1ST Sem Practical Researc Ii Grade 12 Module Complete

FIRST ASIAN INTERNATIONAL SYSTEMS COLLEGE, INC.
SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL DEPARTMENT
PREPARED BY:
Ms. Manelin Rose P. Obog
Subject Teacher
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
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ENIOR HIGH SCHOOL DEPARTMENT
FIRST QUARTER – MODULE 1
Name of Learner: ___________

Grade Level: _______________
Section: ___________________
Date: ______________________
Practical Research 2
Content: Nature and Inquiry of Research
Content Standard:
The learner demonstrates understanding of:
1. the characteristics, strengths, weaknesses, and kinds of quantitative
2. the importance of quantitative research across the fields
3. the nature of variables
Most Essential Learning Competencies:

 Describes characteristics, strengths and weaknesses and kinds of quantitative research
cs_rs12-Ia-c-1
 Illustrates the importance of quantitative research across fields Cs_Rs12-Ia-c3
 Differentiates kinds of variables and their uses Cs_Rs12-Ia-c3
MODULE 1
Lesson 1: Characteristics, strengths, weaknesses and kinds of quantitative research

Time frame: 1 week
Overview
An inquiry and research are two terms are almost the same in meaning. Both of them involved
investigative work and any process that has the aim of augmenting knowledge, resolving doubt
or solving a problem. In this lesson we will know the characteristics strengths and weaknesses of
quantitative research.
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Objectives:
At the end of the lesson the students should be able to:
a. Describes characteristics, strengths, weaknesses and kinds of quantitative research,

b. Understanding the kinds of quantitative research,
c. Infer about strength and weaknesses of quantitative research; and
d. Differentiates kinds of variables and their uses.
LESSON 1 Inquiry Based Learning
PRE- ASSESSMENT
Recall about this two word? Inquiry and Research? Write an essay on the following lines using your
prior knowledge.
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What is Inquiry?
Inquiry is a learning process that motivates you to obtain knowledge or information about people,
things, places, or events. (Baraceros 2016) It requires you to collect data, meaning, facts and information
about the object of your inquiry and examine such data carefully. On the other hand, in your analysis,
you execute varied thinking strategies that range from lower-order to higher-order thinking skills such as
inferential, critical, integrative, creative thinking.
Furthermore, according to Badle cited by Baraceros, solving a problem, especially social issues, does
not involved yourself but other members of the society too. Whatever knowledge you have about world
bears the influence of your cultural, sociological, institutional, or ideological understanding of the world.
(Badke 2012)
The Nature of Research
The research process is, for many of us, just the way we do things. We research the best buys in
cars and appliances, we research book reviews before shopping for books, we research the best schools
for our children and ourselves, and we probably perform some kind of research in our jobs. Our search
for information may lead us to interview friends or other knowledgeable people; read articles in
magazine, journals, or newspapers; listen to the radio; search an encyclopedia on CD-ROM; and even
explore the internet and World Wide Web for information. We use our local public libraries and school
libraries.
Research can be a way of life; it is the basis for many of the important decisions in our lives.
Without it, we are deluged with information, subjected to the claims of advertisers, or influenced by
hearsay in making sense of the world around us. This informal, experiential research helps us decipher
the flood of information we encounter daily.
Formal academic research differs from experiential research and may be more investigative in
nature. For example, it may require us to learn about an area in which we have a little knowledge or
inclination to learn. It may be literary-oriented or field-oriented, depending on the nature of the
research.
Characteristics of Quantitative Research
Your goal in conducting quantitative research study is to determine the relationship between one
thing (an independent variable) and another (a dependent or outcome variable) within a population.
Quantitative research designs are either descriptive (subjects usually measured once) or experimental
(subjects measured before and after treatment). A descriptive study establishes only associations
between variables; an experimental study establishes causality.
Quantitative research deals in numbers, logic, and an objective stance. Quarantine research
focuses on numeric and unchanging data and detailed, convergent reasoning rather than divergent
reason
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Its main Characteristics are:
 The data is usually gathered using structured research instruments.

 The results are based on larger sample sizes that are representative of the population.
 The research study can usually be replicated or repeated, given its high reliability.
 Researcher has clearly defined research question to which objective answers are sought.
 All aspects of the study are carefully designed before data is collected.
 Data are in the form of numbers and statistics, often arranged in tables, charts, figures or other
non-textual forms.
 Projects can be used to generalize concepts more widely, predict future results, or investigate
casual relationships.
 Research uses tools, such as questionnaires or computer software, to collect numerical data.
The overarching aim of quantitative research study is to classify features, count them and
construct statistical models in an attempt to explain what is observed.
Things to keep in mind when reporting the results of a study using Quantitative methods:
 Explain the data collected

 Report unanticipated
 Explain the techniques
 Choose a minimally sufficient statistical procedure
 Describe the assumptions
 When using inferential statistics
 Avoid inferring causality
 Use tables to provide exact values
 Always tell the leader
Strength and Weaknesses
Quantitative Method
Quantitative method are pieces of information that can be counted and which are usually gathered by
surveys from large numbers of respondents randomly selected for inclusion. Secondary data such as
census data, government statistics, health system metrics, etc. are often included in quantitative
research. Quantitative data is analyzed using statistical methods. Quantitative method approaches are
best used to answer what, when and who questions and are not well suited to how and why questions.
Strengths Weaknesses
Findings can be generalized if selection process is Related secondary data is sometimes not available or
well-designed and sample is representative of study accessing available data is difficult/impossible.
population.
Relatively easy to analyze. Difficult to understand context of a phenomenon
Data can be very consistent, precise and reliable. Data may not be robust enough to explain complex
issues.
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Importance of Quantitative Research
1. More reliable and objective
2. More reliable and objective
3. Can use statistics to generalize
4. Often reduces and restructures a complex problem to a limited number of variables.
5. Looks at relationship between variables and can establish cause and effect in highly controlled
circumstances.
6. Tests theories or hypothesis
7. Assumes sample is representative of the population
8. Subjectivity of researcher in methodology is recognized less.
9. Less detailed than qualitative data and may miss a desired response from the participant.
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Grade Level: _______________
Section: ___________________
Date: ______________________
Content Standard:
The learner demonstrates understanding of:
1. the characteristics, strengths, weaknesses, and kinds of quantitative
2. the importance of quantitative research across the fields
3. the nature of variables

 Describes characteristics, strengths and weaknesses and kinds of quantitative research
cs_rs12-Ia-c-1
 Illustrates the importance of quantitative research across fields Cs_Rs12-Ia-c3
 Differentiates kinds of variables and their uses Cs_Rs12-Ia-c3
MODULE 1
Lesson 2: Variables
Pre Assessment
DIRECTIONS: Think about this title of reading material Our lesson 2; Variables. What comes
to your mind upon hearing this word? Describe Variable in one word.
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VARIABLE
The Nature of Variables

All experiments examine some kind of variables(s). A variable is not only something that we
measure, but also something that we can manipulate and something we can control for. To
understand the characteristics of variables and how we use them in search, this guide is divided
into three main sections. First, we illustrate the role of dependent and independent variables.
Second, we discuss the difference between experimental and non-experimental research. Finally,
we explain how variables can be characterized as either categorical or continuous.
Variables
 A variable is a label of name that represents a concept or characteristics that varies
(e.g. gender, weight, achievement, attitudes toward conclusions)
 Variables are „changing qualities or characteristics‟ of persons or things like age, gender
intelligence, ideas , achievements, confidence, and so on that are involved in your research
study.
Based on root word „vary‟ which means to undergo changes or differ from,variables have
different relation to time and situation. It means as years go by, your age and intelligence
increases. But placed in a situation where you are afflicted with disease or have no reading
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or no access to any sources of knowledge, your intelligence tend to decrease. (Suter 2013, p.
137)
Types of Variables
Dependent and Independent Variables
An independent variable sometimes called an experimental or predictor variable, is a variable
that is being manipulated in an experiment in order to observe the effect on a dependent variable,
sometimes called an outcome variable.
Three types of Variables
 Independent and Dependent variables (i.e. cause and effect)
- Independent act as “cause” in that they precede, influence, and predict the dependent
variable.
- Dependent variables act as „effect‟ in that they change as a result of being influenced
by an independent variable.
 Extraneous and confounding variables

- Extraneous variables are those that affect the dependent variable but are not
controlled adequately by the researcher.
- Confounding variables are those that vary systematically with the independent
variable exert influence of the dependent variable.
 Continuous and categorical variables
- Continuous variables are measured on a scale that theoretically can take on an infinite
number of values.
1. interval variables are variables for which their central characteristics is that
they can be measured along a continuum and they have numerical value.
2. Ratio variables are interval variables but with the added condition that zero
of the measurement indicates that there is none in variable
3. Categorical values are measured and assigned to groups on the basis of

specific characteristics.
1. nominal variables are variables that have 2 or more categories.

2. dichotomous variables are nominal values which have only 2 categories or
level.
3. ordinal variables are variables that have two or more categories just like
nominal Variables
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Ambiguity in classifying a type of variable
In some cases, the measurement scale for data is ordinal, but the variable is treated as
continuous. For example, a Likert scale that contains five values - strongly agree, agree, neither
agree nor disagree, disagree, and strongly disagree - is ordinal. However, where a Likert scale
contains seven or more value - strongly agree, moderately agree, agree, neither agree nor
disagree, disagree, moderately disagree, and strongly disagree - the underlying scale is
sometimes treated as continuous (although where you should do this is a cause of great dispute).
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Grade Level: _______________
Section: ___________________
Date: ______________________
Content Standard:
1. The range of research topics in the area of inquiry.

2. The value of research in the area of interest
3. The specificity and feasibility of the problem posed.
Most Essential Learning Competencies

 Design a research used in daily life
 Writes a research title
 Describes background of research
 States research questions
 Indicates scope and delimitation of study
 Presents written statement of the problem
Module 3: IDENTIFYING THE INQUIRY AND STATING THE PROBLEM
Objectives:
The learner is able to:

a. Formulate clearly the statement of the problem.
b. Differentiate hypothesis from research questions
Overview
This module discusses the topics that will help the learners to develop the ability to
formulate a research problem and find answers towards these inquiries or questions.
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PRE-ASSESSMENT
DIRECTIONS: Compare and Contrast Questions and Problem. Using the table below, Give
the similarities and differences of the two.
Questions Problems Similarities
Lesson 3: Quantitative Research Problem

Research in our Daily Life
Guidelines in making a Research Problems:

1. One or more sentences indicating the goal,purpose, or overall direction of the study.
2. General Characteristics
- implies the possibility of empirical investigation
- identifies a need for the research
- Provides focus
- Provides a concise overview of the research
3. Two ways of stating the problems

* Research problems typically a rather general overview of the problem with just enough
information about the scope and purpose of the study to provide an initial understanding of the
research.
* Research statements and/or questions; more specific, focused statements and questions that
communicate in greater detail the nature of the study.
4. A general research problem
* (e.g) The purpose of this study is to investigate the attitudes of high school students gmandated
drug testing programs.
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5. Specific statements and questions
* (e.g) This study examines the differences between male and females attitudes toward
mandated high school drug testing programs.
* (e.g) What are the differences between frehmen, sophomore, junior and senior high students
attitudes toward mandated high school drug testing programs?
6. Researchable and non-researchable problems

* Researchable problems imply the possibility of empirical investigation
* what are the achievement and social skill differences between children attending an
accidentally or socially oriented pre-school program.
* what is relationship between teacher knowledge of assessment methods and their use of them.
7. Researchable and non-researchable problems

* Non-researchable problems include explanations of how to do something, vague propositions
and value-based concerns
- Is democracy a good form of government?
- Should values clarification be thought in public schools.
- Can crime be prevented?
- Should physical education classes be dropped from the high school curriculum?
Quantitative Vs. Qualitative

QUANTITATIVE QUALITATIVE
Specific General
Closed Open
Static Evolving
Outcome Oriented Process Oriented
Use of specific variables
Sources of Research Problem

- Personal Interests and experiences
* the use of formative tests in statistical tests
* the use of technology in a research class
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- Deduction from theory
* the effectiveness of math manipulative
* the effectiveness of a mastery approach to learning research
- Replication of studies
* checking the findings of a major study
* checking the validity of research finding with different subjects
* checking trends or changes over time
* checking important findings using different methodologies
* clarification of contradictory results
Quantitative Research Problems

Identifies three specific elements
- the type of research design
- the variables of interest and the relationships between or among these variables
- the subject involved in the study.
Guidelines in Choosing a Research Topic

1. Interest in the subject matter.
2. Availability of information.
3. Timeliness and relevance of the topic.
4. Limitation on the topic.
5. Personal Resources.
Research topic to be avoided.

1. Controversial Topics
2. Highly technical subjects
3. Hard to investigate subjects
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4. Too broad subjects
5. Too narrow subjects
6. Vague subjects
Writing a Research Title

When writing a research paper title, authors should realize that despite being repeatedly warned
against it most people do indeed fall prey to “judging a book by its cover” This cognitive bias
tends to make readers considerably susceptible to allowing the research paper title to function as
the sole factor influencing their decision of whether to read or skip a particular paper. Although
seeking the professional assistance of research paper writing service could help the cause, the
author of the proper as the best judge for setting the right tone of his/her research paper.
Readers come across research paper titles in searches through databases and reference
sections of research paper. They deduce what a paper is about and its relevance to them based on
the title of your paper is the most important determinant of how many people will read it.
A good research paper title:
* Condenses the paper‟s content in a few words
* Captures the reader‟s attention
* Differentiates the paper from other papers of the subject area.
Three basic tips to keep in mind while writing a title:

1. Keep it simple, brief and attractive
2. Use appropriate descriptive words.
3. Avoid abbreviations and jargons
Scope and limitations
It is important to narrow down your thesis topic and limit the scope of your study. The
researcher should inform the reader about limits or coverage of the study. The scope identifies
the boundaries of the study in the term of subjects, objectives, facilities, area, time frame and the
issues to which the research focused.
Sample phrases that help express the scope of the studies:
The coverage of this study is…………
The study consists of………..
The study covers the………..
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The study is focus on………………
The limitations of the study is delimiting a study of geographic location, age, sex, population,
size or other similar considerations. Delimitations is used to make study better and more feasible
and not just for the interest of the researcher . it also identifies the constraints or weaknesses of
your study which are not within the control of the researcher.
Sample phrases that expressed the limitations of the study.
The study does not cover the….
The study does not cover the…….
The researcher limited this research to….
This study is limited to…..
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Grade Level: _______________
Section: ___________________
Date: ______________________
Content Standard:
4. The range of research topics in the area of inquiry.

5. The value of research in the area of interest
6. The specificity and feasibility of the problem posed.
Most Essential Learning Competencies

 Design a research used in daily life
 Writes a research title
 Describes background of research
 States research questions
 Indicates scope and delimitation of study
 Presents written statement of the problem
LESSON 4 The Hypothesis
PRE-ASSESSMENT
DIRECTIONS: Complete the following KWL Chart. Accomplish the last column later on.
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What I already know? What I want to know? What I have learned?
LESSON 4: Hypothesis
A hypothesis is a specific statement of prediction. It describes in concrete (rather than theoretical)

terms what you expect will happen in your study. Not all studies have hypotheses. Sometimes a study is
designed to be exploratory. There is no formal hypothesis and perhaps the purpose of the study is to
explore some area more thoroughly in order to develop some specific hypothesis or prediction that can
be tested in future research. A single study may have one or many hypotheses.
Actually, whenever the researcher talks about hypothesis, the researcher really thinking
simultaneously about hypothesis. Let’s say that you predict that there will be relationship between two
variables in your study. The way we would formally set up the hypothesis test is to formulate two
hypothesis statements,one that describes your predictions and one that describes all the other possible
outcomes with respect to the hypothesized relationship. Your prediction is that variable A and variable B
will be related (you don't care whether it's a positive or negative relationship). Then the only other possible
outcome would be that variable A and variable B are not related. Usually, we call the hypothesis that you
support (your prediction) the alternative hypothesis, and we call the hypothesis that describes the remaining
possible outcomes the null hypothesis. Sometimes we use a notation like HA or H1 to represent the
alternative hypothesis or your prediction, and HO or H0 to represent the null case. You have to be careful
here, though. In some difference or change. In this case, you are essentially trying to find support
for the null hypothesis and you are opposed to the alternative. If your prediction specifies a
direction, and the null therefore is the no difference prediction and the prediction of the opposite
direction, we call this a one-tailed hypothesis. For instance, let's imagine that you are
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investigating the effects of a new employee training program and that you believe one of the
outcomes will be that there will be less employee absenteeism. Your two hypotheses might be
stated something like this: The null hypothesis for this study is: HO: As a result of the XYZ
company employee training program, there will either be no significant difference in employee
absenteeism or there will be a significant increase. which is tested against the alternative
hypothesis: HA: As a result of the XYZ company employee training program, there will be a
significant decrease in employee absenteeism.
In the figure , we see this situation illustrated graphically. The
alternative hypothesis -- your prediction that the program will
decrease absenteeism -- is shown there. The null must account
for the other two possible conditions: no difference, or an
increase in absenteeism. The figure shows a hypothetical
distribution of absenteeism differences.
.We can see that the term "one-tailed" refers to the tail of the distribution on the outcome variable. When your
prediction does not specify a direction, we say you have a two-tailed hypothesis. For instance, let's assume you
are studying a new drug treatment for depression. The drug has gone through some initial animal trials, but has
not yet been tested on humans. You believe (based on theory and the previous research) that the drug will have an
effect, but you are not confident enough to hypothesize a direction and say the drug will reduce depression (after
all, you've seen more than enough promising drug treatments come along that eventually were shown to have
severe side effects that actually worsened symptoms). In this case, you might state the two hypotheses like this:
The null hypothesis for this study is:

HO: As a result of 300mg./day of the ABC drug, there will be no significant difference in depression. which is tested
against the alternative hypothesis: HA: As a result of 300mg./day of the ABC drug, there will be a significant
difference in depression. The figure on the right illustrates this two-tailed prediction for this case. Again, notice
that the term "two-tailed" refers to the tails of the distribution for your outcome variable.
The important thing to remember about stating

hypotheses is that you formulate your prediction
(directional or not), and then you formulate a second
hypothesis that is mutually exclusive of the first and
incorporates all possible alternative outcomes for that
case. When your study analysis is completed, the idea
is that you will have to choose between the two
hypotheses. If your prediction was correct, then you
would (usually) reject the null hypothesis and accept
the alternative. If your original prediction was not
supported in the data, then you will accept the null hypothesis and reject the alternative. The logic of hypothesis
testing is based on these two basic principles: the formulation of two mutually exclusive hypothesis statements
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that, together, exhaust all possible outcomes the testing of these so that one is necessarily accepted and the other
rejected.
References
http://universalteacher.com/1/criteria-for-selecting-a-research-problem/
https://www.socialresearchmethods.net/kb/hypothes.php
http://www.editage.com/insights/3-basic-tips-on-writing-a-good-research-paper-title What is the
nature of research? | Insights Association
www.insightsassociation.org/faq/what-nature-research
http://betterthesis.dk/research-methods/lesson-1different-approaches-to-research/strengths-and-
limitations
Baraceros, Esther L. Practical Research 2
First edition 2016.
Rex book store, 856 Nicanor, Sr. St. \
Manila, Philippines
www.rexpublishing.com.ph
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Learning Activity Sheets (LAS)

Grade Level: _______________
Section: ___________________
Date: ______________________
Content Standard:
1. The formulation of conceptual framework

2. The research hypothesis
3. The definition of terms are used in the study
 Illustrates and explain the conceptual framework

 Define terms used in study
 List research hypothesis
 Presents written review of related literature and conceptual framework
Objectives:
After this lesson, you should be able to:
a. Select, cite and synthesize related literature,
b. Formulate clearly conceptual framework, research hypothesis and define term used in
study
c. Present objectively written related literature and conceptual framework
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Overview
In writing the literature review, the purpose is to convey to the reader what knowledge and
ideas have established on a topic, and what their strength and weaknesses are.
PRE-ASSESSMENT
Be Grand Speculators! Raise as many questions as you can, about this term: Review of Related
Literature.
Lesson 5: Review of Related Literature
What is Review of Related Literature?

While the research problem is still being conceptualized, the researcher must already start
reviewing literature. In identifying and defining the research problem, the researcher must be
able to show evidences that the problem really exists and is worth investigating. It is important
that the researcher knows what is already known about the problem or what earlier researchers
have found about it and what questions still need to be answered before the research questions or
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objectives are finalized. Theories which the researchers use to explain the existence of a research
problem and used as bases in analyzing relationships between variables can be generated from
reference books on theories or from related studies. The researcher therefore, must have already
read adequate literature at the start of the research activity.
Purpose of Review of Related Literature (RRL)

1. It helps the researcher identify and define a research problem
2. It helps justify the need for studying a problem.
3. It prevents unnecessary duplication of a study
4. It can be a source of a theoretical basis for the study
5. It enables the researcher to learn how to conceptualize a research problem and properly
identify and operationally define study variables
6. It helps formulate and refine research instruments 7. It provides lesson for data analysis
and interpretation.
Styles or Approaches of RRL or Review of Related Literature
1. Traditional Review of Literature

A "traditional" literature review provides an overview of the research findings on particular
topics. A traditional literature is written by examining a body of published work, then writing a
critical summary (an impressionistic overview) of the body of literature. The purpose of a
literature review is making clear for a reader what the research collectively indicates with regard
to a particular issue or question.
Traditional review is of different types that are as follows:
1. Conceptual review analysis of concepts or ideas to give meaning to some national or

world issues.
2. Critical review focuses on theories or hypotheses and examines meanings and results of
their application to situation.
3. State-of-the-Art review makes the researcher deal with the latest research studies on the
subject.
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4. Expert review encourages a well-known expert to do the RRL because of the influence
of certain ideology, paradigm, or belief on him/her.
5. Scoping review prepares a situation for a future research work in the form of project
making about community development, government policies, and health services, among
others.
2. Systematic Review of Literature Systematic
Reviews aim to find as much as possible of the research relevant to the particular research
questions, and use explicit methods to identify what can reliably be said on the basis of these
studies. Methods should not only be explicit but systematic with the aim of producing varied and
reliable results. Such reviews then go on to synthesize research findings in a form which is easily
accessible to those who have to make policy or practice decisions. In this way, systematic
reviews reduce the bias which can occur in other approaches to reviewing research evidence.
The following table shows the way several books on RRL. Compare and contrast the two
styles of RRL.
Standards Traditional Review Systematic Review

Purpose To have a thorough and clear To meet a certain objective based on
understanding of the field specific research questions
Scope Comprehensive, wide picture Restricted focus
Review Indefinite plan, permits creative Viewable process and paper trail
Design andexploratory plan
Choice of Purposeful selection by the reviewer Prepared standards for studies
studies selection
Quality Inquiry-based techniques involving Wide and thorough search for all
appraisal several studies studies
Summary Narrative Graphical and short summary answers
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LESSON 6 Referencing
Referencing is important source you found if they want more detail.

1. It stops you being accused of plagiarism.
2. It shows where you got information from (you are not making up)
3. It acknowledges the contribution of other people.
4. It helps other people fined of plagiarism
5. It allows people to check the accuracy of your interpretation of other people„s work It is
not just referencing that is important it is also the accuracy of the referencing and the
consistent use of a style.
There are two places in research chapter where referencing is placed: as cited in Chapter I and
in the Reference List or Bibliography.
Traditional knowledge is tracit (Rahman, 2000; Dowie Single author: Just indicate the
2008), local and unique from culture to culture, as is surname of the author and the
transmitted orally(Ellen & Harris, 1996; World Bank, copyright year of publication.
1999; Sillitoe, 2000; Striplen & DeWeerdt, 2002;
Oguamanam, 2008). It is not necessarily indigeneous,
but indigeneous knowledge is part of it (World
Intellectual Property Organization, 1999) Two Authors: Surname of
authors with ampersand (&)
and the copyright year of
publication
NOTICE: Comma Name of organization as

author
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Notice: Period and no
comma
More than two authors: Surname

of first or senior author followed
In the work of Ames, et al. (1993) as well as that of Barros et al. bt et al. (italized.). it is a latin word
(2007), mushrooms, especially among Basidiomycetes were ët alia” which means “änd others.”
found to have secondary metabolites of phenolic compounds.
These can protect the body organs against oxidation and can
premature ageing, Ames, et al., 1993)
Notice: Period and

comma
Traditional knowledge is tracit (Rahman, 2000; Dowie

Multiple authors for a single ideas:
2008), local and unique from culture to culture, as is arrange them by copyright year staring
transmitted orally(Ellen & Harris, 1996; World Bank, with the oldest to the latest.
1999; Sillitoe, 2000; Striplen & DeWeerdt, 2002;
Oguamanam, 2008).
The study followed the works of Brown (1954); De Padua ,

et al.(1977) Quisumbing (1978); Obligacion, et al.
(1980=1981); Duke (1990); Cantoria (1994) De Guzman, et
al. (1998) and PCHRD(1998) If of the same year, then
enter them alphabetically.
Its contribution in saving the lives of many people is undeniable;
especially those who are living in far flung areas that are away from
‘professional’ health services (Anon, 2000)
“Anon” stands for

“Anonymous” author
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Referencing material you can’t access
Sometimes you cannot reference the

Ferrets were shown to be exceptionally good pets primary information source (the
apart from their propensity to bite (Lovejoy, 1822 original) because of an inability to hold
cited in Painkiller & Bandage, 1987) whilst other of a copy and check yourself—in this
authorities considered them to be too smelly for the case you can use a secondary source
drawing room (Niffnaff, 1922) (someone who has seen the original)
but you still cite the primary source as
well. You also need to give both the
primary and secondary sources in the
reference list.
Referencing the unknown Autor

When a document has a little a
Urban green spaces often have a publisher, date of publication and
biodiversity conservation function, place of publication it can be
however the amenity and tempting to use the publisher as the
conservation roles may conflict author – don’tl instead put “Änon”or
(Breuste, 2004; Sandstorm et al., “Anonymous “
2006; Anon., 2007; Markovchick-
Nicholls et al., 2008), e.g. where the
need to manage for biodiversity
results in perceived lower aesthetic
value or the training of the land
managers is more horticultural than Also: Notice that the references are
ecological. ordered in date order, Not alphabetical
if there are a number of paprs
published by different authors in the
same year.
Two Authors
List by their last names and initials. Use the ampersand instead of "and."
Wegener, D. T., & Petty, R. E. (1994). Mood management across affective states:
The hedonic contingency hypothesis. Journal of Personality & Social Psychology, 66,
1034-1048.
27
Three to Six Authors
List by last names and initials; commas separate author names, while the last author name
is preceded again by ampersand.
If there are more than six authors, list the first six as above and then "et al.," which stands for
"and oters." Remember not to place a period after "et" in "et al."
Harris, M., Karper, E., Stacks, G., Hoffman, D., DeNiro, R., Cruz, P., et al. (2001). Writing labs
the Hollywood connection. Journal of Film and Writing, 44(3), 213-245.
Two or More Works by the Same Author in the Same Year
If you are using more than one reference by the same author (or the same group of authors
listed in the same order) published in the same year, organize them in the reference list
alphabetically by the title of the article or chapter. Then assign letter suffixes to the year. Refer
to these sources in your essay as they appear in your reference list, e.g.: "Berdnt (1981a) makes
similar claims.
Berndt, T. J. (1981a). Age changes and changes over time in prosocial intentions and
behavior between friends. Developmental Psychology, 17, 408-416.
Berndt, T. J. (1981b). Effects of friendship on prosocial intentions and behavior. Child

Development, 52, 636-643.
Reference List: Articles in Periodicals
Basic Form
APA style dictates that authors are named last name followed by initials; publication year
goes between parentheses, followed by a period. The title of the article is in sentence-case,
meaning only the first word and proper nouns in the title are capitalized. The periodical title
is run in title case, and is followed by the volume number which, with the title, is also
italicized or underlined.
Author, A. A., Author, B. B., & Author, C. C. (Year). Title of article.

Title of Periodical, volume number (issue number), pages.
Article in Journal Paginated by Volume
28
Journals that are paginated by volume begin with page one in issue one, and continue
numbering issue two where issue one ended, etc.
Harlow, H. F. (1983). Fundamentals for preparing psychology journal articles.
Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology, 55, 893-896.
Article in Journal Paginated by Issue
Journals paginated by issue begin with page one every issue; therefore, the issue number gets
indicated in parentheses after the volume. The parentheses and issue number are not italicized
or underlined.
Scruton, R. (1996). The eclipse of listening. The New Criterion, 15(30), 5-13.
Article in a Magazine
Henry, W. A., III. (1990, April 9). Making the grade in today's schools. Time, 135, 28-31.
Article in a Newspaper
Kernis, M. H., Cornell, D. P., Sun, C. R., Berry, A., & Harlow, T. (1993).
There's more to self-esteem than whether it is high or low: The importance
stability of self-esteem. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 65,
1190-1204.
More Than Six Authors
Unlike other periodicals, p. or pp. precedes page numbers for a newspaper reference in APA style.
Single pages take p., e.g., p. B2; multiple pages take pp., e.g., pp. B2, B4 or pp. C1, C3-C4.
Schultz, S. (2005, December 28). Calls made to strengthen state energy policies.
The Country Today, pp. 1A, 2A.
Letter to the Editor
Moller, G. (2002, August). Ripples versus rumbles [Letter to the editor].

Scientific American, 287(2), 12.
Review
Baumeister, R. F. (1993). Exposing the self-knowledge myth [Review of the book The self-
knower: A hero under control ]. Contemporary Psychology, 38, 466-467.
Multivolume Work
Wiener, P. (Ed.). (1973). Dictionary of the history of ideas (Vols. 1-4). New York: Scribner'
Encyclopedia Americana (2008) Electricity (Vol. 3) New York: Phoenix Pub.

29
An Entry in An Encyclopedia with author
Bergmann, P. G. (1993). Relativity. In The New Encyclopedia Britannica (Vol.

26, pp. 501-508). Chicago: Encyclopedia Britannica.
Thesis / Dissertation Abstract
Yoshida, Y. (2001). Essays in urban transportation (Doctoral dissertation,

Boston College, 2001). Dissertation Abstracts International, 62, 7741A.
Government Document
National Institute of Mental Health. (1990). Clinical training in serious mental

illness (DHHS Publication No. ADM 90-1679). Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing
Office.
Report From a Private Organization
American Psychiatric Association. (2000). Practice guidelines for the treatment

of patients with eating disorders (2nd ed.). Washington, D.C.: Author.
Conference Proceedings
Schnase, J.L., & Cunnius, E.L. (Eds.). (1995). Proceedings from CSCL '95: The
First International Conference on Computer Support for Collaborative
Learning. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
Reference List: Electronic Sources
Article From an Online Periodical
Online articles follow the same guidelines for printed articles. Include all information the online host
makes available, including an issue number in parentheses.
Author, A. A., & Author, B. B. (Date of publication). Title of article. Title of Online Periodical,
volume number(issue number if available). Retrieved month day, year, from
http://www.someaddress.com/full/url/
Bernstein, M. (2002). 10 tips on writing the living Web. A List Apart: For People
Who Make Websites, 149. Retrieved May 2, 2006, from
http://www.alistapart.com/articles/writeliving
Online Scholarly Journal Article
Author, A. A., & Author, B. B. (Date of publication). Title of article. Title of

Journal, volume number. Retrieved month day, year, from
http://www.someaddress.com/full/url/
30
Kenneth, I. A. (2000). A Buddhist response to the nature of human rights. Journal
of Buddhist Ethics, 8. Retrieved February 20, 2001, from
http://www.cac.psu.edu/jbe/twocont.html
Reference List: Other Non-Print Sources
Interviews, Email, and Other Personal Communication
No personal communication is included in your reference list; instead, parenthetically cite the
communicators name, the fact that it was personal communication, and the date of the
communication in your main text only.
E. Robbins, pers. comm., January 4, 2001).
F. A. P. Smith also claimed that many of her students had difficulties with APA style (pers.
comm., November 3, 2002).
Motion Picture
Basic reference list format

Producer, P. P. (Producer) & Director, D.D. (Director). (Date of publication). Title of motion
picture [Motion picture]. Country of origin: Studio or distributor.
Note: If a movie or video tape is not available in wide distribution, add the following to your
citation after the country of origin: (Available from Distributor name, full address and zip code).
A Motion Picture or Video Tape with International or National Availability
Smith, J.D. (Producer) & Smithee, A.F. (Director). (2001). Really big disaster
movie [Motion picture]. United States: Paramount Pictures. 37
A Motion Picture or Video Tape with Limited Availability
Harris, M. (Producer), & Turley, M. J. (Director). (2002). Writing labs: A history

[Motion picture]. (Available from Purdue University Pictures, 500 Oval
Drive, West Lafayette, IN 47907)
Television Broadcast or Series Episode
Producer, P. P. (Producer). (Date of broadcast or copyright). Title of broadcast

[Television broadcast or Television series]. City of origin: Studio or distributor.
Single Episode of a Television Series
Writer, W. W. (Writer), & Director, D.D. (Director). (Date of publication). Title

31
of episode [Television series episode]. In P. Producer (Producer), Series
title. City of origin: Studio or distributor.
A Television Series
Bellisario, D.L. (Producer). (1992). Exciting action show [Television series].

Hollywood: American Broadcasting Company.
Music Recording
Songwriter, W. W. (Date of copyright). Title of song [Recorded by artist if

different from song writer]. On Title of album [Medium of recording].
Location: Label. (Recording date if different from copyright date).
Taupin, B. (1975). Someone saved my life tonight [Recorded by Elton John]. On

Captain fantastic and the brown dirt cowboy [CD]. London: Big Pig Music Limited.
REFERENCES
Developed by Amy Fyn, Bowling Green State University Libraries, 2008, for LIB225: Information
Seeking and Management in Contemporary Society 48
http://libguides.uwf.edu/c.php?g=215199&p=1420520
http://simplyeducate.me/2015/01/05/conceptual-framework-guide/
http://universalteacher.com/1/criteria-for-selecting-a-research-problem/
https://www.socialresearchmethods.net/kb/hypothes.php
http://www.editage.com/insights/3-basic-tips-on-writing-a-good-research-paper-title What is the nature of
research? | Insights Association
www.insightsassociation.org/faq/what-nature-research
http://betterthesis.dk/research-methods/lesson-1different-approaches-to-research/strengths-and-
limitations
http://classroomactivities.pbworks.com/w/page/15980297/Literature%20Review%20Activity#:~:text=Th
e%20Literature%20Review,write%20a%20solid%20literature%20review.&text=Questions%20you%20m
ight%20answer%20in,rank%20sources%20you%20would%20reference)
Baraceros, Esther L. Practical Research 2

First edition 2016.
Rex book store, 856 Nicanor, Sr. St. \
Manila, Philippines
32
www.rexpublishing.com.ph
Lesson 7 Research Ethics
Introduction
Research Ethics is the highest ethical standards shall be applied to basic education research.
Whether or not human subjects are involved, researchers must ensure that the study will not
cause people harm. Research participants should have informed consent, must be cognizant
about the general purpose of the study and should not be exposed to unusual risk. Consistent
with the principle of excellence, integrity also requires honesty and accuracy in the collection,
analysis and reporting of data.
How do you know if it’s ethical or unethical?

Webster„s New World Dictionary defines „ethical„ (behavior) as „conforming to the
standards of conduct of a given profession or group.‟ What researchers consider to be ethical,
therefore, is largely a matter of agreement among them.
Three very important research ethical issues
1. Protecting participants from harm

Meaning: Participants in a research study are protected from physical or psychological harm,
discomfort, or danger that may arise
Logic: Any sort of study that is likely to cause lasting, or even serious harm or discomfort to
any participant should not be conducted unless it has great benefits
Tip: Obtain the consent of the participants if they may be exposed to any risk through a form
Role of DO: „Almost all educational research involves activities that are within the customary,
usual procedures of schools or other agencies and as such involve little or no risk„
33
2. Ensuring confidentiality of data
Meaning: Researchers should make sure that no one else (other than perhaps a few key research
assistants) has access to the data
Logic: All subjects should be assured that any data collected from or about them will be held in
confidence
Tips:
a. Whenever possible, remove all names from all data collection forms. How? Assign
numbers to forms, or answer anonymously.
b. Do not use the names of the participants from any publications that describe the research.
c. Allow the participants to withdraw, or information about them not be used.
Warning: „Sometimes, however, it is important for a study to identify individual subjects.„
Role of DO: „Almost all educational research involves activities that are within the customary,
usual procedures of schools or other agencies and as such involve little or no risk„
3. Subject deception
Meaning: „no full or erroneous information„
Logic: It is often difficult to find naturalistic situations in which certain behaviors occur
frequently
Warning: Many studies cannot be carried out unless some deception of subjects take place; but
it would bring questions on the reputation of the scientific community, or to the researcher
himself.
Tip:
a. Whenever possible, do not deceive.
b. If no alternatives are possible, weigh the study„s benefits to prospective scientific,
educational and applied value
c. If participants are deceived, ensure sufficient explanation as soon as possible.
Other unethical activities in research
1. Publishing an article in two different journals without informing the editor

2. Failing to inform your collaborator that your are filing a patent of the research
3. Writing the name of your colleague as one of the writers even though he did not participate
in any part of the conduct of the research
4. Discussing with your colleagues data from the paper that you are reviewing for a journal
5. Trimming outlines from a data set without providing sufficient justification
34
6. Using inappropriate statistical techniques in order to obtain favorable results
7. Making the results of a study publicly known without first giving the peers the opportunity to
review the work
8. Failing to acknowledge the contributions of other people in the field (RRL)
9. Making derogatory comments and personal attacks in your review of author„s submission 10.
A conceptual framework is an analytical tool with several variations and contexts. It is used
to make conceptual distinctions and organize ideas.
Tips and tricks from the experts
Soure:http://classroomactivities.pbworks.com/w/page/15980297/Literature%20Review%20Activity#:~:text=The%20Literature%20Review,write%20a%20solid%
20literature%20review.&text=Questions%20you%20might%20answer%20in,rank%20sources%20you%20would%20reference).
From Dr Tony Ward (Senior Lecturer in Marketing and Strategic Management, School of
Marketing and Tourism)
 keep complete and accurate records of everything read (especially references)
 identify referencing requirements and learn the style as soon as you can
 summarize every paper you read
 think holistically (get the big picture)
 do not be afraid to think 'outside the square' - it is your review so try to find your own
insights rather than just copy previous work
 break the review into thematic sections, treat each thematic area as a 'mini' review
Aim of Related review literature
The aim of a literature review is to find the relevant literature and read it. However people often
have trouble starting there so I would suggest that you:
1. identify parent disciplines

2. go to leading journals and search for the recent issues for the latest information on the
topic area. Use the references in those articles, and for "snowballing" - bouncing back
and going through the history of the topic area.
3. From these articles it is possible to recognize names that reappear. They are often the
leading people in the field. This is necessary because when an examiner looks at a
literature review, they will expect to see certain names, leading names, and if they are not
there you are not going to get the marks or approval.
There are certain skills that are learnt from doing a literature review. These include:
 learning to identify a topic

 learning how to search literature and obtain legal copies of literature
 improving reading skills - in particular the skill of reading critically
 improving writing skills - academic writing is different in style to what you would use in
business for example.
 learning to reference properly
35
 learning to place a topic within a discipline or framework
 learning to view a collection of papers holistically
 improving evaluative skills
 learning to identify research problems and gaps in literature.
 learning to focus a topic
Finally, you obtain a detailed knowledge of the topic area and at the end of the day you should
be regarded as the expert of that area in the world.
From Mr Aaron Coutts (Lecturer in Exercise Biochemistry, School of Health and Human
Performance)
While writing the discussion part of the literature review, defining your key points, keep the
web browser open with SportDiscus (for example). So when you are looking for key points when
writing, do a search to get the abstracts (in that key area). This helps formulate ideas. A great
way of keeping rhythm going in your writing.
From Dr Peter Reaburn (Triathlon Research Initiative, Head of School, School of Health and
Human Performance)
will get a pile of articles and will regurgitate what article one said, what article two said. I can't
emphasize enough, a well written literature review must evaluate all the literature, must speak
generally, with general concepts they have been able to lift from all the articles, and they must be
able to evaluate and critically analyze each one, then link and make a flow of ideas. Rather than
separate little boxes, each box representing an article, make a flow of ideas, generalize and use
specifics from one or two articles to back up a statement.
I think the student has gone to the supervisor generally because they see the supervisor as the
expert, with some knowledge in the topic area. There will be journals the post graduate
supervisor can identify and there will be names of researchers, either in journal articles or books.
I think the supervisor has a major role in leading the student to the relevant literature.
From Dr Daniela Stehlik (Associate Professor of Sociology, School of Psychology &

Sociology)
If you are reading something, take notes then and there. Don't think you will come back to it
later, because you never do.
 take good notes
 keep your references
 write down the dates you took the notes
 keep a type of record eg. front page and abstract, or be like me a complete control freak
and photocopy everything.

When writing the literature review.
For students who haven't done any writing before, there are a number of texts (on writing
theses) available at the library or from your supervisor. I would encourage students to do some
36
drafting. The drafting process is tiresome and many students feel that they can do it in one sitting
and that is why they leave it to the last minute. It is important to do several drafts and I would, as
part of my responsibility (as a supervisor), comment on these drafts, give feed back and we
would discuss it and move on to the next version.
From Associate Professor Graham Pegg (Associate Dean (Research), Faculty of Arts, Health
& Science)
I would recommend that a student develop a concept poster. ie. use a sheet of A3 paper and, for
example use a herringbone structure, write keywords from a paper and the author. From there
trace back the references. This helps to organize it all.
Lesson 8 Conceptual Framework
A conceptual framework is an analytical tool with several variations and contexts. It is used
to make conceptual distinction and organize ideas. Strong conceptual frameworks capture
something real and do this in a way that is easy to remember and apply.
 Present a schematic diagram of the paradigm of the research and discuss the relationships of
the elements/variables therein.
 Identify and discuss the variables related to the problem.
 Can use the input-process-output (IPO) model or the dependent-independent -moderator
model
 The conceptual framework serves as basis for the research paradigm and objectives of the
project.
Logical Framework
 Assumes that there is a logical linear flow of events or processes that can be
anticipated/theorized.
Process:
Inputs: outputs:
Verification and 37
Resources, knowledge analyzed data,
methodologies
ideas and demands verified hypothesis,
conclusions and
hypothesis
In other words, the conceptual framework is the researcher„s understanding of how the
particular variables in his study connect with each other. Thus, it identifies the variables required
in the research investigation. It is the researcher„s “map” in pursuing the investigation.
As McGaghie et al. (2001) put it: The conceptual framework “sets the stage” for the
presentation of the particular research question that drives the investigation being reported based
on the problem statement. The problem statement of a thesis presents the context and the issues that
caused the researcher to conduct the study.
The conceptual framework lies within a much broader framework called theoretical
framework. The latter draws support from time-tested theories that embody the findings of many
researchers on why and how a particular phenomenon occurs.
Step by Step Guide on How to Make the Conceptual Framework
Before you prepare your conceptual framework, you need to do the following things:
1. Choose your topic.
2. Do a literature review.
3. Isolate the important variables.
4. Generate the conceptual framework
38
Source of image: https://www.slideshare.net/SICRN/practical-research-2-modular-approach
Fig. 1: The research paradigm illustrating the researcher„s conceptual framework. Notice that
the variables of the study are explicit in the paradigm presented in Figure 1.
In the illustration, the two variables are
1) number of hours devoted in front of the computer, and
2) number of hours slept at night. The former is the independent variable while the latter is the
dependent variable. Both of these variables are easy to measure. It is just counting the number of
hours spent in front of the computer and the number of hours slept by the subjects of the study.
Assuming that other things are constant during the performance of the study, it will be possible
to relate these two variables and confirm that indeed, blue light emanated from computer screens
can affect one„s sleeping patterns. (Please read the article titled “Do you know that the computer
can disturb your sleeping patterns?”To find out more about this phenomenon) A correlation analysis will
show whether the relationship is significant or not.
Again, review the abstracts carefully. Keep careful notes so that you may track you„re thought
processes during the research process.
Conceptual Framework Vs Theoretical Framework
A conceptual framework is the researcher‟s idea on how the research problem will have to be
explored. This is founded on the theoretical framework, which lies on a much broader scale of
resolution. The theoretical framework dwells on time tested theories that embody the findings of
numerous investigations on how phenomena occur.
The theoretical framework provides a general representation of relationships between things in a

given phenomenon. The conceptual framework, on the other hand, embodies the specific
direction by which the research will have to be undertaken. Statistically speaking, the conceptual
framework describes the relationship between specific variables identified in the study. It also
outlines the input, process and output of the whole investigation. The conceptual framework is
also called the research paradigm.
Examples of the Theoretical and the Conceptual Framework
The difference between theoretical framework and conceptual framework can be further clarified
by the following examples on both concepts:
Theoretical Framework: Stimulus elicits response.
Conceptual Framework: New teaching method improves students‟ academic performance.

Notice in the illustrative example that the theoretical framework basically differs from the
conceptual framework in terms of scope.
The theoretical framework describes a broader relationship between things. When stimulus is
applied, response is expected.
39
The conceptual framework is much more specific in defining this relationship. The conceptual
framework specifies the variables that will have to be explored in the investigation. In this
example, the variable “teaching method” represents stimulus while the “students‟ academic
performance” represents the response. The variables make clear the kind of statistical treatment
that will have to be used to analyze the relationship.
How can students come up with their theoretical and conceptual framework?
In order to come up with their own set of theoretical and conceptual framework that will guide
the conduct of the research, students have to review literature pertaining to their chosen research
topic. Students need to read a lot and find out what has been studied so far in their respective
fields and come up with their own synthesis of the literature. They should look for gaps in
knowledge and identify what questions need to be answered or what problems need to be given
solutions. Thus, they will be able to formulate their own conceptual framework to serve as guide
in their research venture.
40
SECOND QUARTER – MODULE 1

Grade Level: _______________
Section: ___________________
Date: ______________________
QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH DESIGNS
Meaning of Quantitative Research Design
There are a lot of things that you want to do in life. You want to be a Dean’s
Lister, to be in other parts of the world, to be a millionaire, to be a renowned scientist, engineer,

surgeon, and so forth. To realize one, two, or three of these things you want to happen in your life, first,
envisage any of these in your mind then have a vision of what to do and how to do such thing. Doing this
is seeing in your mind the order or arrangement of things involved in the activity you want to perform.
This is an act of designing wherein a plan or an outline of your activities is conceived in your mind. It is a
design that takes a certain shape the moment you use symbols to lay its structure or components on a
piece of paper.
In any research type, much more, in a quantitative research where you do a great deal of abstraction
and scientific or logical thinking, a research design is a part and parcel of your study. By means of your
research design, you are able to make these aspects of your research clear: your methods or techniques
in finding answers to your research questions and in collecting data.
Coming out with the design of your research is not an initial act of your study. It is not the starting
period of your research that makes you pour much of your time in mulling over your research problem
and in obtaining background knowledge about your research topic. Preparing the design of your
research work takes place after finalizing your mind on these major aspects of your research: research
41
topic, background of the study, research questions, hypotheses, and research strategy like: case study,
experimentation, survey, and action research, among others, that would introduce you to the different
data-collecting techniques of interview, observation, and questionnaire. Simply stated, quantitative
research focuses on numbers, statistics, and relationships between variables. (Punch 2014; Edmonds
2013; Lapan 2012)
Types of Quantitative Research Designs
Experimental Research Design
Experimental research design is a quantitative research design that bases its research method on a
scientific activity called experiment, in which a test or examination of a thing under a manipulated or
controlled environment is done to determine the validity or truthfulness of such thing. This design
involves two groups of subjects: the experimental group on which the condition, treatment, or
intervention is applied and the control group that is not given any treatment or condition.
Following this experimental design, you conduct two kinds of tests:
pre-test for both groups and post-test for the experimental or treatment group to see the difference
between them based on the effects of the treatment or condition given to the experimental group.
(Picardie 2014; Yin 2012)
2. Types
There are two types of experimental research designs:the true experimental design and the quasi-
experimental design. (De Mey 2013; Creswell 2013)
a. True Experimental Design – What proves this as a true experimental design is its random selection of
participants. It is a bias-free selection that ensures objectivity of results. This design is the best way to
examine causal relationships.
b. Quasi-experimental Design – The term quasi (pronounced as kwahz-eye) means partly, partially,
pseudo, or almost. The non-adherence of thisresearch design to random selection of participants is the
reason it got the name, quasi-experimental research, which means a research with the capacity to yield
findings that are seemingly or more or less true. Prone to bias caused by your purposive, rather than
random selection of participants, quasi-experimental design is incapable of establishing cause-effect
relationships. Trying to approximate or to be like the true experimental design, this research design
comes in different types such as the following:
Match comparison research design

42
In this quasi-experimental design, instead of selecting participants for the control group, you get
a set of participants that shows close similarities with the experimental or treatment group based on
one or more important variables.
-series quasi-experimental design
Your act of controlling the variables in this case is through multiple observations of the subjects before
and after the treatment or condition applied to the experimental group. The purpose of serial
observations is to see the connection between the pre-test and the post-test based on the taking place
of the treatment or condition.
-balanced quasi-experimental design
Here, control is applied to one group to examine the effects of all treatment and conditions to control
variables. For instance, negative results coming from three-time observations are counterbalanced or
given weight that is equated with positive results from four- or five-time observations.
-subject quasi-experimental design
This design is used when the population is so large that you find difficulty in choosing a group to study.
So, you decide to apply the condition or treatment to a single subject like a class of learners then later
find out the effects of the treatment on the entire class.
Experimental Research Design Stages
The true experimental and quasi-experimental designs follow the same stages in research designing.
Their difference lies only in the participant-selection process, in that the first is randomized; the second,
purposive. (Lapan 2012; Walliman 2014)
1. Clear knowledge of the research objectives that enable you to decide not only on the kind of research
you have to do, but also on the manner you have to follow in conducting the research.
2. Formulation of hypotheses to state your guesses of what may not be true (null hypotheses) or may be
true (alternative hypotheses) about the results.
3. Method of testing your hypotheses or of examining their validity like deciding whether you have to
follow the experimental design or the quasi experimental design.
4. Choice of which instrument to use in collecting data; that is, whether to use interview, observation, or
questionnaire.
43
5. Process of selecting the subjects to compose the control group and the experimental group.
6. Performance of experimentation that allows control of the cropping up of extraneous variables and of
the experimenter’s bias.
7. Collection and analysis of data.
Non-Experimental Research Design
1. Definition
Non-experimental design is a quantitative research design that is capable of giving qualitative and
quantitative data, but more on qualitative data; hence, this is often used in the field of social sciences.
Unlike the experimental design that allows manipulation or control of some aspects of the research,
non-experimental research design shuns controlling variables. Instead, it involves variables the way they
naturally exist on earth.
2. Types
The following are the types of non-experimental research designs (Schreiber 2012; Letherby 2013;
Creswell 2014):
1. Descriptive – depicts an image or a picture of an individual or a group
2. Comparative – states the differences or similarities between or among people, things, objects, etc.
3. Correlative – shows the extent and direction of variable relationships, that is, whether a negative or
positive relationship exists between or among them
4. Survey – describes the attitudes, preferences, views, feelings, views, and other behavioral patterns of
a big number of people for arriving at a certain conclusion about societal concerns and issues
5. Ex Post Facto – translates itself into these English words, “that which is done afterwards” and has the
purpose of deriving data from things that are by nature taking place, so as to obtain explanations about
past events (Litchman 2013, p. 42)
44

Grade Level: _______________
Section: ___________________
Date: ______________________
QUANTITATIVE DATA-COLLECTION TECHNIQUES
Definition of Quantitative Data
Data are pieces of information or facts known by people in this world. Appearing measurable, numerical,
and related to a metrical system, they are called quantitative data. These data result from sensory
experiences whose descriptive qualities such as age, shape, speed, amount, weight, height, number,
positions, and the like are measurable. Denoting quantity, these words appear in records in numerical
forms that are either discrete (1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6...) or continuum (amount of flour...). However, these
45
quantitative data become useful only in so far as they give answers to your research questions. (Russell
2013; Creswell 2013).
Techniques in Collecting Quantitative Data
Collecting data is one major component of any type of research. Undermining its importance would
result in the production of inaccurate data sufficient to render your research study invalid. Hence, in
collecting quantitative data, stress is given to the accuracy or appropriateness of your data-gathering
technique as well as of the right instrument to collect the data. The following are the most used
quantitative datagathering techniques along with the data-gathering instruments for each technique.
(Matthews 2010; Badke 2012; Thomas 2013; Woodwell 2014)
1. Observation
Using your sense organs, you gather facts or information about people, things, places, events, and so
on, by watching and listening to them; then, record the results of the functioning of your eyes and ears.
Expressing these sensory experiences to quantitative data, you record them with the use of numbers.
For instance, watching patients lining up at a medical clinic, instead of centering your eyes on the looks
of the people, you focus your attention on the number, weight, and height of every patient standing up
at the door of the medical clinic.
As a researcher preoccupied with collecting quantitative data through observation, you begin to
count the number of patients and get the measurement of their height and weight. These numbers
representing the results of your counting and measurement are then jotted down in your record
notebook. Seeing, touching, and hearing the sources of data personally, you engage yourself in direct
observation. It is an indirect observation, if you see and hear them, not through your own eyes and ears,
but by means of technological and electronic gadgets like audiotapes, video records, and other
recording devices used to capture earlier events, images, or sounds.
2. Survey
Survey is a data-gathering technique that makes you obtain facts or information about the subject or
object of your research through the datagathering instruments of interview and questionnaire. This is
the most popular data-gathering technique in quantitative and qualitative researcher studies for the
researchers are free to use not just one survey instrument but also these two following data-gathering
instruments.
Questionnaire
Questionnaire is a paper containing series of questions formulated for an individual and independent
answering by several respondents for obtaining statistical information. Each question offers a number of
probable answers from which the respondents, on the basis or their own judgment, will choose the best
answer. Making up a questionnaire are factual and opinionated questions. Questions to elicit factual
answers are formulated in a multiple-choice type and those to ask about the respondents’ views,
attitudes, preferences, and other opinionated answers are provided with sufficient space where the
respondents could write their sentential answers to opinionated questions.
46
Responses yielded by this instrument are given their numerical forms (numbers, fractions, percentages)
and categories and are subjected to statistical analysis. Questionnaire is good for collecting data from a
big number of respondents situated in different places because all you have to do is either to hand the
paper to the respondents or to send it to them through postal or electronic mail. However, ironically,
your act of sending the questionnaires to respondents, especially to those in remote areas, is
susceptible to waste of money, time, and effort for you do not have any assurance of the return of all or
a large number of fully accomplished questionnaires.
Interview
Survey as a data-gathering technique likewise uses interview as its data-gathering instrument. Similar to
a questionnaire, interview makes youask a set of questions, only that, this time, you do it orally. Some,
however, say that with the advent of modern technology, oral interview is already a traditional way of
interviewing, and the modern ways happen through the use of modern electronic devices such as
mobile phones, telephones, smart phones, and other wireless devices.
In asking interview questions, you see to it that you do this sequentially; meaning, let your questions
follow a certain order such as the following: (Sarantakos 2013; Fraenbel 2012)
First set of questions – opening questions to establish friendly relationships, like questions about the
place, the time, the physical appearance of the participant, or other non-verbal things not for audio
recording
Second set of questions – generative questions to encourage open-ended questions like those that ask
about the respondents’ inferences, views, or opinions about the interview topic
Third set of questions – directive questions or close-ended questions to elicit specific answers like those
that are answerable with yes or no, with one type of an object, or with definite period of time and the
like.
Fourth set of questions – ending questions that give the respondents the chance to air their satisfaction,
wants, likes, dislikes, reactions, or comments about the interview. Included here are also closing
statements to give the respondents some ideas or clues on your next move or activity about the results
of the interview
From the varied books on research are these tips on interview question formulation that you have to
keep in mind to construct effective questions to elicit the desired data for your research study:
a. Use clear and simple language.
b. Avoid using acronyms, abbreviations, jargons, and highfalutin terms.
c. Let one question elicit only one answer; no double-barrel question.
d. Express your point in exact, specific, bias-free, and gender-free language.
e. Give way to how your respondents want themselves to be identified.

47
f. Establish continuity or free flow of the respondents’ thoughts by using appropriate follow-up
questions (e.g., Could you give an example of it? Would you mind narrating what happened next?).
g. Ask questions in a sequential manner; determine which should be your opening, middle, or closing
questions.
3. Experiment
An experiment is a scientific method of collecting data whereby you give the subjects a sort of treatment
or condition then evaluate the results to find out the manner by which the treatment affected the
subjects and to discover the reasons behind the effects of such treatment on the subjects. This
quantitative data-gathering technique aims at manipulating or controlling conditions to show which
condition or treatment has effects on the subjects and to determine how much condition or treatment
operates or functions to yield a certain outcome.
The process of collecting data through experimentation involves selection of subjects or participants,
pre-testing the subjects prior to the application of any treatment or condition, and giving the subjects
post-test to determine the effects of the treatment on them. These components of experiment operate
in various ways. Consider the following combination or mixture of the components that some research
studies adopt:
a. Treatment → evaluation
b. Pre-test → Treatment → Post-test
c. Pre-test → Multiple Treatments → Post-test
d. Pre-test → Treatment → Immediate Post-test → 6-mos.
Post-test → 1-yr. → Post-test
These three words: treatment, intervention, and condition, mean the same thing in relation to
experimentation. These are the terms to mean the things given or applied to the subjects to yield
certain effects or changes on the said subjects. For instance, in finding out the extent of the
communicative competence of the subjects, put these participants in a learning condition where they
will perform varied communicative activities such as dramatizing a story, round-table discussions,
interviewing people, table-topic conversation, and the like. Dealing with or treating their communicative
abilities in two or more modes of communication is giving them multiple treatments. The basic elements
of experiment which are subjects, pre-test, treatment, and post-test do not operate only for examining
causal relationships but also for discovering, verifying, and illustrating theories, hypotheses, or facts.
(Edmonds 2013; Morgan 2014; Picardie 2014)
4. Content Analysis
48
Content analysis is another quantitative data-collection technique that makes you search through
several oral or written forms of communication to find answers to your research questions. Used in
quantitative and qualitative research studies, this data-collection method is not only for examining
printed materials but also for analyzing information coming from non book materials like photographs,
films, video tapes, paintings, drawings, and the like. Here, you focus your study on a single subject or on
two entities to determine their comparative features. Any content analysis you want to do is preceded
by your thorough understanding of your research questions because these are the questions to guide
you in determining which aspect of the content of the communication should you focus on to find the
answers to the main problem of your research.
Measurement Scales for Quantitative Data
In quantitative research, measurements of data expressed in numerical forms form in a scale or one that
consists series of graduated quantities, values, degrees, numbers, and so on. Thinking about the type
and scale of measurement that you have to use in your quantitative research is important because your
measurement choices tell you the type of statistical analysis to use in your study. Not knowing which
scale of measurement to use may result in your erroneous examination of the data.
There are two categories of scales of measurement: qualitative scales of measurement and quantitative
scales of measurement. Under quantitative scales of measurement are these two: the nominal scale to
show the classification of things based on a certain criterion such as gender, origin, brand, etc., and the
ordinal scale to indicate the rank or hierarchical order of things. The quantitative scales of measurement
are the interval scale for showing equal differences or intervals between points on the scale in an
arbitrary manner (showing differences in attitudes, inclinations, feelings, ideas, fears, opinions, etc.) and
the ratio scale, like the interval scale, that shows equal differences or intervals between points on the
scale. However, these two quantitative scales of measurement are not exactly the same, in that, the
latter gives value to zero, while the former does not give any value to zero for the value depends solely
on the respondent. (Schreiber 2011; Letherby 2013)
Examples:
1. Nominal Scale – categorizing people based on gender, religion, position, etc. (one point for each)
religion – Catholic, Buddhist, Protestant, Muslim gender – male, female position – CEO, vice-president,
director, manager, assistant manager. Summing up the points per variable, you will arrive at a certain
total that you can express in terms of percentages, fractions, or decimals like: 30% of males, 25% of
females, 10% of Catholics, 405 of Buddhists, and so forth.
2. Ordinal Scale – ranking or arranging the classified variables to determine who should be the 1st, 2nd,
3rd, 4th, etc., in the group
49
3. Interval Scale – showing equal intervals or differences of people’s views or attitudes like this one
example of a scale called Likert Attitude Scale:
Reading is important.
_______ _______ _______ _______ _______
Strongly
Agree
Agree Undecided Disagree Strongly
Disagree
How often does your professor come late?
_______ _______ _______ _______ _______
Always Most of the
time
Sometimes Rarely Never
How would you rate your professor’s performance?
_______ _______ _______ _______ _______
Very Poor Poor Fair Good Excellent
4. Ratio Scale – rating something from zero to a certain point
Performance in Math subject – a grade of 89% (from 0 to 100%)
50

Grade Level: _______________
Section: ___________________
Date: ______________________
PRACTICAL RESEARCH 2
QUANTITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS

Basic Concept
At this time, you already know that data means facts or information about people, places, things,
events, and so on, and when these data appear not in words, images or pictures, but in numerical forms
such fractions, numbers, and percentages, they become quantitative data. To understand the numbers
standing for the information, you need to analyze them; that is, you have to examine or study them, not
by taking the data as a whole, but by separating it into its components. Then, examine each part or
element to see the relationships between or among the parts, to discover the orderly or sequential
existence of these parts, to search for meaningful patterns of the components, and to know the reasons
behind the formation of such variable patterns.
Quantitative data analysis is time consuming because it involves series of examinations,

classifications, mathematical calculations, and graphical recording, among others. Hence, a thorough
and advance planning is needed for this major aspect of your study. However, all these varied analytical
studies that you pour into your research become significant only if prior to finalizing your mind about
these activities, you have already identified the measurement level or scale of your quantitative data;
that is, whether your study measures the data through a ratio or interval scale, not by means of nominal
or ordinal scale because these last two levels of measurement are for qualitative data analysis. It is
important for you to know what scale of measurement to use, for the kind of quantitative analysis you
will do depends on your measurement scale. (De Mey 2013; Letherby 2013; Russel 2013)
Steps in Quantitative Data Analysis
Having identified the measurement scale or level of your data means you are now ready to analyze the
data in this manner (Badke 2012; Letherby 2013; Mc Bride 2013):
51
Step 1: Preparing the Data
Keep in mind that no data organization means no sound data analysis. Hence, prepare the data for
analysis by first doing these two preparatory sub steps:
1. Coding System
To analyze data means to quantify or change the verbally expressed data into numerical information.
Converting the words, images, or pictures into numbers, they become fit for any analytical procedures
requiring knowledge of arithmetic and mathematical computations. But it is not possible for you to do
the mathematical operations of division, multiplication, or subtraction in the word level, unless you code
the verbal responses and observation categories.
For instance, as regards gender variable, give number 1 as the code or value for Male and number 2 for
Female. As to educational attainment as another variable, give the value of 2 for elementary; 4 for high
school, 6 for college, 9 for MA, and 12 for PhD level. By coding each item with a certain number in a
data set, you are able to add the points or values of the respondents’ answers to a particular interview
question or questionnaire item.
2. Data Tabulation
For easy classification and distribution of numbers based on a certain criterion, you have to collate them
with the help of a graph called Table. Used for frequency and percentage distribution, this kind of graph
is an excellent data organizer that researchers find indispensable. Here’s an example of tabulated data:
GENDER Male: 11 (46%

Female: 13 (54%)
COURSE Fine Arts: 9 (37%)
Architecture: 6 (25%)
Journalism: 4 (17%)
Com. Arts: 5 (20%)
SCHOOL FEU: 3 (12%)
MLQU: 4 (17%)
PLM: 3 (12%)
PUP: 5 (20%)
TIP: 4 (17%)
UE: 5 (20%)
Attended in 2016 Summer Arts Seminar- Yes: 18 (75%)
Workshop No: 6 (25%)
Role in the 2016 Seminar Workshop on Arts Speaker: 4 (17%)
Organizer: 3 (12%)
Demonstrator: 5 (20%)
Participant: 12 (50%)
Satisfaction with the demonstration and practice Strongly agree: 11 (46%)
exercises Agree: 5 (20%)
52
Neutral: 2 (8%)
Disagree: 4 (14%)
Strongly disagree: 2 (8%)
STEP 2 ANALYZING THE DATA
Data coding and tabulation are the two important things you have to do in preparing the data for
analysis. Before immersing yourself into studying every component of the data, decide on the kind of
quantitative analysis you have to use, whether to use simple descriptive statistical techniques or
advanced analytical methods. The first one that college students often use tells some aspects of
categories of data such as: frequency of distribution, measure of central tendency (mean, median, and
mode), and standard deviation. However, this does not give information about population from where
the sample came. The second one, on the other hand, fits graduate-level research studies because this
involves complex statistical analysis requiring a good foundation and thorough knowledge about
statistics. The following paragraphs give further explanations about the two quantitative data-analysis
techniques.
1. Descriptive Statistical Technique This quantitative data-analysis technique provides a summary

of the orderly or sequential data obtained from the sample through the data-gathering
instrument used. The results of the analysis reveal the following aspects of an item in a set of
data (Morgan 2014; Punch 2014; Walsh 2010):
2.  Frequency Distribution – gives you the frequency of distribution and percentage of the
occurrence of an item in asset of data. In other words, it gives you the number of responses
given repeatedly for one question.
Example:
Question: By and large, do you find the Senators’ attendance in 2015 legislative sessions awful?
Measurement Scale Code Frequently Percent Distribution

Distribution
Strongly Agree 1 14 58%
Agree 2 3 12 %
Neutral 3 2 8%
Strongly Disagree 4 1 4%
Disagree 5 4 17%
Measure of Central Tendency – indicates the different positions or values of the items, such
that in a in a category of data, you find an item or items serving as the:
Mean – average of all the items or scores

Example:
53
3 + 8 + 9 + 2 + 3 + 10 + 3 = 38
38 ÷ 7 = 5.43 (Mean)
Median – the score in the middle of the set of items that cuts or divides the set into two groups
Example: The numbers in the example for the Mean has 2 as the Median.
Mode – refers to the item or score in the data set that has the most repeated appearance in the
set.
Example: Again, in the given example above for the Mean, 3 is the Mode.
on – shows the extent of the difference of the data from the mean. An
examination of this gap between the mean and the data gives you an idea about the extent of
the similarities and differences between the respondents. There are mathematical operations
that you have to do to determine the standard deviation.
Here they are:
Step 1. Compute the Mean.

Step 2. Compute the deviation (difference) between each respondent’s answer (data item)
and the mean. The plus sign (+) appears before the number if the difference is higher; negative
sign (−), if the difference is lower.
Step 3. Compute the square of each deviation.
Step 4. Compute the sum of squares by adding the squared figures.
Step 5. Divide the sum of squares by the number of data items to get the variance.
Step 6. Compute the square root of variance figure to get standard deviation.
Example:
Standard Deviation of the category of data collected from selected faculty members of one
university.
(Step 1) Mean: 7
(Step 2) (Step 3)
Data Item Deviation Square of Deviation
1 −6 36
2 −5 25
6 −1 1
6 −1 1
8 +1 1
6 −1 1
6 −1 1
14 +7 49
16 +9 81
______
Total: 196
54
(Step 4) Sum of Squares: 196
(Step 5) Variance = 21.7 (196 ÷ 9)
(Step 6) Standard Deviation –
Advance quantitative Analytical Method
An analysis of quantitative data that involves the use of more complex statistical methods
needing computer software like the SPSS, STATA, or MINITAB, among others, occurs among
graduate-level students taking their MA or PhD degrees. Some of the advanced methods of
quantitative data analysis are the following (Argyrous 2011; Levin & Fox 2014;
Godwin 2014)
:
a. Correlation – uses statistical analysis to yield results that describe the relationship of two
variables. The results, however, are incapable of establishing causal relationships.
b. Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) – the results of this statistical analysis are sued to determine if
the difference in the means or averages of two categories of data are statistically significant.
Example: If the mean of the grades of a student attending tutorial lessons is significantly
different from the mean of the grades of a student not attending tutorial lessons.
a. Regression – has some similarities with correlation, in that, it also shows the nature
of relationship of variables, but gives more extensive result than that of correlation.
Aside from indicating the presence of relationship between two variables, it
determines whether a variable is capable of predicting the strength of the relation
between the treatment (independent variable) and the Outcome (dependent
variable). Just like correlation, regression is incapable of establishing cause-effect
relationships.
Example: If reviewing with music (treatment variable) is a statistically significant predictor of the
extent of the concept learning (outcome variable) of a person
55

Grade Level: _______________
Section: ___________________
Date: ______________________
PRACTICAL RESEARCH 2
STATISTICAL METHODS
Basic Concept
What is statistics? Statistics is a term that pertains to your acts of collecting and analyzing numerical
data. Doing statistics then means performing some arithmetic procedures like addition, division,
subtraction, multiplication, and other mathematical calculations. Statistics demands much of your time
and effort, for it is not merely a matter of collecting and examining data, but involves analysis, planning,
interpreting, and organizing data in relation to the design of the experimental method you chose.
Statistical methods then are ways of gathering, analyzing, and interpreting variable or fluctuating
numerical data.
Statistical Methodologies
1. Descriptive Statistics
This describes a certain aspect of a data set by making you calculate the Mean, Medium, Mode and
Standard Deviation. It tells about the placement or position of one data item in relation to the other
data, the extent of the distribution or spreading out of data, and whether they are correlations or
regressions between or among variables. This kind of statistics does not tell anything about the
population.
2. Inferential Statistics
This statistical method is not as simple as the descriptive statistics. This does not focus itself only on the
features of the category of set, but on the characteristics of the sample that are also true for the
population from where you have drawn the sample. Your analysis begins with the sample, then, based
on your findings about the sample, you make inferences o assumptions about the population. Since the
56
sample serves as the basis of your conclusions or generalizations about the population, it is a must that
you use random sampling to guarantee the representativeness of the sample; meaning, to make sure
that the sample truly represents the population in general.
Inferential statistics is a b branch of statistics that focuses on conclusions, generalizations, predictions,

interpretations, hypotheses, and the like. There are a lot of hypotheses testing in this method of
statistics that require you to perform complex and advanced mathematical operations. This is one
reason inferential statistics is not as popular as the descriptive statistics in the college level where very
few have solid foundation of statistics. (Argyrous 2011; Russell 2013; Levin & Fox 2014).
Types of statistical analysis of variables in a quantitative research are as follows:
– analysis of one variable
– analysis of two variables (independent and dependent variables)
Multivariate Analysis – analysis of multiple relations between multiple variables
Statistical Methods of Bivariate Analysis
Bivariate analysis happens by means of the following methods (Argyrous 2011; Babbie 2013; Punch
2014):
1. Correlation or Covariation (correlated variation) – describes the relationship between two variables
and also tests the strength or significance of their linear relation. This is a relationship that makes both
variables getting the same high score or one getting a higher score and the other one, a lower score.
Covariance is the statistical term to measure the extent of the change in the relationship of two random
variables. Random variables are data with varied values like those ones in the interval level or scale
(strongly disagree, disagree,neutral, agree, strongly agree) whose values depend on the arbitrariness or
subjectivity of the respondent.
2. Cross Tabulation – is also called “crosstab or students-contingency table” that follows the format of a
matrix (plural: matrices) that is made up of lines of numbers, symbols, and other expressions. Similar to
one type of graph called table, matrix arranges data in rows and columns. By displaying the
frequency and percentage distribution of data, a crosstab explains the reason behind the relationship of
two variables and the effect of one variable on the other variable. If the Table compares data on only
two variables, such table is called Bivariate Table.
Example of a Bivariate Table:
HEI Participants in the 2016 NUSP Conference
HEI MALE FEMALE ROW TOTAL

CEU
FEU
57
JRU
LASALLE
MLQ
NU
OUP
UP
UST
COLUMN TOTAL
MEASURE of CORRELATION
The following are the statistical tests to measure correlation or covariation:
1. Correlation Coefficient
This is a measure of the strength and direction of the linear relationship between variables and likewise
gives the extent of dependence between two variables; meaning, the effect of one variable on the
other variable. This is determined through the following statistical tests for Correlation
Coefficient:(Argyrous 2011; Creswell 2014; Levin & Fox 2014)
– the test to measure the dependence of the dependent variable

on the independent variable
-moment correlation (Pearson’s r, r or R) – measures the strength and direction of the

linear relationship of two variables and of the association between interval and ordinal variables.
-square – is the statistical test for bivariate analysis of nominal variables, specifically, to test the
null hypothesis. It tests whether or not a relationship exists between or among variables and tells the
probability that the relationship is caused by chance. This cannot in any way show the extent of the
association between two variables.
-test – evaluates the probability that the mean of the sample reflects the mean of the population
from where the sample was drawn. It also tests the difference between two means: the sample mean
and the population mean.
ANOVAor analysis of variance also uses t-test to determine the variance or the difference between the
predicted number of the sample and the actual measurement. The ANOVA is of various types such as
the following:
a. One-way analysis of variance – study of the effects of the independent variable
b. ANCOVA (Analysis of Covariation) – study of two or more dependent variables that are correlated
with one another.
c. MANCOVA (Multiple Analysis of Covariation) – multiple analyses of one or more independent

variables and one dependent variable to see if the independent variables affect one another
2. Regression
58
Similar to correlation, regression determines the existence of variable relationships, but does more than
this by determining the following:
(1) which between the independent and dependent variable can signal the presence of another
variable;
(2) how strong the relationship between the two variables are; and
(3) When an independent variable is statistically significant as a soothsayer or predictor.
Each of these statistical tests has its own formula that, with your good background knowledge about
statistics, you may be able to follow easily. However, without solid foundation about statistics, to be
able to apply them to your research, you need to read further about statistics or hire the service of a
statistician. Think of forking out hundreds of dollars or thousands of pesos for a research study in the
graduate or MA/PhD level, not for one in the collegiate level. It is in your bachelor degree level where
the world expects you to show your prowess in conducting a research that uses simple descriptive
statistical techniques.
To attain mastery in the use of descriptive statistics is to prepare you for another kind of research work
that uses inferential statistics, a statistical method requiring thorough knowledge and full mastery of the
formulae underlying advanced statistical methods to guarantee the validity, credibility, and prestige of
your research findings.
59

Grade Level: _______________
Section: ___________________
Date: ______________________
SAMPLING PROCEDURE
Basic Concept
Sampling means choosing from a large population the respondents or subjects to answer your research
questions. The entire population is involved but for your research study, you choose only a part of the
whole.
The word population is a technical term in research which means a big group of people from where you
choose the sample or the chosen set of people to represent the population. Sampling frame, on the
other hand, is the list of the members of the population to which you want to generalize or apply your
findings about the sample, and sampling unit is the term referring to every individual in the population.
The sampling, as well as the research results, is expected to speak about the entire population. Unless
this does not refer to the population, in general, the sample selection procedure has no scientific value.
(Emmel 2013; Lapan 2013)
Factors Affecting Sample Selection
In choosing your respondents, you do not just listen to the dictates of your own mind but also to other
factors such as the following (Babbie 2013; Edward 2013; Tuckman & Engel 2012):
1. Sample Size
How big should the sample be? Some researchers base their decision on their own experience and on
research studies they have already read. But the best way to guide you in determining the right sample
size is the representativeness of the sample with respect to the population. See to it that the sample
truly represents the entire population from where the sample came.
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The representativeness or accuracy of a sample size is really hard to determine. However, using the right
sampling technique such as a randomized one, your chances of getting a sample reflecting 95%
distribution of the population or of a sample representing the whole population is highly probable. This
acceptable level of probability of the representativeness of the sample is called confidence level or 0.05
level. This theory of probability is true only for randomly selected respondents, not for any non-
probability.
Type of sampling.
2. Sampling Technique
Sampling techniques fall under two categories: probability sampling and non-probability sampling. The
first one uses a random selection; the second, a purposive or controlled selection. Probability sampling
that gives all population members equal opportunity to be chosen as people to constitute the sample is
a precise way of sampling. Based on pure chance, it is unbiased or an accurate manner of selecting the
right people to represent the population.
Bias is the leading factor in choosing your respondents. This is one of the causes of sampling errors. The
other errors in sampling are attributed to your procedure in sampling.
3. Heterogeneity of Population
Heterogeneous population is composed of individuals with varied abilities. There is a wide variation
among the people composing the population. If it is a homogeneous population where lots of uniformity
in abilities exist among population members, a sample of one will do. But for a heterogeneous group, a
sampling technique that will widely spread the choosing of a large sample among all members of the
population is necessary.
4. Statistical Techniques
The accuracy of the sample depends also on how precise or accurate your methods are in calculating the
numbers used in measuring the chosen samples or in giving a certain value to each of them. Any error in
your use of any statistical method or computing numbers representing the selected
subjects will turn in unfounded results.
5. Time and Cost
Choosing samples makes you deal with one big whole population, with each member of this large group
needing your attention, time and effort, let alone the amount of money you will fork out for the
materials you will need in making the sampling frame. Hence, considering all these things, your sample
selection makes you spend some of your time deliberating or mulling over several factors affecting or
influencing your sample selection.
Sampling Methods
The sampling methods are of two groups which are as follows (Tuckman 2012; Emmel 2013; De Vaus
2013; Picardie 2014):
1. Probability Sampling
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This is a sampling method that makes you base your selection of respondents on pure chance. In this
case, everybody in the population participates. All are given equal opportunity or chance to form the
sample that is capable of reflecting the characteristics of the whole population from where such sample
was drawn. The following are the different probability sampling techniques:
A. Simple-random sampling – choosing of respondents based on pure chance
B. Systematic sampling – picking out from the list every 5th or every 8th member listed in the sampling
frame until the completion of the desired total number of respondents
C. Stratified sampling – choosing a sample that will later on be subdivided into strata, sub-groups, or
sub-samples during the stage of the data analysis
d. Cluster sampling – selecting respondents in clusters, rather than in separate individuals such as
choosing 5 classes of 40 students each from a whole population of 5,000 students
Ensuring a bias-free selection of subjects, these probability sampling techniques are considered by many
as more capable than the non-probability sampling techniques in coming out with the accurate or exact
samples to give pieces of information about the population as a whole.
2. Non-probability Sampling
The sampling techniques included in this category are not chosen randomly, but purposefully. Not
randomized, they are susceptible to bias. Unlike the probability sampling techniques that exclude the
researcher’s judgment, the non-probability sampling techniques succumb to the control, likes, or wishes
of the researcher and to restrictions imposed by the researcher on the sampling procedure. The
following are the non-probability sampling techniques:
a. Quota sampling – choosing specific samples that you know correspondto the population in
terms of one, two, or more characteristics
b. Voluntary sampling – selecting people who are very much willing to participate as respondents in the
research project
c. Purposive sampling – choosing respondents whom you have judged as people with good background
knowledge or with great enthusiasm about the research
d. Availability sampling – picking out people who are easy to find or locate and willing to
establish contact with you
e. Snowball sampling – selecting samples from several alternative samples like drug dependents, human
traffickers, street children, and other wayward and homeless people whose dwelling places are not
easily located for they are like nomads moving from place to place
Random Sampling vis-à-vis Statistical Methods
62
The most preferred sampling technique in qualitative or quantitative research is random sampling.
However, this kind of probability sampling requires the use of statistical method in measuring the
sample. Three probability sampling techniques:
Simple random, stratified, and systematic depend greatly on statistics for sample accuracy. The use of
statistics does not only prevent you from favoring any side of a thing or situation involved in the
research but also proves the accuracy or precision of your sampling procedure. Contributing to the
accuracy of sampling through the use of statistical methods in stratified sampling is your adherence to
The following steps of this unbiased sampling technique (Suter 2012; Emmel 2013; Corti 2014):
1. Decide on the size of the sample.

2. Divide the sample into sub-sets or sub-samples, with the sub-samples
3. Having the same aggregate number as that of the sample they came from.
4. Select the appropriate sub-sample randomly from each sub-group or stratum.
5. Put together the sub-sample results to get the total number of the overall sample.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Five Basic Sampling Techniques
sampling advantages disadvantages

Random Sampling The most accurate theoretically; Unavailable list of the entire population
influenced only by chance sometimes or prevention of random
sampling by practical considerations
Stratified sampling Assures a large sample to subdivide on Can be biased if strata are given false
important variables; needed when weights, unless the weighting procedure is
population is too large to list; can be used for overall analysis
combined with other techniques
Systematic sampling Similar to random sampling; often Sometimes permits bias
easier than random sampling
Cluster sampling Easy to collect data on the Prone to bias when the number is small
subject
Quota sampling Available when random Presence of bias not controlled by the quota
sampling is impossible; quick system
to do
63
64
FIRST QUARTER- LAS 1
Name of Learner: __________________________________

Grade Level: ______________________________________
Section: __________________________________________
Date: ____________________________________________
Teacher: MS. MANELIN ROSE P. OBOG______
Q2 Practical Research
Activity 1
Directions: Explain your understanding of Inquiry and Research by answering the ff.
Questions.
(10 pts each)
1. Using venn diagram; Compare and Contrast Inquiry based research and Nature of research.
2. Could Inquiry and research go together? Explain your point.
3. Have you had an application of Inquiry and Research in your day-to-day life? Explain.
65
Activity 3
Directions: Classify the words or phrases; if it is the strength or weaknesses of Quantitative

Research.
Precise Use statistical tools Inadequacy of Numbers
Less than 100% Accuracy Error can be computed
Les prone to sampling bias Assumptions in Statistical
Methods
Quantitative Research
STRENGTH WEAKNESSES
Activity 3
Directions: Formulate a quantitative research question about each of the following topics:
A. Gender(Male or Female)
B. Communication Media
C. Learning styles
D. Educational System
66
Activity Number Highest Possible Score Score Obtained
Activity Number 1 30
Total 80
67
Name of Learner: __________________________________

Grade Level: ______________________________________
Section: __________________________________________
Date: ____________________________________________
Activity 1
Directions: Read the questions carefully. Write your answer on the space provided. (2pts each)
___________________1. Is a learning process that motivates you to obtain knowledge or

information
about people, things, places or event.
___________________2. Can be a way of life; it is the basis for many of the important decisions
in our
lives.
___________________3. Focuses on numeric and unchanging data and detailed, convergent
reasoning
Rather than divergent reasoning.
___________________4. This data are the pieces of information that can be counted and which
are
68
Usually gathered by surveys form large numbers of respondents
randomly
Selected from for inclusion.
___________________5. Sometimes called an experimental or predictable variable.
___________________6. The aim is to manipulate independent variables and then examine the
effect
This ha change has on independent variable.
___________________7. The relationships between 2 variables.
___________________8. Design involves selecting groups, upon which is variable is tested
without any
random pre-selection process.
___________________9. Statement to be proven or disproved.
___________________10. Variables that are two or more categories, but which do not have an
intrinsic behavior.
Activity 4
Directions: Identify the independent and dependent variables in each problem. Write your
answer under the right column.
Research Que Que Independent Variable Dependent Variable
1. What are the effect of
Korean novela on the Filipino
value system?
2. To what extent does texting
decrease students grammatical
competence?
3. How does logical thinking
develop critical thinking?
4. In what way does
collaborative learning increase
communicative competence?
Activity Number Highest Possible Score Obtained Score

Total: 26
69
Reflection:
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
70
Name of Learner: __________________________________

Grade Level: ______________________________________
Section: __________________________________________
Date: ____________________________________________
APPICATION
ACTIVITY 1
DIRECTIONS: Read the questions carefully. Write the correct answer on the space provided.
_______________________1 For a beginner, researching on topics that require an advance
study, technical knowledge, and vast experience is a very difficult.
_______________________2. It describes in concrete (rather than theoretical) terms what you
expect will happen in your study.
_______________________3. include explanations of how to do something, vague propositions,

and value-based concerns.
_______________________4. These are topics that depend greatly on the writer„s opinion,
which tend to be biased or prejudicial. Facts cannot support topics like these..
_______________________5. Typically a rather general overview of the problem with just
enough information about the scope and purpose of the study to provide an initial understanding
of the research.
_______________________6. A topic or a subject is hard to investigate if there is no available
data or reading materials about it and if such materials are not-up-date or obsolete.
71
_______________________7. A subject or a topic that are too broad will prevent the researcher
from giving a concentrated or in depth analysis of the subject matter of the research paper.
_______________________8. Choosing topics like these will prevent you from having a clear
insights or focus on your study.
_______________________9. More specific, focused statements and questions that
communicate in greater detail the nature of the study
_______________________10. If your prediction specifies a direction, and the null therefore is
the no difference prediction and the prediction of the opposite direction, we call this a ______.
Activity 2
Directions: Answer the following questions
1 How do you formulate hypothesis?
2 Can any researcher can formulate hypothesis? Why? or why not?
3 If you were advice a friend as hypothesis ormulation, what would you tell
him/her?
4 Formulate hypothesis about the hottest today.
72
Activity Number Highest possible Score Score Obtained
Total 60
73
Name of Learner: __________________________________

Grade Level: ______________________________________
Section: __________________________________________
Date: ____________________________________________
Directions: State your research topic(as a question)
Here are some potential source of information.
 World wide web * Encyclopedia * Research paper * Journal Article * Maps

 News paper * Wikepedia * Television *Government Document * News Magazine
 Professional interview * Technical handbook *Legislative Review
74
Questions you might answer in the literature review (list and rank sources you would reference).
 Why the Is problem is important? (worth searching)

 Have others research it before?
 What conclusions did they reach towards the questions?
 What impact might research have?
 How will you find this reference?
Activity 2
Directions :
If you are unfamiliar with APA citation styles, you may find it helpful to review the material inside the
"Citing sources using APA citation style" folder before beginning this assessment.
Question 1 Choose the citation that is in proper APA citation format for a book.
a. Jenkins, Henry. Fans, bloggers, and gamers: exploring participatory cultures. New York: New York
University Press, 2006.
b. Jenkins, H. Fans, bloggers, and gamers: exploring participatory cultures. New York University Press,
New York. 2006.
c. Jenkins, H. (2006). Fans, bloggers, and gamers: exploring participatory culture. New York: New York
University Press.
d. Jenkins, Henry. (2006). Fans, Bloggers, and Gamers: Exploring Participatory Culture. New York UP:
New York. Question
2. Choose the citation that is in proper APA citation for a chapter from a book (no named author of
chapter).
75
a. Cook, V.J.(2004). "Flava'N Gorillaz: Pop Group Names." In Accomodating Brocolli in the Cemetary, (pp.
21-22). Simon and Schuster: New York.
b. Flava 'n Gorillaz: Pop group names. (2004). In V.J. Cook, Accomodating Brocolli in the Cemetary (pp.
21-22). New York: Simon and Schuster.
c. Flava 'n Gorillaz: Pop group names. In Cook, V.J. Accomodating Brocolli in the Cemetary (pp. 21-22).
New York: Simon and Schuster, 2004.
d. V.J. Cook. 2004. "Flava'n Gorillaz: Pop group names." In Accomodating Brocolli in the Cemetary, pp.
21-22. Simon and Schuster: New York. 46
Question 3 Choose the correct APA citation for a newspaper article.
a. Yonke, D. (2008, September 13). Monks on the road for peace: Tibetan Buddhists bring message that
'happiness is an internal event'. The Blade (Toledo, OH), p. B7.
b. Yonke, David. (2008). "Monks on the road for peace: Tibetan Buddhists bring message that 'happiness
is an internal event'." The Blade (Toledo, OH), pp. B7.
c. Yonke, David. Monks on the road for peace: Tibetan Buddhists bring message that 'happiness is an
internal event'. The Blade, September 13, 2008. p. B7.
d. Yonke, David. "Monks on the road for peace: Tibetan Buddhists bring message that 'happiness is an
internal event'." The Blade 13 Sept. 2008: B7.
76
SECOND QUARTER- LAS 1
Name of Learner: __________________________________

Grade Level: ______________________________________
Section: __________________________________________
Date: ____________________________________________
Directions: INDIVIDUAL WORK. Circle the letter of the correct answer.
1. Designing a research is thinking _______________.
a. critically
b. literally
c. skillfully
d. imaginatively
2. To design a research is seeing the research process in your _______________.
a. paper
b. library
c. mind
d. book
3. Preparing in your mind how to find answers to your research questions is _______________.
a. deciding on your research topic
b. designing your research

77
c. controlling your emotions
d. asking research questions
4. These are aspects of your research: research objectives, topic, questions, hypotheses, and
methodology. You come to think of quantitative research design _______________________.
a. before finalizing your mind on these aspects of your research
b. after thinking of these aspects of your research
c. as you formulate hypotheses about these parts
d. as you ponder on your research problem
5. Central to experimental design is analysing relationships that are _________.
a. specific
b. hypothetical
c. causal
d. stable
6. A quantitative research design that is equated with qualitative design is _______________.
a. true experimebntal
b. non-experimental
c. semi-experimental
d. quasi-experimental
7. Quantitative research designs are true for all experimental designs except the aspect on
_______________.
a. subject selection
c. treatment application
c. variable relationships
d. variable control
78
8. A quantitative research design that makes you be have as a scientist is_______________.
a. survey research
b. experimental design
c. case study
d. correlative study
9. An empirical study is based on a research design that is _______________.
a. qualitative
b. quantitative
c. hypothetical
d. theoretical
10. These two are the leading indicators of the occurrence of true experimental design:
a. Pre-test and post-test
b. treatment and condition
c. Randomization and variable control
d. experimental and control group
79
Name of Learner: __________________________________

Grade Level: ______________________________________
Section: __________________________________________
Date: ____________________________________________
Activity 1
Directions: INDIVIDUAL WORK. Fill in the blank with the correct answer.
Central to __________1___________ are words; to quantitative research are _____2_____. In

this second type of research, you use the data-gathering technique called _______3_______ that
uses __________4___________ and _________5_________, two data-gathering instruments
that are made up of _______6_______. Questions on things resulting from your experience are
called _____7_____ questions; those on your interpretative or critical thinking are called
_______8________ questions. Survey is a data-gathering _____9_____ while interview and
questionnaire are data-gathering ______________________10________________________.
Another quantitative data-gathering technique is the ______11_____ that uses your
_____12______ organs, specifically, your _____13____ and _____14____ in collecting data.
Watching and listening to people and things with your own eyes and ears is a ______15______
kind of observation; with audio tape or video tape, is ______16______ type of observation
_______________________________________
_________________17_____________________ is one quantitative data-collection technique
that aims at controlling variables to discover ________18_________ relationships. This method
80
involves independent ______19_______ variables and dependent variables. The ____20____
receive treatment or condition and, if it is given the performance rating of 95%, it will appear on
a scale of measurement called ______21______ scale.
Directions: Using the table below, compare and contrast each pair of expressions.
1. Quantitative data vs. Qualitative data
2. Interview vs. Questionnaire
3. Direct observation vs. Mediated observation
4. Pre-test vs. Post-test Interval scale vs.
81
Name of Learner: __________________________________

Grade Level: ______________________________________
Section: __________________________________________
Date: ____________________________________________
Activity 1
Directions: Match the expression in A with those in B by writing the letter of your answer on the line
before the word.
_______1. Mean a. data set divider
_______ 2. Ratio b. facts or information
_______3.Data c. part by part examination
_______ 4.Coding d. data preparation technique
_______ 5. Analysis e. repetitive appearance of an item
_______ 6. Mode f. sum+ no. of items
_______ 7. Median g. valuable zero
82
_______ 8. Standard deviation h. ANOVA
_______ 9. Regression i. shows variable predictor
_______ 10. Table j. data organizer
Activity 2
Directions: Following the procedure in calculating standard deviation, compute the standard deviation
of the data set in the box. Likewise, give the median and the mode of the data set.
Mean: __________________________________
Sum of Squares: _________________________
Variance: ________________________________
Standard Deviation: ______________________

0
0
1
1
2
3
4
5
6
6
7
7
7
Median __________________________________
Mode ____________________________________
83
Name of Learner: __________________________________

Grade Level: ______________________________________
Section: __________________________________________
Date: ____________________________________________
Activity 1
Directions: Compare and contrast the following expressions.
1. Univariate, bivariate, multivariate
2. Correlation, covariation, variance
3. ANOVA vs. MANCOVA
4. Spearman’s r vs. Pearson’s r
5. T-test vs. Chi-Square
84
Name of Learner: __________________________________

Grade Level: ______________________________________
Section: __________________________________________
Date: ____________________________________________
Activity 1
Directions: INDIVIDUAL WORK. Write C on the space before the number, if the sentence is correct; NC, if
it is not correct.
_______ 1. Sampling unit is synonymous with sampling frame.
_______ 2. Population in relation to sampling refers to the citizens of Philippine archipelago.
_______ 3. The principal purpose of sampling is the application of results in the population.
_______4.You look forward to having several group samples in a stratified sampling.
_______5.In a stratified sampling, you randomly choose samples from several groups.
_______ 6. Sampling decisions depend 100% on your own dispositions or judgement.
_______ 7. You are detached from your personal inclinations when you do a random selection of
subjects.
85
_______8.Non-probability sampling is not very particular about statistics.
_______ 9. Probability sampling techniques are suitable for Quantitative research studies.
_______ 10. Bias can only be minimized; can’t be totally eliminated.
86
ANSWER KEY
87

1ST Sem Practical Researc Ii Grade 12 Module Complete

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1ST Sem Practical Researc Ii Grade 12 Module Complete

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FIRST ASIAN INTERNATIONAL SYSTEMS COLLEGE, INC.

SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL DEPARTMENT

FIRST QUARTER – MODULE 1

Name of Learner: ___________

Content: Nature and Inquiry of Research

Most Essential Learning Competencies:

Lesson 1: Characteristics, strengths, weaknesses and kinds of quantitative research

a. Describes characteristics, strengths, weaknesses and kinds of quantitative research,

LESSON 1 Inquiry Based Learning

The Nature of Research

Characteristics of Quantitative Research

 The data is usually gathered using structured research instruments.

 Explain the data collected

Strength and Weaknesses

1. More reliable and objective

2. More reliable and objective

3. Can use statistics to generalize

4. Often reduces and restructures a complex problem to a limited number of variables.

6. Tests theories or hypothesis

7. Assumes sample is representative of the population

8. Subjectivity of researcher in methodology is recognized less.

FIRST QUARTER – MODULE 2

Name of Learner: ___________

Content: Nature and Inquiry of Research

Most Essential Learning Competencies:

The Nature of Variables

 Extraneous and confounding variables

3. Categorical values are measured and assigned to groups on the basis of

1. nominal variables are variables that have 2 or more categories.

FIRST QUARTER – MODULE 3

Name of Learner: ___________

1. The range of research topics in the area of inquiry.

Most Essential Learning Competencies

Module 3: IDENTIFYING THE INQUIRY AND STATING THE PROBLEM

The learner is able to:

Questions Problems Similarities

Lesson 3: Quantitative Research Problem

Guidelines in making a Research Problems:

3. Two ways of stating the problems

6. Researchable and non-researchable problems

7. Researchable and non-researchable problems

Quantitative Vs. Qualitative

Sources of Research Problem

Quantitative Research Problems

Guidelines in Choosing a Research Topic

Research topic to be avoided.

Writing a Research Title

Three basic tips to keep in mind while writing a title:

Scope and limitations

FIRST QUARTER – MODULE 4

Name of Learner: ___________

4. The range of research topics in the area of inquiry.

Most Essential Learning Competencies

LESSON 4 The Hypothesis

A hypothesis is a specific statement of prediction. It describes in concrete (rather than theoretical)

The null hypothesis for this study is:

The important thing to remember about stating

Learning Activity Sheets (LAS)

Name of Learner: ___________

1. The formulation of conceptual framework

Most Essential Learning Competencies:

 Illustrates and explain the conceptual framework

Lesson 5: Review of Related Literature