf that rarely exceeds 20 km
(12 mi) in width and a steep apron that is typically 1:40 gradient with numerous submarine
canyons and channel extensions. The Euxine abyssal plain in the centre of the Black Sea
reaches a maximum depth of 2,212 metres (7,257.22 feet) just south of Yalta on the Crimean
Peninsula.[20]
The littoral zone of the Black Sea is often referred to as the Pontic littoral or Pontic zone.[21]
The area surrounding the Black Sea is commonly referred to as the Black Sea Region. Its
northern part lies within the Chernozem belt (black soil belt) which goes from eastern Croatia
(Slavonia), along the Danube (northern Serbia, northern Bulgaria (Danubian Plain) and southern
Romania (Wallachian Plain)) to northeast Ukraine and further across the Central Black Earth
Region and southern Russia into Siberia.[22]

Chronostratigraphy[edit]
The Paleo-Euxinian is described by the accumulation of eolian silt deposits (related to the Riss
glaciation) and the lowering of sea levels (MIS 6, 8 and 10). The Karangat marine
transgression occurred during the Eemian Interglacial (MIS 5e). This may have been the highest
sea levels reached in the late Pleistocene. Based on this some scholars have suggested that
the Crimean Peninsula was isolated from the mainland by a shallow strait during the Eemian
Interglacial.[23]
The Neoeuxinian transgression began with an inflow of waters from the Caspian Sea.
Neoeuxinian deposits are found in the Black Sea below −20 m (−66 ft) water depth in three
layers. The upper layers correspond with the peak of the Khvalinian transgression, on the shelf
shallow-water sands and coquina mixed with silty sands and brackish-water fauna, and inside
the Black Sea Depression hydrotroilite silts. The middle layers on the shelf are sands with
brackish-water mollusc shells. Of continental origin, the lower level on the shelf is
mostly alluvial sands with pebbles, mixed with less common lacustrine silts and
freshwater mollusc shells. Inside the Black Sea Depression they are terrigenous non-
carbonate silts, and at the foot of the continental slope turbidite sediments.[24]

Name[edit]

Coast of the Black Sea at Ordu

Kapchik Cape in Crimea

The Black Sea near Constanța, Romania

Modern names[edit]
Current names of the sea are usually equivalents of the English name "Black Sea", including
these given in the countries bordering the sea:[25]
  Abkhazian: Амшын Еиқәа, IPA: [ɑmʂɨn ɛjkʷʰɑ]
 Adyghe: Хы шӏуцӏэ, IPA: [xə ʃʼəw.t͡sʼa]
 Bulgarian: Черно море, romanized: Cherno more, IPA: [ˈt͡ʃɛrno moˈrɛ]
 Crimean Tatar: Къара денъиз, Qara deñiz IPA: [qɑrɑ deŋiz]
 Georgian: შავი ზღვა, romanized: shavi zghva, IPA: [ʃɑvi zɣvɑ]
 Laz and Mingrelian: უჩა ზუღა, IPA: [utʃɑ zuɣɑ], or simply ზუღა, IPA: [zuɣɑ], "Sea"
 Romanian: Marea Neagră, pronounced [ˈmare̯a ˈne̯aɡrə] ( listen)
 Russian: Чёрное мо́рe, romanized: Chyornoye more, IPA: [ˈtɕornəjə ˈmorʲə]
 Turkish: Karadeniz, IPA: [kaˈɾadeniz]
 Ukrainian: Чорне море, romanized: Chorne more, IPA: [ˈtʃɔrnɛ ˈmɔrɛ]
Such names have not yet been shown conclusively to predate the 13th century.[26]
In Greece, the historical name "Euxine Sea", which holds a different meaning (see below), is still
widely used:

 Greek: Eύξεινος Πόντος, romanized: Eúxinos Póndos, [ˈefksinos

ˈpondos], lit. "Hospitable Sea"; the name Μαύρη Θάλασσα (Mávri Thálassa), [ˈmavri
ˈθalasa], lit. "Black Sea" is used, but is much less common.
Historical names and etymology[edit]
See also: History of Black Sea
The principal Greek name Póntos Áxeinos is generally accepted to be a rendering
of Iranian word *axšaina- (dark colored).[26] This became the commonly used designation in
Greek, although in mythological contexts the "true" name Póntos Áxeinos remained favored.[26]
Strabo's Geographica (1.2.10) reports that in antiquity, the Black Sea was often simply called
"the Sea" (ὁ πόντος ho Pontos). He also thought the Black Sea was called "inhospitable" before
Greek colonization for its difficult navigation and hostile barbarian natives (7.3.6), and that the
name was changed to "hospitable" after the Milesians colonized the Pontus region of the
southern shoreline, bringing it within Greek civilization.
Popular supposition derives "Black Sea" from the dark color of the water or climatic conditions.
Rather, it referred to a system of color symbolism representing the cardinal directions, with black
or dark for north, red for south, white for west, and green or light blue for east. [26] Hence "Black
Sea" meant "Northern Sea". According to this scheme, the name could not have originated with
the Scythians, who principally roamed north of the sea, but only with a people living between the
northern (black) and southern (red) seas: this points to the Achaemenids (550–330  BC).[26]
In the Greater Bundahishn, a Middle Persian Zoroastrian scripture, the Black Sea is
called Siyābun.[27] In the tenth-century Persian geography book Hudud al-'Alam, the Black Sea is
called Sea of the Georgians (daryā-yi Gurz).[28] The Georgian Chronicles use the name zğua
sperisa ზღუა სპერისა (Sea of Speri) after the Kartvelian tribe of Speris or Saspers.[29] Other
modern names such as Chyornoye more and Karadeniz, originated in the 13th century.[26] A 1570
map Asiae Nova Descriptio from Abraham Ortelius's Theatrum Orbis Terrarum labels the
sea Mar Maggior (Great Sea), compare Latin mare major.[30]
English writers of the 18th century often used Euxine Sea (/ˈjuːksɪn/ or /ˈjuːkˌsaɪn/).[31] During
the Ottoman Empire, it was called either Bahr-e Siyah or Karadeniz, both meaning "Black Sea"
in Turkish, with the former consisting of Perso-Arabic loanwords. [32]

Hydrology[edit]
This SeaWiFS view reveals the colorful interplay of currents on the sea's surface

The Black Sea is the world's largest body of water with a meromictic basin.[33] The deep waters do
not mix with the upper layers of water that receive oxygen from the atmosphere. As a result, over
90% of the deeper Black Sea volume is anoxic water.[34] The Black Sea's circulation patterns are
primarily controlled by basin topography and fluvial inputs, which result in a strongly stratified
vertical structure. Because of the extreme stratification, it is classified as a salt wedge estuary.
The Black Sea only experiences water transfer with the Mediterranean Sea, so all inflow and
outflow occurs in the Bosporus and Dardanelles. Inflow from the Mediterranean has a higher
salinity and density than the outflow, creating the classic estuarine circulation. This means that
the inflow of dense water from the Mediterranean occurs at the bottom of the basin while the
outflow of fresher Black Sea surface-water into the Marmara Sea occurs near the surface. The
outflow is 16,000 m3/s (570,000 cu ft/s) (around 500 km3/a or 120 cubic miles per year) and the
inflow is 11,000 m3/s (390,000 cu ft/s) (around 350 km3/a or 84 cubic miles per year), acc to
Gregg (2002).[35]
The following water budget can be estimated:

 Water IN: 900 km3/a (220 cu mi/a)

o Total river discharge : 370 km3/a (90 cu mi/a)[36]
o Precipitation : 180 km3/a (40 cu mi/a)[37]
o Inflow via Bosporus : 350 km3/a (80 cu mi/a)[35]
 Water OUT: 900 km3/a (220 cu mi/a)
o Evaporation : 400 km3/a (100 cu mi/a) (reducing since the 1970s)[37]
o Outflow via Bosporus : 500 km3/a (120 cu mi/a)[35]
The southern sill of the Bosporus is located at −36.5 m (−120 ft) below present sea level
(deepest spot of the shallowest cross-section in the Bosporus, located in front of Dolmabahçe
Palace) and has a wet section of around 38,000 m2 (410,000 sq ft).[35] Inflow and outflow current
speeds are averaged around 0.3 to 0.4 m/s (1.0 to 1.3 ft/s), but much higher speeds are found
locally, inducing significant turbulence and vertical shear. This allows for turbulent mixing of the
two layers.[38] Surface water leaves the Black Sea with a salinity of 17 Practical salinity unit (PSU)
and reaches the Mediterranean with a salinity of 34 PSU. Likewise, an inflow of the
Mediterranean with salinity 38.5 PSU experiences a decrease to about 34 PSU. [38]
Mean surface circulation is cyclonic and waters around the perimeter of the Black Sea circulate
in a basin-wide shelfbreak gyre known as the Rim Current. The Rim Current has a maximum
velocity of about 50–100 cm/s (20–39 in/s). Within this feature, two smaller cyclonic gyres
operate, occupying the eastern and western sectors of the basin. [38] The Eastern and Western
Gyres are well-organized systems in the winter but dissipate into a series of
interconnected eddies in the summer and autumn. Mesoscale activity in the peripheral flow
becomes more pronounced during these warmer seasons and is subject to interannual
variability.
Outside of the Rim Current, numerous quasi-permanent coastal eddies are formed as a result of
upwelling around the coastal apron and "wind curl" mechanisms. The intra-annual strength of
these features is controlled by seasonal atmospheric and fluvial variations. During the spring, the
Batumi eddy forms in the southeastern corner of the sea. [39]
Beneath the surface waters—from about 50–100 metres (160–330 ft)—there exists
a halocline that stops at the Cold Intermediate Layer (CIL). This layer is composed of cool, salty
surface waters, which are the result of localized atmospheric cooling and decreased fluvial input
during the winter months. It is the remnant of the winter surface mixed layer. [38] The base of the
CIL is marked by a major pycnocline at about 100–200 metres (330–660 ft) and this density
disparity is the major mechanism for isolation of the deep water.

Black Sea coast in Ordu, Turkey

Below the pycnocline is the Deep Water mass, where salinity increases to 22.3 PSU and
temperatures rise to around 8.9 °C (48.0 °F).[38] The hydrochemical environment shifts from
oxygenated to anoxic, as bacterial decomposition of sunken biomass utilizes all of the free
oxygen. Weak geothermal heating and long residence time create a very thick convective bottom
layer.[39]
The Black Sea undersea river is a current of particularly saline water flowing through the
Bosporus Strait and along the seabed of the Black Sea. The discovery of the river announced on
August 1, 2010, was made by scientists at the University of Leeds and is the first of its kind in the
world.[40] The undersea river stems from salty water spilling through the Bosporus Strait from the
Mediterranean Sea into the Black Sea, where the water has a lower salt content. [40]

Hydrochemistry[edit]
Because of the anoxic water at depth, organic matter, including anthropogenic artifacts such as
boat hulls, are well preserved. During periods of high surface productivity, short-
lived algal blooms form organic rich layers known as sapropels. Scientists have reported an
annual phytoplankton bloom that can be seen in many NASA images of the region. [41] As a result
of these characteristics the Black Sea has gained interest from the field of marine archaeology as
ancient shipwrecks in excellent states of preservation have been discovered, such as
the Byzantine wreck Sinop D, located in the anoxic layer off the coast of Sinop, Turkey.
Modelling shows that, in the event of an asteroid impact on the Black Sea, the release
of hydrogen sulfide clouds would pose a threat to health—and perhaps even life—for people
living on the Black Sea coast.[42]
There have been isolated reports of flares on the Black Sea occurring during thunderstorms,
possibly caused by lightning igniting combustible gas seeping up from the sea depths. [43]

Climate and ecology[edit]

Main article: Black Sea climate and ecology
 Please help trimming of this section since main split article now exists,
See Talk

Climate[edit]

Ice on the Gulf of Odessa

Short-term climatic variation in the Black Sea region is significantly influenced by the operation of
the North Atlantic oscillation, the climatic mechanisms resulting from the interaction between the
north Atlantic and mid-latitude air masses.[44] While the exact mechanisms causing the North
Atlantic Oscillation remain unclear,[45] it is thought the climate conditions established in western
Europe mediate the heat and precipitation fluxes reaching Central Europe and Eurasia,
regulating the formation of winter cyclones, which are largely responsible for
regional precipitation inputs[46] and influence Mediterranean Sea Surface Temperatures (SST's).[47]
The relative strength of these systems also limits the amount of cold air arriving from northern
regions during winter.[48] Other influencing factors include the regional topography, as depressions
and storms systems arriving from the Mediterranean are funneled through the low land around
the Bosporus, Pontic and Caucasus mountain ranges acting as waveguides, limiting the speed
and paths of cyclones passing through the region. [49]

Marine[edit]
See also: List of fish of the Black Sea

The port of Poti, Georgia

The Black Sea supports an active and dynamic marine ecosystem, dominated by species suited
to the brackish, nutrient-rich, conditions. As with all marine food webs, the Black Sea features a
range of trophic groups, with autotrophic algae, including diatoms and dinoflagellates, acting as
primary producers. The fluvial systems draining Eurasia and central Europe introduce large
volumes of sediment and dissolved nutrients into the Black Sea, but the distribution of these
nutrients is controlled by the degree of physiochemical stratification, which is, in turn, dictated by
seasonal physiographic development. [50]
During winter, strong wind promotes convective overturning and upwelling of nutrients, while high
summer temperatures result in a marked vertical stratification and a warm, shallow mixed layer.
[51]
 Day length and insolation intensity also controls the extent of the photic zone. Subsurface
productivity is limited by nutrient availability, as the anoxic bottom waters act as a sink for
reduced nitrate, in the form of ammonia. The benthic zone also plays an important role in Black
Sea nutrient cycling, as chemosynthetic organisms and anoxic geochemical pathways recycle
nutrients which can be upwelled to the photic zone, enhancing productivity. [52]
In total, Black Sea's biodiversity contains around one-third of Mediterranean's and is
experiencing natural and artificial invasions or Mediterranizations. [53][54]
Phytoplankton[edit]

Phytoplankton blooms and plumes of sediment form the bright blue swirls that ring the Black Sea in this
2004 image

The main phytoplankton groups present in the Black Sea

are dinoflagellates, diatoms, coccolithophores and cyanobacteria. Generally, the annual cycle of
phytoplankton development comprises significant diatom and dinoflagellate-dominated spring
production, followed by a weaker mixed assemblage of community development below the
seasonal thermocline during summer months and surface-intensified autumn production. [51][55] This
pattern of productivity is also augmented by an Emiliania huxleyi bloom during the late spring and
summer months.

 Dinoflagellates
Annual dinoflagellate distribution is defined by an extended bloom period in subsurface
waters during the late spring and summer. In November, subsurface plankton production
is combined with surface production, due to vertical mixing of water masses and nutrients
such as nitrite.[50] The major bloom-forming dinoflagellate species in the Black Sea
is Gymnodinium sp.[56] Estimates of dinoflagellate diversity in the Black Sea range from
193[57] to 267 species.[58] This level of species richness is relatively low in comparison to
the Mediterranean Sea, which is attributable to the brackish conditions, low water
transparency and presence of anoxic bottom waters. It is also possible that the low winter
temperatures below 4 °C (39 °F) of the Black Sea prevent thermophilous species from
becoming established. The relatively high organic matter content of Black Sea surface
water favor the development of heterotrophic (an organism that uses organic carbon for
growth) and mixotrophic dinoflagellates species (able to exploit different trophic
pathways), relative to autotrophs. Despite its unique hydrographic setting, there are no
confirmed endemic dinoflagellate species in the Black Sea.[58]

 Diatoms
The Black Sea is populated by many species of the marine diatom, which commonly
exist as colonies of unicellular, non-motile auto- and heterotrophic algae. The life-cycle of
most diatoms can be described as 'boom and bust' and the Black Sea is no exception,
with diatom blooms occurring in surface waters throughout the year, most reliably during
March.[50] In simple terms, the phase of rapid population growth in diatoms is caused by
the in-wash of silicon-bearing terrestrial sediments, and when the supply of silicon is
exhausted, the diatoms begin to sink out of the photic zone and produce resting cysts.
Additional factors such as predation by zooplankton and ammonium-based regenerated
production also have a role to play in the annual diatom cycle. [50][51] Typically, Proboscia
alata blooms during spring and Pseudosolenia calcar-avis blooms during the autumn.[56]

 Coccolithophores
Coccolithophores are a type of motile, autotrophic phytoplankton that produce
CaCO3 plates, known as coccoliths, as part of their life cycle. In the Black Sea, the main
period of coccolithophore growth occurs after the bulk of the dinoflagellate growth has
taken place. In May, the dinoflagellates move below the seasonal thermocline, into
deeper waters, where more nutrients are available. This permits coccolithophores to
utilize the nutrients in the upper waters, and by the end of May, with favorable light and
temperature conditions, growth rates reach their highest. The major bloom-forming
species is Emiliania huxleyi, which is also responsible for the release of dimethyl
sulfide into the atmosphere. Overall, coccolithophore diversity is low in the Black Sea,
and although recent sediments are dominated by E. huxleyi, Braarudosphaera
bigelowii, Holocene sediments have also been shown to contain Helicopondosphaera
and Discolithina species.

 Cyanobacteria
Cyanobacteria are a phylum of picoplanktonic (plankton ranging in size from 0.2 to
2.0 µm) bacteria that obtain their energy via photosynthesis, and are present throughout
the world's oceans. They exhibit a range of morphologies, including filamentous colonies
and biofilms. In the Black Sea, several species are present, and as an
example, Synechococcus spp. can be found throughout the photic zone, although
concentration decreases with increasing depth. Other factors which exert an influence on
distribution include nutrient availability, predation, and salinity. [59]
Animal species[edit]

 Zebra mussel
The Black Sea along with the Caspian Sea is part of the Zebra mussel's native range.
The mussel has been accidentally introduced around the world and become an invasive
species where it has been introduced.

 Common Carp
The Common Carp's native range extends to The Black Sea along with the Caspian Sea
and Aral Sea. Like the Zebra mussel the Common Carp is an invasive species when
introduced to other habitats.

 Round Goby
Is another native fish that is also found in the Caspian Sea. It preys upon Zebra mussels.
Like the mussels and common carp it has become invasive when introduced to other
environments, like the Great Lakes.

 Marine Mammals and marine megafaunas

Marine mammals present within the basin include two species of dolphins
(common[60] and bottlenose[61]) and harbour porpoise[62] inhabit the sea although all of these
are endangered due to pressures and impacts by human activities. All the three species
have been classified as a distinct subspecies from those in the Mediterranean and in
Atlantic Seas and endemic to Black and Azov Seas, and are more active during nights in
Turkish Straits.[63] However, construction of the Crimean Bridge caused increases in
nutrients and planktons in the waters, attracting large numbers of fish and more than
1,000 bottlenose dolphins.[64] On the other hand, however, others claim that construction
may cause devastating damages on ecosystem including dolphins. [65]
Critically endangered Mediterranean monk seals were historically abundant in Black Sea,
and are regarded to have become extinct from the basin in 1997. [66] Monk seals were
present at the Snake Island until 1950s, and several locations such as the Danube Plavni
Nature Reserve [ru] and Doğankent were last of hauling-out sites in post-1990.[67] Very few
animals still thrive in the Sea of Marmara.[68]
Ongoing Mediterranizations may or may not boost in increases of cetacean diversity in
Turkish Straits[63] hence in Black and Azov basins.
Various species of pinnipeds, sea otter, and beluga whales[69][70] were introduced into the
Black Sea by mankind and later escaped either by accidental or purported causes. Of
these, grey seal[71] and beluga whales[69] have been recorded with successful, long-term
occurrences.
Great white sharks are known to reach into the Sea of Marmara and Bosporus Strait
and basking shark into Dardanelles although it is unclear whether or not these sharks
may reach into the Black and Azov basins.[72][73]

Common dolphins porpoising with a ferry

at Batumi port

Ecological effects of pollution[edit]

Since the 1960s, rapid industrial expansion
along the Black Sea coast line and the
construction of a major dam has significantly
increased annual variability in the N:P:Si ratio
in the basin. In coastal areas, the biological
effect of these changes has been an increase
in the frequency of monospecific phytoplankton
blooms, with diatom bloom frequency
increasing by a factor of 2.5 and non-diatom
bloom frequency increasing by a factor of 6.
The non-diatoms, such as the
prymnesiophytes Emiliania
huxleyi (coccolithophore), Chromulina sp., and
the Euglenophyte Eutreptia lanowii are able to
out-compete diatom species because of the
limited availability of Si, a necessary
constituent of diatom frustules.[74] As a
consequence of these blooms, benthic
macrophyte populations were deprived of light,
while anoxia caused mass mortality in marine
animals.[75][76]
The decline in macrophytes was further
compounded by overfishing during the 1970s,
while the invasive
ctenophore Mnemiopsis reduced the biomass
of copepods and other zooplankton in the late
1980s. Additionally, an alien species—
the warty comb jelly (Mnemiopsis leidyi)—was
able to establish itself in the basin, exploding
from a few individuals to estimated biomass of
one billion metric tons.[77] The change in species
composition in Black Sea waters also has
consequences for hydrochemistry, as Ca-
producing coccolithophores influence salinity
and pH, although these ramifications have yet
to be fully quantified. In central Black Sea
waters, Si levels were also significantly
reduced, due to a decrease in the flux of Si
associated with advection across isopycnal
surfaces. This phenomenon demonstrates the
potential for localized alterations in Black Sea
nutrient input to have basin-wide effects.
Pollution reduction and regulation efforts have
led to a partial recovery of the Black Sea
ecosystem during the 1990s, and an EU
monitoring exercise, 'EROS21', revealed
decreased N and P values, relative to the 1989
peak.[78] Recently, scientists have noted signs of
ecological recovery, in part due to the
construction of new sewage treatment plants in
Slovakia, Hungary, Romania, and Bulgaria in
connection with membership in the European
Union. Mnemiopsis leidyi populations have
been checked with the arrival of another alien
species which feeds on them.[79]

Jellyfish
 

Actinia
  

Actinia
 

Goby
 

Stingray
 

Goat fish
 


Hermit crab, Diogenes pugilator

 

Blue sponge
 

Spiny dogfish
 

Seahorse
 
 

Black Sea Common Dolphins with

a kite-surfer off Sochi

Islands[edit]
Main article: List of islands in the Black Sea

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Some islands in the Black sea belong to

Bulgaria, Romania, Turkey, and Ukraine:

 St. Thomas Island – Bulgaria

 St. Anastasia Island – Bulgaria
 St. Cyricus Island – Bulgaria
 St. Ivan Island – Bulgaria
 St. Peter Island – Bulgaria
 Sacalinu Mare Island – Romania
 Sacalinu Mic Island – Romania
 Misura / Novaya Zemliya –
Romania and Ukraine
 Utrish Island
 Krupinin Island
 Sudiuk Island
  Kefken Island
 Oreke Island
 Giresun Island - Turkey
 Dzharylgach Island – Ukraine
 Zmiinyi (Snake) Island – Ukraine

History[edit]
Mediterranean connection
during the Holocene[edit]

The Bosporus, taken from the International

Space Station

Map of the Dardanelles

The Black Sea is connected to the World

Ocean by a chain of two shallow straits,
the Dardanelles and the Bosporus. The
Dardanelles is 55 m (180 ft) deep and the
Bosporus is as shallow as 36 m (118 ft). By
comparison, at the height of the last ice age,
sea levels were more than 100 m (330 ft) lower
than they are now.
There is also evidence that water levels in the
Black Sea were considerably lower at some
point during the post-glacial period. Some
researchers theorize that the Black Sea had
been a landlocked freshwater lake (at least in
upper layers) during the last glaciation and for
some time after.
In the aftermath of the last glacial period, water
levels in the Black Sea and the Aegean Sea
rose independently until they were high enough
to exchange water. The exact timeline of this
development is still subject to debate. One
possibility is that the Black Sea filled first, with
excess freshwater flowing over the Bosporus
sill and eventually into the Mediterranean Sea.
There are also catastrophic scenarios, such as
the "Black Sea deluge hypothesis" put forward
by William Ryan, Walter Pitman and Petko
Dimitrov.
Deluge hypothesis[edit]
Main article: Black Sea deluge hypothesis
The Black Sea deluge is a hypothesized
catastrophic rise in the level of the Black Sea
circa 5600 BC due to waters from
the Mediterranean Sea breaching a sill in
the Bosporus Strait. The hypothesis was
headlined when The New York
Times published it in December 1996, shortly
before it was published in an academic journal.
[80]
 While it is agreed that the sequence of
events described did occur, there is debate
over the suddenness, dating, and magnitude of
the events. Relevant to the hypothesis is that
its description has led some to connect this
catastrophe with prehistoric flood myths.[81][82]