Unknown 0:05

Hello, discover of these planets would have been very, very violent. planets are
made in the city before the dust and debris leftover from the birth of stars. So,
if they're all day, the same way, what makes them also different. The universe is
full of galaxies, gas clouds, stars, and planets with our solar system.

Unknown 1:33
But we now know they're a tiny group, compared to the huge cosmic family of planets
across the galaxy.

Unknown 1:43
It's an extraordinary moment in scientific history. To know for sure that there are
other planetary systems out there, they're very common. And out of the 200 billion
stars in our Milky Way galaxy, there are surely dozens of billions of planets over

Unknown 2:06
2009, NASA launched the Kepler space telescope on a six year mission to find new
planets orbiting other stars. So far, astronomers have found over 400 some colossal
balls of churning gas, five times the size of Jupiter. Others are huge rocking
worlds many times larger. So follow wild, erratic orbits, so close to the star
burning out. One thing is clear, no two planets are the same. Each is one of a
kind. But most of these new planets are far away and hard to study. Most of what we
know about how planets work comes from the eight that orbit our own star. Our own
planets come in too late times, therefore rocky planets in the inner solar system.
Mercury. In the outer solar system, there are four giant gas plants, Saturn,
Uranus, and Neptune. Each of the eight planets is distinct

Unknown 3:49
and very different

Unknown 3:54
personalities formed at the birth of our solar system 4.6 billion years ago. When
the sun ignited, it left behind a huge cloud of gas and dust. On a planets, the
inner rock and the outer gas planets came from this cloud of cosmic debris. The

Unknown 4:21
planets in our solar system are all made from the same stuff, the same cloud of gas
and dust that they formed under very different conditions. So the form being close
to the sun was much hotter, so much farther away where it was much colder. And
because the conditions were so different, the end result, product information was
different as well.

Unknown 4:46
So you start the solar system in my view with a pretty homogeneous mix of
silicates, water vapor, hydrogen, lots of hydrogen and methane and other elements.
These elements

Unknown 4:56
of the dust cloud are like ingredients in a cake baked differently depending on the
combination of the ingredients and the temperature of the oven.

Unknown 5:05
Then just like with the cake, mix the ingredients, and then you put it in the oven
and bake it and it would change. And so this is kind of what happened in the solar
system. Overall, the planet cooks in a slightly different way than anything on how
close it is to the sun.

Unknown 5:23
Close where it's not, the sun burns off gases, and oils away water. Only materials
that stay solid at high temperatures, like metals and rock can survive. Which is
why only rocky planets for close to the sun move farther away from the heat of the
sun, and you get different kinds of planets. But it's the ingredients in the cloud
that determine precisely what kinds of planets were formed.

Unknown 5:58
Well, depending on the type of cloud, the solar system forms in, you could have
solar systems that don't have rocky planets, because it was just too poor in the
materials to build something like the earth. Instead, you could end up with more
gas giants, and no rocky planets at all. If you want rocky planets, you need a
cloud, full metals rock. Next step for me.

Unknown 6:31
as it cools down some of the elements in there that have a high boiling point,
start to condense how the solids and you can get these very tiny little mineral
grains forming.

Unknown 6:44
These tiny mineral grains are the seeds of a new Rocky Point and over time, they
start to stick together, you'd have

Unknown 6:53
one dust molecule and another dust molecule and basically slamming each other and
become one slightly bigger dust molecule. And they would pick up more and more and
more. This process is called accretion. As these things got bigger, they became
basically rocks. That rocks slam into other rocks for boulders. boulders smashed
together to form bigger boulders. Eventually, you got something big enough that its
gravity was strong enough that he could start drawing material in. So instead of
just slamming into material and gaining mass that way, it was actually actively
pulling material in

Unknown 7:40
that our own solar system and we're metal growing innocent planets first, maybe
100. Most of them didn't make it.

Unknown 7:51
Go to the asteroid belt and look at the asteroid before Invesco. That is a good
indicator of how big a rocky planet has been before it can pull itself into a
spherical shape.

Unknown 8:06
Vesta is only 329 miles across. quite big enough to become a sphere. For dwelling
planets become round, it has to reach 500 miles across, then it has enough gravity
to crash into a sphere any smaller that it stays with irregular shape. As around
infant planets keep eating up stuff. Each collision makes them hotter and hotter
until they start to melt. Now, gravity begins to separate the heavy stuff from the
light.

Unknown 8:46
Lighter materials tend to float up into crusty film and the heavier materials. Many
of the metals falling down and forming a much denser core the center of the planet.

Unknown 9:02
The young planets are finally beginning to look like planets. But now they have to
survive a period of violence and destruction. A brutal phase that determines which
planets will live and which planets will die. After the birth of the sun. Our eight
planets all evolved from the same cloud of dust and gas. And yet, they ended up
completely different. There was no rule blueprint for each of the newborn planets.
They did obey the laws of physics and chemistry, but the most important things
happen by pure chance. 4.5 billion years ago, around 100 baby planets circled our
cylinder

Unknown 10:04
turned into a demolition derby planet get planet, most were destroyed.

Unknown 10:14
The early history of these planets would have been very, very violent, with lots of
these impacts taking place in the final stages of the growth of each planet. As
these impacts took place as objects ran into each other, certain objects began to
grow at the expense of all the others in this swarm of planetesimals. And these
planets, these these things that would become planets grew and grew. And as they
got bigger, they swept up. All the smaller planet testaments around them,
consequences on the surface of that proto planet being an enormous amount of
bombardment, by debris from space.

Unknown 10:58
When it was over, all that was left were four very different rocky planets.

Unknown 11:07
Each planets impact history left its stamp, and that's why they're also different
from each other.

Unknown 11:13
Mars, the frozen wasteland, flows with liquid water. Venus with a volcanic
hellhole. And Mercury is tiny, bleak, super hot. The results of a monster
collusion.

Unknown 11:47
Mercury, for example, is extremely dense and has a very thin crust. So it's
possible it started off as a bigger planet. And then something hit it at an angle.
And it sheared off the lighter weight crust leaving only the dense core. The young
earth also took a big hit.

Unknown 12:16
Some time lead in its development, the earth was impacted by another object that
ripped debris out of Earth's mantle. Which then went into orbit around the Earth
and re accumulated to form what is now

Unknown 12:52
there's also evidence that something crashed into Mars. The northern hemisphere has
a thinner crust than the southern.

Unknown 13:05
A theory that is emerged for how this happened is that early in planet's history,
the northern hemisphere of Mars was whacked by some object that blasted a lot of
the crust off. We accumulated on the southern half of Mars.

Unknown 13:33
All these conditions did two things. They cut down the number of surviving infant
planets. And they brought more ingredients to the survivors.

Unknown 13:46
If you had a collision with something that was metal rich, those chunks would tend
to descend down into what was becoming the core. Where if you collide with
something like icy, they would tend to just float about and form part of the crust
instead.

Unknown 14:12
The four rocky planets close to the sun were almost complete. They had a solid hot
iron core, surrounded by a layer of liquid iron, all wrapped in a jacket of molten
rock. Above that, an outer surface crust. These rocky planets all formed in the
same basic way from the same basic stuff. But each of them was very different.
Different sizes and very different destinies. Spread This may look empty. But it's
not. It's full of stuff blown out of the sun. The sun generates powerful magnetic
fields that rise above the surface in giant loops. When they clash, it triggers a
storm of super hot, highly charged particles blasting out into space. It's called
the solar wind after knots in space, when they close their eyes

Unknown 15:43
occasionally you see a little flash drive shut. And that is an energetic particle
coming through your head and interacting with the fluid inside your eye, and it
makes a little light flash, can you see these every couple of minutes or so that
you're awake with your eyes shut.

Unknown 16:01
If the astronauts were exposed to a lot more of the solar wind, it could be a
killer

Unknown 16:07
during the Apollo program, in between two of the moon missions, there was an
outburst on the sun that would have killed the astronauts if they had been there.
So space radiation is a serious business.

Unknown 16:22
With Your Honor, the solar wind isn't much of a threat. Because we have an
invisible protective shield, a magnetic field generated by the planet's core.

Unknown 16:39
the very center of the earth is the solid inner core, hard iron, crystal and ball.
Then there's a thick layer of liquid iron, which is convecting churning motions,
which give rise to the magnetic field.

Unknown 17:01
Well, that's the theory. Prove that an iron core can generate a magnetic shield,
scientists built their own planet in a lab. This 10 foot 26 tons fear simulates
conditions deep inside the earth. A metal ball in the center. Max is the planet's
inner core. Liquid sodium spins around it at 90 miles an hour, imitating the
effects of molten metal spinning around the earth's core.

Unknown 17:44
We built this experiment to try to generate a magnetic field to attempt to
understand why the earth has a magnetic field and why other planets do not have
magnetic fields.

Unknown 17:56
It works like the generator in your car, where rotating coils of wire produce
electricity. Experiment liquid sodium churns around the core and generates a
magnetic field.

Unknown 18:14
It's very much like an electrical generator you have motion that is able to
generate magnetic fields by turning the energy the motion into magnetic energy.

Unknown 18:27
The same thing happens deep inside the earth. As the Earth spins, the hot liquid
metal flows around the solid core, transforming its energy into a magnetic field
that emerges from the poles.
Unknown 18:46
that protects the planet's atmosphere from the solar red. And if the planet has a
magnetic field, that solar wind will be diverted around the planet by the magnetic
field.

Unknown 19:01
The magnetic field to flex the solar wind around the planet, protecting the
atmosphere and everything on earth surface. Sometimes big storms of solar
radiation, we'll mix it up with the magnetic field. Then we get big light shows
over the poles, the aurorus.

Unknown 19:28
Without a magnetic force field, the solar wind would blast away Earth's atmosphere
and water leaving the dead arid planet

Unknown 19:42
a lot like Mars.

Unknown 19:47
Mars formed just like Earth, but today it's cold and dry with little atmosphere. So
why are the two planets now difference. In 2004, NASA sent two robot explorers to
Mars to find out. The rovers named Spirit and Opportunity explored miles of the
Martian surface. They confirm that Mars is a dry and hostile desert, with only 1%
the atmosphere of Earth. But they did find evidence of water in the past. Mars was
not always a desert,

Unknown 20:34
we have found compelling evidence that water was once beneath the surface came to
the surface and evaporated away. We also see in a few places ripples preserved of
the sort that are formed when water flows over sand. So not only the water exists
below the surface, heating flowed across the surface.

Unknown 20:58
If Mars had water once, it probably also had a thick atmosphere. So what happened?
We can see that Mars once had active volcanoes. So it had a hot interior at some
point. And because it was made of the same stuff as Earth, it would have had a hot
iron core surrounded by liquid metal at its center. So it should have had a
magnetic field to question is, where did it go?

Unknown 21:28
Early in the planet's history, Mars apparently had a strong magnetic field. And it
was probably caused in the same way as it is on Earth. But Mars is a smaller planet
than Earth, it's going to lose its heat more rapidly as a consequence. What that
means is that liquid core can freeze solid, freeze the core solid, the convection
will stop. The convection stops the magnetic field.

Unknown 21:59
As the magnetic shield died, the solar wind blasted away the atmosphere and the
water evaporated. Mars became a cold, barren planet. Mars, earth, Venus, and
Mercury, the rocky planets all formed within 150 million miles of the sun. But four
times farther out, the sun baked a very different kinds of planets. They're
gigantic. They're made of gas. And these monsters have no solid surfaces at all.

Unknown 22:40
So far, astronomers have discovered over 400 new planets orbiting far off solar
systems. Nearly all of them are gigantic, and made of gas. We have four of these so
called gas giants in our own solar system.
Unknown 23:08
Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune, which all had these very thick, very soupy
atmospheres, lots of hydrogen, lots of Helium, lots of methane.

Unknown 23:22
Why are these outer four made of gas when the inner walls are rocking? It all has
to do with location 500 billion miles from the sun. It's very cold. At the start of
the solar system, there was some dust, but mostly gas and water frozen in ice
greens.

Unknown 23:51
Where the giant planet started to form. It was cold enough to get solid snow. We
think we were able to make ice snowflakes. And these things were able to clump
together to form the cores of the giant planets. We think that's maybe why the
giant planets got to be so big.

Unknown 24:09
There was so much ice and gas. Their cores grew huge, around 10 times larger than
the Earth. These giant cores generated a lot of gravity. They had so much pulling
power. They sucked in all the surrounding gas and built up thick soupy atmospheres
10s of 1000s of miles deep. The larger they got, the more gravity they generated.
More and more dust and debris got pulled in towards the planets. And this became
the building blocks of their movements. Jupiter and Saturn have over 60 moons each
The gas planets have another special feature rings.

Unknown 25:08
Saturn is unique among the planets and then it has this gorgeous ring system. It
turns out Jupiter and Uranus Neptune they have ring systems as well, but they're
really weak and pathetic and extremely hard to detect.

Unknown 25:22
But they are there. All four of the gas giants have rings. But Saturdays are the
most obvious. From a distance Saturn's rings look like a single flat disk. However,
there are actually 1000s of separate reports, each only a few miles wide. When the
Cassini probe flew past, it detected billions of pieces of ice and cosmic Rubble,
orbiting inside the reigns at speeds of up to 50,000 miles an hour. These bits of
ice and rock constantly crash into each other. Some grow into tiny movements,
others smash apart. But they never form into larger because Saturn's immense
gravity tears them apart. Scientists are only just beginning to figure out how the
rings formed in the first place. The theory goes like this. a comet smashed into a
moon and knocked it out of its orbit and closer to the planet.

Unknown 26:37
Saturn's gravity tore it to pieces. And all of that debris got trapped around the
planet. But the real mysteries of the gas giants lie deep inside 10s of 1000s of
miles beneath the clouds. This is where the real action is. It's a place so
extreme. It challenges the laws of nature.

Unknown 27:18
Most of the new planets we're finding around distant stars are gas giants. They're
so huge. They make Jupiter look small. But what goes on inside all gas giant
planets, both in our solar system and way up there is a mystery We know Jupiter's
dense atmosphere is 40,000 miles deep. And we can see high speed bands of gas,
creating violent storms that rage across its surface. But what we don't know is
what's going on, deep inside, far beneath the storms. To find out, NASA launched
the spacecraft, Galileo on a 14 year mission to Jupiter.

Unknown 28:07
ignition and liftoff December 7 1995. Galileo dropped a probe that dove into
Jupiter's atmosphere at 160,000 miles an hour. parachutes slowed it down, as it
dropped through the thick atmosphere. It detected lightning in the clouds and winds
of 450 miles an hour. The probe transmitted data back to Earth for 58 minutes.

Unknown 28:57
So people have asked me what happened to the GALILEO probe that we dropped in, it
didn't hit anything. It just fell continually into the Jupiter environment and the
pressure increased and increased and increased

Unknown 29:12
as a descendant of recorded pressures 23 times greater than on the temperatures of
over 300 degrees.

Unknown 29:25
You're in the gas giant environment and you go deeper and deeper into this hydrogen
soup that has no solid surface. It nevertheless can Have any weight, and so
eventually you would be crushed by the overlying weight of the material that's
there.

Unknown 29:42
Even though the probe is set for only 124 miles before it was crushed, it gave
scientists the glimpse of Jupiter's interior. But the dark heart of the planet
still remains a mystery. Like some rocky planets, the gas giants have a magnetic
field too. But these are off the charts. Jupiter's magnetic field is 20,000 times
more powerful than Earth's. And so huge. It extends all the way to Saturn, more
than 400 million miles away. Like on Earth, the magnetic field to flex the solar
wind and protects Jupiter's atmosphere. When scientists study Jupiter's magnetic
field, they discovered it was affecting Jupiter's moons. The volcanic moon IO
orbits only 217,000 miles from the planet. Iowa's volcanoes blast a ton of gas and
dust into space every second Jupiter's magnetic field supercharges, creating
powerful belts of radiation.

Unknown 31:15
And that makes the vicinity of Jupiter very active in many different ways. If you
point, a radio antenna Jupiter, when it can hear all sorts of interactions
happening between the planets magnetic field.

Unknown 31:30
This is the sound of Jupiter's magnetic field. Jupiter and Saturn don't need the
solar wind to make auroras. They have huge magnetic fields that create their own.
The Chandra Space Telescope took these images of Jupiter's awards at NASA's Cassini
probe took these beautiful pictures of auroras on Saturday. These rotors are proof
that gas planets have magnetic fields to gas planets generate magnetic fields. On
Earth, a super hot liquid metal spinning around the planets solid iron core does
the job. Gas planets probably do roughly the same thing. But gas planets don't have
hot iron course. They've formed around frozen cores of dust and ice. So, exactly
what's going on? Deep inside is a mystery.

Unknown 32:49
At the very deepest interior of Jupiter, we really don't understand what composes
those deep interior state. So it could be that the very center of Jupiter, it has a
solid core. Or it could actually just be still fluid.

Unknown 33:15
We may never find out. No prob could ever make the 44,000 miles Need to the planet
center to investigate. Galileo was crushed before he got in We're near the planet's
core. So now, scientists are recreating Jupiter's interior. Right here and alive. I
have on earth here at the National Ignition Facility in Livermore, California.
They're simulating Jupiter's core using the world. The most powerful laser
Unknown 33:50
This facility is really designed to compress hydrogen to extreme densities and
temperatures

Unknown 34:01
Inside Jupiter, extreme pressures are created by the way Have 40,000 miles Hydrogen
Gas crushing down on the core in the lab, it's done by focusing one 192 laser beams
on a tie The sample of hydrogen As the pressure in the Sample reach There's over a
million times the surface pressure on earth In the hydro It turns into a liquid But
when it reaches 10s of millions Sometimes the pressure or Like at Jupiter school Or
something like weird happens to the hydrogen

Unknown 34:43
The pressure is so great that it actually rearrange. Just the hydrogen which is a
very basic molecule until it is able to conduct so it changes the structure of h2
into a metallic form

Unknown 34:59
scientists This is what's happening inside Jupiter pressure and heat. have
transformed the planet's core intermetallic hydrogenic Jupiter's metallic Core
works. The iron core in the earth It gender rates the gas planets. gigantic
magnetic field

Unknown 35:26
gravity and heat shape how planets evolve from their inner cores to their outer
atmospheres. They're the great creative forces in planet building.

Unknown 35:40
But there's another ingredient that has a lot to do with how planets turned out.

Unknown 35:48
And that ingredient is water.

Unknown 35:56
Planets may seem fixed and unchanging, but they never stop evolving. In our own
solar system, one lost its atmosphere and became a barren wasteland.

Unknown 36:10
Another heated up became the planet from hell.

Unknown 36:17
Planet Earth is changed as well, in the game changer.

Unknown 36:22
was wondering.

Unknown 36:27
When you look at Earth space, you see a lot of water.

Unknown 36:31
We are the blue planet after all, so it must be really wet. Right?

Unknown 36:39
It looks at first glance that our Earth, of course covered three quarters by
oceans, it's a very water rich world. Not true. The earth by mass is only 0.06%
water through some water on the surface, the form of oceans, some water trapped in
the mantle. But actually Earth is a relatively dry rock.
Unknown 37:06
All of the inner rocky planets for very close to the sun.

Unknown 37:11
So they started off dry.

Unknown 37:17
Water they might have had evaporated away, or it was blown away by impacts.

Unknown 37:26
These massive collisions that formed the earth were so energetic.

Unknown 37:32
That no any water that had been here would have been vaporized and lost from the
earth.

Unknown 37:43
So where did Earth get all the new water we have today?

Unknown 37:49
It moved here.

Unknown 37:52
When you look farther out, and you look at Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune,
those planets have enormous amounts of water locked up inside them.

Unknown 38:06
And even more dramatically, are the moons the moons of Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and
Neptune are at least 50% water.

Unknown 38:18
There was a lot of water out there. So how did some of it get to planet earth?

Unknown 38:26
And the answer almost certainly, is that left farther out in our solar system. Were
some asteroids and some comets, far enough from the sun, that they could retain
their water.

Unknown 38:42
Millions of these watery comets and asteroids came flying into the inner solar
system.

Unknown 38:49
And some of them smashed into Earth.

Unknown 38:55
Over the aeons, the earth acquired the water that had been a part of the asteroids.

Unknown 39:03
And that indeed, makes up the mass of water that nearly covers the earth today.

Unknown 39:16
But the amount of water that was delivered, was the luck of the draw.

Unknown 39:22
couldn't it have been the case that the Earth would have acquired maybe half as
much water as it did? If so, the Earth would be nearly dry on its surface. If not
completely dry, the sponge of the interior soaking up
Unknown 39:36
The rest of the water

Unknown 39:39
those surface water would have meant no life.

Unknown 39:44
And what about too much water?

Unknown 39:47
We would be a water world.

Unknown 39:50
The oceans much deeper covering the continents, even Mount Everest. And so you can
ask them if the earth were covered by water only having twice as much as it
currently has. Would we have had a planet that was suitable for technological life.

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