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1.1. An Overview of Chemistry

Chapter One • Since the time of the ancient Greeks, people
have wondered about the answer to the
1. Introduction to Chemistry question: What is matter made of?
1.1. An over view of chemistry • For a long time, humans have believed that
matter is composed d off atoms, and d in theh
1.2. The scientific method
previous three centuries, we have collected
1.3. Introduction to laboratory practices  much indirect evidence to support this belief.
• Very recently, something exciting has
happened for the first time we can “see”
individual atoms.
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• Of course, we cannot see atoms with • So, at this point, we are fairly sure that
the naked eye; we must use a special matter consists of individual atoms.
microscope called a scanning tunneling
microscope (STM). • The nature of these atoms is quite
• The STM uses an electron current from complex, and the components of atoms
a tiny needle to probe the surface of a don’t behave much like the objectsj we
substance
b see in the world of our experience.
• Notice how the atoms (shown in figure
below) are connected to one another by • (Macroscopic world and microscopic
“bridges,” which represent the world)
electrons that interconnect atoms.
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• One of the main challenges of chemistry is to

understand the connection between the
macroscopic world that we experience and
the microscopic world of atoms and
Figure: Scanning tunneling
molecules. microscope image of DNA.

• To truly understand chemistry, you must

Figure: An image showing the
individual carbon atoms in a sheet of
learn to think on the atomic level. grapheme

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Difference between macroscopic and microscopic world
Figure: Sand on a beach looks uniform from a distance, but up
close the irregular sand grains are visible, and each grain is
composed of tiny atoms.
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Perspective of the definition
Chemistry studies changes of matter
• It has long been known that matter can
change or be made to change from one form
to another.
ese cchanges
• These a ges aaree b
broadly
oad y cclassified
ass ed intoto
chemical and physical changes.
• Chemical changes, more commonly called as
chemical reactions are processes whereby one
substance is transformed into another as a
result of combination or dissociation of atoms.
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• For example, water remains H2O whether it is
in solid state (ice), liquid water or gaseous
state (steam).
• Physical change also involves making or
separating mixtures. Dissolving table salt
(NaCl) in water is a physical change.
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What Is Chemistry?
Chemistry is the study of the composition of
matter and the changes that matter undergoes.
It is a study of the composition, structure,
and properties of matter and of the changes
that occur in matter.
matter
Matter is anything that has mass and occupies
space.
The trees, the water, and the buildings etc are
all examples of matter.
• Matter also undergoes other kinds of changes 
called physical changes. 
• These changes differ from chemical reactions 
in that the involved substances do not change 
their identities. 
• Each retains its composition. 
Each retains its composition
• Most physical changes are accompanied by 
changes in physical state, such as the melting 
of solids and the boiling of liquids. 
Chemistry studies properties of matter (chemical and Physical)
• There are two kinds of physical properties,
namely, extensive and intensive physical
properties.
• Extensive physical properties are the
properties, which depend on the amount or
quantity of sample and therefore, can vary
from sample to sample.
– The extensive property of a piece of copper wire,
for instance, includes its length, diameter, mass,
and electrical resistance.
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• Intensive physical properties are Five traditional areas of study are:

properties which do not depend on the • Since chemistry is an enormous area of science, for
convenience it has been divided into disciplines.
amount of a substance present.
• However, the division is never as clear‐cut as it might
– The intensive properties of a piece of appear to be. All sciences are related and depend on
copper wire include its density, colour, each other – they are interrelated.
melting point,
point and hardness.
hardness 1. organic chemistry
– Intensive properties are useful in 2. inorganic chemistry
distinguishing between different substances
3. biochemistry
because they do not vary from sample to
sample. 4. analytical chemistry
5. physical chemistry
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1. Organic chemistry is the chemistry of carbon

1. Inorganic chemistry is the study of all the  compounds except carbides, cyanides,
elements and their compounds with the  carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide,
exception of carbon and its compounds  carbonates and hydrogen carbonates.
(which falls under the category of organic  – Perhaps the most remarkable feature of organic
chemistry). chemistryy is that it is the chemistryy of carbon and
– It investigates the characteristics of substances  a few other elements, chiefly, hydrogen, oxygen,
that are not organic, such as nonliving matter  nitrogen, halogens and sulphur.
and minerals found in the earth's crust.  – The major nutrients in the food comprises of
– Oxides, sulphides and carbonates form the  organic compounds such as carbohydrates,
important classes of inorganic compounds. proteins, fats, vitamins, etc.

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3. Physical chemistry is the study of physical 
properties of materials, such as their thermal,  4. Analytical chemistry is a branch of chemistry which
is concerned with the development of theoretical
electrical and magnetic behaviour and their  foundations and methods of chemical analyses.
interaction with electromagnetic fields. – It involves separating, identifying and
– A chemical system can be studied from either a  determining the relative amount of components
microscopic or a macroscopic point of view. in a sample of material.
– The macroscopic point of view studies large‐scale 
The macroscopic point of view studies large‐scale – Chemical analysis y mayy be q qualitative or
quantitative.
properties of matter without explicit use of the 
molecule concept. 
– Qualitative analysis reveals the chemical identity
of the species in the sample while quantitative
– Some important divisions of physical chemistry are  analysis establishes the relative amount of one or
thermodynamics, spectroscopy, quantum chemistry,  more of these species in numeric terms.
chemical kinetics and electrochemistry.

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• Analytical chemistry is branch of • There is yet another important branch of

chemistry responsible for characterizing
the composition of matter, both chemistry, which bridges chemistry and
– Qualitatively (what is present?) and biology, known as biochemistry.
– Quantitatively (how much is present?) – It involves the study of the science of the
And, molecules and chemical reactions of life,
• Improving
I i established
bli h d methods,
h d andd utilizes
ili the
h principles
i i l and d language
l off
• Extending existing methods to new types chemistry to explain biology at the
of samples, and molecular level.
• Developing new methods for measuring
chemical phenomena.

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What is inorganic chemistry?
• Organometallic chemistry, a very
• If organic chemistry is defined as the 
chemistry of hydrocarbon compounds and  large and rapidly growing field,
their derivatives, inorganic chemistry can be  bridges both areas by considering
described broadly as the chemistry of "every‐ compounds containing direct metal‐
thing else." 
g
carbon bonds,
bonds and includes catalysis
• This includes all the remaining elements in the 
of many organic reactions.
periodic table, as well as carbon, which plays a 
major role in many inorganic compounds. 

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• Bioinorganic chemistry bridges 
biochemistry and inorganic chemistry.
• Environmental chemistry includes the
study of both inorganic and organic
compounds.
• As can be imagined, the inorganic realm
is extremely broad, providing essentially
limitless areas for investigation.

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1.2. The Scientific Method

• The scientific method is a general approach to
problems.
• It the way scientists gather information and
answer questions.
• It involves making observations, collecting
information/data, seeking patterns in the
observations, formulating hypothesis to explain
the observations, and testing these hypothesis by
further experiments.
• If a hypothesis successfully passes many tests, it
becomes a theory, which is a tested explanation
of a hypothesis.

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• Although two different scientists

rarely approach the same problem in
exactly the same way, there are
guidelines for the practice of science
that have come to be known as the
scientific method.
• These guidelines are outlined in
figure below with different models.

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Basic steps in scientific method
STEP 1:  Identify and define the problem 
• Determine type of information needed 
– Qualitative – What is present in a sample? 
– Quantitative – How much is present? 
– Characterization – Characterizing the chemical and physical 
properties 
– Fundamental – improving the existing methodology 
• Identify context of the problem  
d f f h bl
STEP 2:  Design the experimental procedure 
• Establish design criteria 
• Identify interferents
• Select method 
• Establish validation criteria  (how to know the validity of the 
method)
• Establish sampling strategy
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STEP 3:  Conduct an experiment and gather data 
• Calibrate instruments and equipment 
• Standardize reagents 
• Gather data 
STEP 4: Analyze the experimental data 
• Reduce or transform data,  
• Analyze statistics,  
l
• Verify results  
• Interpret results 
STEP 5: Propose a solution to the problem 
• Conduct external evaluation

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1.3. Introduction to laboratory practices

Experimental Skills
• Chemistry is an experimental science that
combines academic study with the acquisition of
practical and investigatory skills in order to:
• plan experimental activity, i.e., planning;
• carry out experimental work, i.e., implementing;
• analyze and draw conclusions from the results of
experimental work, i.e., analysing evidence and
drawing conclusions; and
• evaluate the work, i.e., evaluating evidence and
procedures.
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To acquire these experimental skills and
investigations you should be able to:
• follow a sequence of instructions;
• use techniques, apparatus and materials;
• make and record observations, measurements 
and estimates;
• interpret, evaluate and report upon observations 
and experimental results;
• design/plan an investigation, select techniques, 
apparatus and materials; and
• evaluate methods and suggest possible 
improvements.
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It is not possible to prepare an exhaustive list of 
skills, but the major skills that are ideally  • Skills required for conducting the standard
developed in a laboratory environment  laboratory procedures involved in synthetic
include: and analytical work, in relation to both
inorganic and organic systems.
• Skills
Skills in the safe handling of chemical 
in the safe handling of chemical • Skills in monitoring,
g, byy observation and
materials, taking into account their physical  measurement, of chemical properties, events
and chemical properties, including any  or changes, and the systematic and reliable
specific hazards associated with their use. recording and documentation thereof.

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Chemistry Laboratory Apparatus
• Laboratory equipment comprises different sets of 
apparatus, which are designed to perform various 
tasks in the laboratory.  
• On the basis of their use, these apparatus can be 
broadly classified into three categories:
1. Reaction vessels, e.g., Beakers, flasks, boiling tubes 
and test tubes.
and test tubes.
2. Measuring equipments, e.g., Pippetes, burettes, 
balances and thermometers.
3. Support and heating devices, e.g. Stand and clamp, 
tripod and gauze, spirit burner and Bunsen burner.
Support and heating devices : Wire 
gauze and tripod

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Reaction vessels, e.g., Beakers, flasks, boiling tubes and test tubes.

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Chemistry Laboratory Safety Rules Protect your eyes
• The chemistry laboratory may be considered as a 
place of discovery and learning.  • Appropriate eye protection must be worn at all 
• However, by the very nature of laboratory work,  times!  Inform your teacher if you wear contact 
it can be a place of danger if proper common‐ lenses.
sense precautions are not taken.  Wear appropriate protective clothing
• It is your duty in law to take reasonable care for 
your own health and safety and that of others 
h lth d f t d th t f th • Your clothing should cover your legs to the knees; 
Your clothing should cover your legs to the knees;
working in the laboratory. shorts are not appropriate for the laboratory. 
• Therefore, it is essential that the students are  • Loose clothing should not be worn because it may 
taught what can go wrong, how to prevent such  dip into chemicals or fall into a flame and catch 
events from occurring, and what to do in case of 
an emergency. fire. Further, laboratory aprons can be used to 
protect your clothing.
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Wear shoes that cover your feet Eating and drinking in the laboratory
• Due to the dangers of broken glass and  • Do not taste any chemical! Even food, drink 
corrosive liquid spills in the laboratory, open  and chewing gum are prohibited in the 
sandals or bare feet are not permitted in the  chemistry laboratory. These activities are ways 
laboratory.  by which you can accidentally ingest harmful 
• Remember! leather shoes protect your feet  chemicals
from chemical spills canvas shoes do not.
from chemical spills – canvas shoes do not
Smelling chemicals
Tie back loose hair
• Dangling hair can fall into the Bunsen burner  • Do not smell any chemicals directly!
and catch fire or can fall into a chemical  • Smell chemicals only if your teacher 
solution specifically tells you to do so, then use your 
hand to fan the vapour towards your nose.
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General precautions
Pipetteing out solutions
• Wash your hands with soap and water before 
• Do not suck the solutions in the pipette by  leaving the laboratory even if you have been 
mouth! wearing gloves.
• Know the hazards of the materials being used.
• Use a rubber suction bulb (pipette bulb) or 
• When lighting the Bunsen burner, first light the 
other device to fill a pipette. match stick then turn on the gas.
• Know how to interpret data from a MSDS 
(Material Safety Data Sheets).
• Read the labels on the reagent bottles carefully to 
make sure that you are using the right chemical.
• Never add water to concentrated acid solutions. 
The heat generated may cause spattering. 
Instead, as you stir, add the acid slowly to water.
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• Hold your hand over the label while pouring. For  • Get acquainted with the location and proper usage of 
minor skin burns, immediately plunge the burned  the safety equipments like eye wash fountain, safety 
shower, fire extinguisher, emergency exits.
portion into cold water and inform the teacher.
• Carry out only the experiments assigned by your 
• If you get any chemical in your eye, immediately  teacher.
wash the eye with the eye‐ wash fountain and  • Use equipment only as directed.
notify the teacher. • Never place chemicals directly on the pan balances.
• Work with volatile chemicals under a fume hood. • Use glycerin when inserting glass tubing into rubber 
stoppers.
• Never look directly into a test tube. View the 
• Be cautious of glassware that has been heated. Handle 
contents from the side. hot glassware with gloves or beaker tongs. 

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Demonstrate safe behavior
• Add boiling chips to liquid to be boiled. Point 
• Obey all safety instructions given by your teacher or 
test tubes that are being heated away from  found in you experimental procedure.
you and others. • Clean up spills immediately if you know. If you are 
• Check glassware for stars or cracks. uncertain how to clean up a spill or if a large spill 
occurs, notify your teacher immediately.
• Never use laboratory glassware for eating or  • Before leaving the lab be sure to replace the lids to all 
drinking purposes
drinking purposes. containers return equipment and chemicals to their
containers, return equipment and chemicals to their 
proper places and clean up your work area.
• Never remove chemicals from the laboratory. • Know how to dispose off waste. Dispose off all waste 
• Never work alone in the laboratory. In case of  materials according to your instructional procedure or 
a problem, you may need another person to  your teacher’s instructions.
prevent injury or even save your life!

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• Remember that the lab is a place for serious

Writing a Laboratory Report
work! Careless behavior may endanger yourself • The purpose of writing an introductory 
and others and will not be tolerated!
laboratory experiment is to give practice in 
• Know how to respond to an emergency.
• Report any accidents or unsafe conditions writing laboratory reports that answer the 
immediately! general questions:
• For some experiments, it may be helpful to – What did you do?
anticipate data. You should always read the – Why did you do it?
experiment in advance.
– How did you do it?
• Note: Additional safety precautions will be – What happened?
announced in class prior to experiments where a
potential danger exists.

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• A laboratory report is a written composition of 
• Title: Create a title in less than ten words that reflects 
the results of an experiment.  the factual content of your report.
• It should be written precisely and clearly,  • Objective: This section states the purpose of your 
experiment. 
using good grammar and punctuation. – Be specific about the outcomes that you plan to achieve 
• Each report must include: title, objective,  when you designed your experiment.
• Materials used: Describe the substances, equipment 
materials and (equipment) used procedure
materials and (equipment) used, procedure,  and instrumentation that is to be used in your work. 
di i h i b di k
observation, result, discussion, and  Copy the format for this section from your laboratory 
manual or from the standard procedure supplied by 
conclusion. the teacher.
• Procedure: Describe how you performed the 
experiment, and mention each step in chronological 
order.

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• Data/Observations: This section demonstrates that 
you carried out an experiment carefully and 
knowledgeably. The person reading your report 
should find it clear and convincing enough to take 
your experimental results seriously. THANKS!
• Result and Discussion: In this section of the report, 
present your results and discuss them. 
– Also report possible errors in the procedure and results,
END OF CHAPTER ONE
including possible inaccuracies.
inaccuracies
– Include any problems that you encountered during your work. ????????
Present them objectively. If possible suggest ways in which such
problems could be reduced at least if not overcome.
• Conclusion: This section should be brief, as it refers 
back to the objectives and considers how and to 
what degree they have been met. 
– Review the purpose of the experiment, and summarize the 
implications of the results.
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