3.

3 Differential Form of Maxwell's Equations 41

Given an electric field (its units V 1m are deleted for clarity)

E(x.y.z) = Ex ax + Ey a y + E z a z

E(x.y.z) = 2x2 ax + y2 xay + 2zyaz (3-35)

then differentiation of its components according to the rules

above readily yields

curl E(x.y.z) = 2zax + y 2 a z (3-36)

The vortex density at a particular field point P(xv.Yv.zv) is ob-

tained upon insertion of its coordinates.

Alternative notation:

The vortex density of a vector field can also be written as a de-

terminant

curl E(x.y.z) =

(3-37)

Evaluating the determinant yields the vortex density in terms of

its components as given previously.

Frequently. the "del" notation is used:

curl E = 'i1 x E ('i1: "del". or "nabla"). (3-38)

 3 Field Theory Equations

That is. the vortex density is calculated from the cross product
of the vector del (differential-operator)

(3-39)

and the vector field considered. yielding again the component

representation given above.

Other coordinate systems call for similar rules (see A3).

3.3.2 Ampere's Circuital Law in Differential Form

Vortex Density of Magnetic Vortex-Fields

We begin with the integral form of Ampere"s law

f H • dr = I = JJ . dS . (3-40)
C 8

Using the same reasoning as applied to Faraday"s induction law

in the previous section. we take the limit of the ratio of vortex
strength to contoured area and obtain:

~H.dr JJ.dS
j . £18
curl H = lim D£18 .t1S = hm D£18 -.t1":""S=--- =J
£1S-+0 £1S-+0

curlH=J
(3-41)
3.3 Differential Form of Maxwell's Equations 43

At each field point. the vortex density equals the local total
current density. In formal analogy with the electric field the
component representation yields

_ (aHz _ ~) (aHX aHz) (~_ aHx)

curI H - dy
_
az ax + az ax a y + ax dy az . (3-42)

Moreover. all other statements made at the end of the previous

section apply in much the same way to the vortex density of the
magnetic field.

To summarize. it can be stated that the left sides of both partial

differential equations for the vortex denSities of electric and
magnetic vortex fields possess great formal similarity and that
these definitions are encountered in similar form in many other
disciplines as well. For a general vector field X:

vortex denSity
curl
curl X = V x X vorticity
rot(European. except GB)

(3-43)

Let the function X (x.y.z) describe a vector field and let us take
its curl. If the result is identically zero throughout space the
vector field X is vortex-free. in other words. X is a source field.
The statement curl X (xv.Yv.zv) = 0 indicates that the particular
field point P(xv.Yv.zv) is vortex-free. Figure 3.9.
44 3 Field Theory Equations
.
B

curl E =0

Figure 3.9: Illustration of the attribute "vortex-free": outside the

iron core the electric vortex field is vortex- and source-
free.

Moreover, curl X = 0 at a particular field point P(xv.yv,zv) or in a

limited region does not necessarily indicate that we have a
source field instead of a vortex field, merely that the region
considered does not contain vortices. If a problem implies eo
ipso a pure source field Xs (r) we always have curl Xs (r) =O.

3.3.3 Divergence of the Electric Field

Source Density of Electric Fields

We begin with the integral form of Gauss's law for electric fields

pD. dS = Q (3-44)
S

This equation claims that the net electric flux '¥ leaving or
entering a closed surface equals the charge contained in the
volume considered. The integral's value is a measure for the
source strength of an electric field. One may want to determine
the source strength of a field at a particular field point by
allowing the volume to shrink to zero, unfortunately, the
contained flux also will tend towards zero. To avoid this
difficulty, one must conSider the ratio of flux to volume, whose
3.3 Differential Form of Maxwell's Equations 4S

limit remains finite. This limit is apparently a characteristic

property of the field point in question. To obtain this limit, we
first calculate the net flux out of a small volume l:!.Vand relate
this flux to the volume. The limit of this ratio, as l:!.Vapproaches
zero, is called source density or divergence of the field at that
particular point

pD. dS
l:!.s = lim ..Q...-
div D = lim l:!.V l:!.V- p
~s -+ 0 ~s -+0

or

div D =P
(3-45)

The source density div D at any point of an electric field equals

the local charge density. The source density of a discrete field
point P(rv) is a scalar, Pv = div Dv. The source densities of all
field pOints form a scalar field per). As with the curl, this
transition is accomplished in practice by simple partial
differentiation of the electric flux density according to simple
rules applicable in the respective coordinate systems.

In a Cartesian coordinate system we have

aD aD aD
divD = ax ax + ay ay + az az (3-46)
or
aDx aDy aDz
div D = ax + ay + az = P (x.y,z) (3-47)

The following example may serve as an illustration:

D(x,y,z) =Dxax + Dyay + Dzaz = Oax + xyay - xzaz

div D = x - x = 0
46 3 Field Theory Equations

Hence, p = O.

Alternative notation for divergence:

div D = V· D (V: "del", or "Nabla") (3-48)

The divergence is calculated from the scalar product of the

vector (differential operator) del

(3-49)

and the vector field considered.

Other coordinate systems call for Similar rules (see A 3).

From a given charge density and volume the associated charge

can be calculated any time by means of a volume integral,

Q = JPdV
v
(3-50)

In this instant, it can be readily understood why point charges

are merely a convenient fiction. Rigorously, due to V=O, only a
charge density can be associated with a pOint.

3.3.4 Divergence of Magnetic Fields

Source Density of Magnetic Fields

We begin with the integral form of Gauss's law for the magnetic
field
3.3 Differential Form or Maxwell's Equations 47

~ B· dS = 0 (4-51)
S

This equation claims that in a magnetic field equally many flux:

lines leave as enter a closed surface, i.e. that the net flux:
through a closed surfac~ is always zero. The closed surface does
not contain sources of a magnetic field in terms of Chapter 2
(see also 3.1.4). Magnetic field lines are solenOidal, in other
words, there exist no monopolar magnetic charges from which
field lines in all directions would radially expand.

If one intends to demonstrate the absence of a source at a

particular point of a magnetic field, allowing the contoured
volume to shrink to zero, the same difficulties arise as in the
previous section. Therefore, we form again the ratio of flux: to
volume and determine its limit as ll.V approaches zero. Then we
obtain for the source denSity or divergence of the magnetic
field

~ B·dS
div B = lim ~s ll.V
o
= lim ll.V = 0
~v-+o ~v -+ 0

div B= 0
(3-52)

In a Cartesian coordinate system we have

divB (3-53)
48 3 Field Theory Equations

The divergence div B of a magnetic field always equals zero, i.e.

magnetic fields are source-free; magnetic field lines are sol-
enoidal.

Moreover, all other statements made at the end of the previous

section apply in much the same way.

3.4 Law of Continuity in Differential Form

Source Density of Current-Density Fields

We start with the integral form of the law of continuity for the
total current (3.2)

P(Jc + Jd) • dS = 0 (3-54)

s

It indicates that the source strength of the total-current density

is identically zero. If one attempts to demonstrate the absence
of a source at a particular paint, allowing the contoured volume
to shrink to zero, the same difficulties arise as in Sections 3.3.3
and 3.3.4. Therefore· we form again the ratio flux to volume and
determine its limit as ~v .approaches zero. Then we obtain the
source density or divergence at a point

P(Jc +Jd)· dS
div J = div (Jc + J d) = lim =s_-~.,....,v=-=--- =0
6.V -+ 0

div J = div (Jc + Jdl =0

(3-55)
3.4 Law of Continuity in Differential Form 49

This is the differential form of the law of continuity of the total

current.

Expressed in a Cartesian coordinate system we have

aJx aJy aJ z
div J = ax + ay + az = 0 (3-56)

The divergence of the total-current field is always zero; the

total-current field is source-free in the sense of Chapter 2. On
boundaries of dielectrics, conduction-current-density lines be-
come displacement-current-density lines. Current-density lines
of the total current are always solenoidal (recall Figure 3.3 and
3.7)

If we imagine a field point inside a conductor, for example in a

busbar where the displacement current can always be neglected
over the conduction current ( IJ d I « IJ c I ), we fmd

div J c =0
(3-57)

This is the special law of continuity for problems involving ex-

clusively conduction current densities. It represents the source
.density of pure conduction fields J c (r).

If we further imagine a field point in the vicinity of an antenna

where the conduction current can always be neglected over the
displacement current ( IJcl « IJdl ), we find

divJd = 0
(3-58)

This is the special law of continuity for problems involving ex-

clusively displacement currents. It represents the source
density of pure displacement fields Jd(r).

Frequently, the differential form of the law of continuity for the

total current is encountered with the displacement current
50 3 Field Theory Equations

density replaced by the time rate-of-change of the charge

density at a particular point, i.e. dp/dt.

In order to obtain this form we transpose the displacement

component to the equation's right side and put the differen-
tiation with respect to time in front of the differential operator
diy,

div J c = - div J d = - div ~~ = - :t div D (3-59)

With div D = P we finally obtain

ap
div J c = - at
(3-60)

This is the differential form of the law oj conservation oj charge.

It relates the source density of the conduction current density
to the variation of the charge density at a particular field point.

We note that the differential form of the law of continuity of the

total-current density can be expressed in terms of a time-
varying charge density as well as in terms of the displacement
current density Jd (defined as the time rate-of-change of the
electric flux-density).

In general,

d",
Id -- -dt or (3-61)

Hence, the time-varying electric flux density originating from a

variation of charge density and the displacement current