BASICS OF COMPUTER

INDEX

1. INTRODUCTION

02
i) What is a computer
ii) Input-Process-Output Model
iii) Characteristics of Computer
iv) Advantages of Using a Computer
v) Disadvantages of Using a Computer
 Booting
 Cold Booting
 Warm Booting
2.
3.

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INTRODUCTION
1. What is a Computer?
 A computer is an electronic device that receives
input, stores or processes the input as per user
instructions and provides output in desired
format.
 Computers have become an integral part of our
lives because they can accomplish easy tasks
repeatedly without getting bored and complex
ones repeatedly without committing errors.
 The literal meaning of computer is a device that
can calculate. However, modern computers can
do a lot more than calculate.
 Computer is an electronic device that receives
input, stores or processes the input as per user
instructions and provides output in desired
format.
2. Input-Process-Output Model
 Computer input is called data and the output
obtained after processing it, based on user’s
instructions is called information.
 Raw facts and figures which can be processed
using arithmetic and logical operations to
obtain information are called data.
The processes that can be applied to data are of two
types −
 Arithmetic operations − Examples include
calculations like addition, subtraction, differentials,
square root, etc.
 Logical operations − Examples include
comparison operations like greater than, less than,
equal to, opposite, etc. The corresponding figure for
an actual computer looks something like this −
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The basic parts of a computer are as follows −
1. Input Unit − Devices like keyboard and
mouse that are used to input data and instructions
to the computer are called input unit.
2. Output Unit − Devices like printer and visual
display unit that are used to provide information to
the user in desired format are called output unit.
3. Control Unit − As the name suggests, this
unit controls all the functions of the computer. All
devices or parts of computer interact through the
control unit.
4. Arithmetic Logic Unit − This is the brain of
the computer where all arithmetic operations and
logical operations take place.
5. Memory − All input data, instructions and
data interim to the processes are stored in the
memory. Memory is of two types – primary
memory and secondary memory. Primary
memory resides within the CPU whereas
secondary memory is external to it.
Control unit, arithmetic logic unit and memory
are together called the Central Processing
Unit or CPU.
Hardware
Computer devices like keyboard, mouse,
printer, etc. that we can see and touch are
the hardware components of a
computer.
Software
The set of instructions or programs that
make the computer function using these
hardware parts are called software. We
cannot see or touch software.
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Both hardware and software are necessary for
working of a computer.
3. Characteristics of Computer
To understand why computers are such an important
part of our lives, let us look at some of its
characteristics
a) Speed- Typically, a computer can carry out 3-4
million instructions per second
b) Accuracy- Computers exhibit a very high degree
of accuracy. Errors that may occur are usually
due to inaccurate data, wrong instructions or bug
in chips – all human errors.
c) Reliability − Computers can carry out same type
of work repeatedly without throwing up errors
due to tiredness or boredom, which are very
common among humans
d) Versatility - Computers can carry out a wide
range of work from data entry and ticket booking
to complex mathematical calculations and
continuous astronomical observations. If you can
input the necessary data with correct instructions,
computer will do the processing.
e) Storage Capacity − Computers can store a very
large amount of data at a fraction of cost of
traditional storage of files. Also, data is safe from
normal wear and tear associated with paper.
4. Advantages of Using Computer
1. Computers can do the same task repetitively
with same accuracy.
2. Computers do not get tired or bored.
3. Computers can take up routine tasks while
releasing human resource for more intelligent
functions.
5. Disadvantages of Using Computer
Despite so many advantages, computers have
some disadvantages of their own −
1. Computers have no intelligence; they follow
the instructions blindly without considering
the outcome.
2. Regular electric supply is necessary to make
computers work, which could prove difficult
everywhere especially in developing nations.
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Booting
Starting a computer or a computer-
embedded device is called booting. Booting
takes place in two steps−
1. Switching on power supply
2. Loading operating system into computer’s
main memory
3. Keeping all applications in a state of
readiness in case needed by the user
The first program or set of instructions
that run when the computer is switched on is
called BIOS or Basic Input Output System.
BIOS is a firmware, i.e. a piece of software
permanently programmed into the hardware.
If a system is already running but needs to be
restarted, it is called rebooting. Rebooting
may be required if a software or hardware has
been installed or system is unusually slow.
There are two types of booting −
Cold Booting − When the system is started by
switching on the power supply it is called cold
booting. The next step in cold booting is
loading of BIOS.
Warm Booting − When the system is already
running and needs to be restarted or rebooted,
it is called warm booting. Warm booting is
faster than cold booting because BIOS is not
reloaded.
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BOOTING

1) You turn the computer on. 8) This allows the CPU to have immediate
2) The computer loads data from read-only access to the operating system, which
memory (ROM) and performs a power-on self- enhances the performance and functionality of
test (POST) to make sure all the major the overall system.
components are functioning properly.
3) As part of this test, the memory
controller checks all of the memory addresses
with a quick read/write operation to ensure that
there are no errors in the memory chips.
4) Read/write means that data is written to a bit and
then read from that bit.
5) The computer loads the basic input/output
system (BIOS) from ROM. The BIOS provides
the most basic information about storage devices,
boot sequence, security, Plug and Play (auto
device recognition) capability and a few other
items.
6) The computer loads the operating system (OS)
from the hard drive into the system's RAM.
7) Generally, the critical parts of the operating
system are maintained in RAM as long as the
computer is on.

What is POST
 A Power On Self-Test is the first step of the boot sequence.
 It doesn't matter if you've just restarted your computer or if you've just powered it on for the first
time in days; the POST is going to run, regardless.
 POST doesn't rely on any specific operating system.
 In fact, there doesn't even need to be an OS installed on a hard drive for the POST to run.
 This is because the test is handled by the system's BIOS, not any installed software.
 A Power On Self-Test checks that basic system devices are present and working properly, like
the keyboard and other peripheral devices, and other hardware elements like the processor,
storage devices, and memory.
 The computer will continue to boot after the POST but only if it was successful.
 Problems can certainly appear after the POST, like Windows hanging during startup, but most of
the time those can be attributed to an operating system or software problem, not a hardware one.
 If the POST finds something wrong during its test, you'll usually get an error of some kind, and
hopefully, one clear enough to help jump-start the troubleshooting process.

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HISTORY OF
COMPUTERS
 The first counting device was used by the (b) Napier's Bones
primitive people.  It was a manually-operated calculating
 They used sticks, stones and bones as counting device which was invented by John
tools. Napier (1550) in 1617 of Merchiston.
 As human mind and technology improved with  In this calculating tool, he used 9 different
time more computing devices were developed. ivory strips or bones marked with
 Some of the popular computing devices starting numbers to multiply and divide.
with the first to recent ones are described below  So, the tool became known as "Napier's
Bones.
(a) Abacus  It was also the first machine to use the
 The history of computer begins with the birth of decimal point.
abacus which is believed to be the first computer.
 It is said that Chinese invented Abacus around
4,000 years ago.
 It was a wooden rack which has metal rods with
beads mounted on them.
 The beads were moved by the abacus operator
according to some rules to perform arithmetic
calculations.
 Abacus is still used in some countries like China,
Russia and Japan. An image of this tool is shown
below;

(c) Pascaline
 Pascaline is also known as Arithmetic
Machine or Adding Machine.
 It was invented between 1642 and 1644 by
a French mathematician-philosopher
Blaise Pascal. It is believed that it was the
first mechanical and automatic
calculator.
 Pascal invented this machine to help his
father, a tax accountant. It could only
perform addition and subtraction.

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(d) Stepped Reckoner or Leibnitz wheel
 It was developed by a German mathematician-
philosopher Gottfried Wilhelm Leibnitz in 1673.
 He improved Pascal's invention to develop this
machine.
 It was a digital mechanical calculator which was
called the stepped reckoner as instead of gears it
was made of fluted drums. See the following
image;
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(e) Difference Engine
 In the early 1820s, it was designed by
Charles Babbage who is known as
"Father of Modern Computer".
 It was a mechanical computer which
could perform simple calculations.
 It was a steam driven calculating machine
designed to solve tables of numbers like
logarithm tables
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(f) Analytical Engine
 This calculating machine was also
developed by Charles Babbage in 1830.
 It was a mechanical computer that used
punch-cards as input.
 It was capable of solving any
mathematical problem and storing
information as a permanent memory.
(g) Tabulating Machine
 It was invented in 1890, by Herman
Hollerith, an American statistician.
 It was a mechanical tabulator based on
punch cards.
 It could tabulate statistics and record or
sort data or information.
 This machine was used in the 1890 U.S.
Census. Hollerith also started the
Hollerith’s Tabulating Machine
Company which later became
International Business Machine (IBM)
in 1924.
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(h) Differential Analyzer
 It was the first electronic computer
introduced in the United States in 1930.
 It was an analog device invented by
Vannevar Bush.
 This machine has vacuum tubes to switch
electrical signals to perform calculations.
 It could do 25 calculations in few minutes.
(i) Mark I
 The next major changes in the history of
computer began in 1937 when Howard
Aiken planned to develop a machine that
could perform calculations involving
large numbers.
 In 1944, Mark I computer was built as a
partnership between IBM and Harvard.
 It was the first programmable digital
computer.
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Machine Machine
S.No. Machine Invented By DOB Year Nature
Used Perform
4000 Metal rods Arithmetic
1 Abacus Chinese -
years ago and beads operations
Napier 9 Ivory Strips Multiplication
2 John Napier 1550 1617 -
Bones or Bones and Division
Wooden box
Blaise Addition and
3 Pascaline 1623 1642-1644 with gears -
Pascal Subtraction
and metals
Stepped
Gottfried Digital
Reckoner Addition and
4 Wilhelm 1646 1673 Fluted Drums Mechanical
or Leibnitz Subtraction
Leibnitz Calculator
Wheel
Logarithm
Difference Charles Early Tables and Mechanical
5 1791 Steam Driven
Engine Babbage 1820s Simple Computer
Calculations
Any Maths
Analytical Charles Problem and Mechanical
6 1791 1830 Punch Cards
Engine Babbage storing Computer
Information
Tabulate and
Tabulating Herman Mechanical
7 1860 1890 Punch Cards Sort Data or
Machine Hollerith Tabulator
information
25
Differential Vannevar Vacuum calculations Electronic
8 1890 1930
Analyzer Bush tubes in few Computer
Minutes.
Calculations Programmable
Howard
9 Mark I 1900 1944 involving Digital
Aiken
large numbers Computer

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GENERATIONS

 In 1946, electronic pathways called circuits  Produced Lot of Heat

were developed to perform the counting.  Slow Input/output Device
 It replaced the gears and other mechanical  Supported machine language only
parts used for counting in previous computing  Huge in Size
machines.  Ac was required
 In each new generation, the circuits became  Non Portable
smaller and more advanced than the previous  Consumed Lot of Electricity
generation circuits.
 The miniaturization helped increase the speed,  Second Generation Computers (1952-1964)
memory and power of computers.  The second generation was the era of the
 There are five generations of computers which transistor computers.
are described below
 These computers used transistors which
were cheap, compact and consuming less
 First Generation Computers (1942-54) power; it made computers faster than the
 The first generation computers were slow, first generation computers.
huge and expensive.  In this generation, magnetic cores were
 In these computers, vacuum tubes were used used as the primary memory and
as the basic components of CPU and memory. magnetic disc and Tapes (Sequential
 These tubes are like electric bulbs producing access device) were used as the secondary
lot of heat and were prone to frequent fusing. storage.
 Therefore, were expensive and could be  Assembly language and programming
afforded by only large organizations. languages like COBOL and FORTRAN,
 Batch Operating Systems were introduced. and Batch Processing and
 Punched cards, Magnetic tape and paper tape Multiprogramming Operating Systems
were used as storage, output and input devices were used in these computers.
in this generation;  Some of the popular second generation
 Machine language (Machine code electric computers are;
wired board) was used. 1) IBM 1620
 Some of the popular first generation 2) IBM 7094
computers are; 3) CDC 1604
1) ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator 4) CDC 3600
and Computer) 5) UNIVAC 1108
2) EDVAC (Electronic Discrete Variable
Automatic Computer)  Summary
3) UNIVAC I (Universal Automatic  Use of Transistors
Computer)  Reliable
4) IBM-701  Smaller in size
5) IBM-650  Generate less heat Compared
 Consumed less electricity to I
 Summary  Faster
 Vacuum Tube Technology  AC needed
 Unreliable  Support machine level and ASSEMBLY
 Very Costly LANGUAGE

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 Third Generation Computers (1964-1972) DBASE were also used in this generation.
 The third generation computers used  Some of the popular fourth generation
Integrated Circuits (ICs) instead of computers are;
transistors. 1) DEC 10
 A single IC can pack huge number of 2) STAR 1000
transistors which increased the power of a 3) PDP 11
computer and reduced the cost. 4) CRAY-1(Super Computer)
 The computers also became more reliable, 5) CRAY-X-MP(Super Computer)
efficient and smaller in size.
 These generation computers used remote  Summary
processing, time-sharing, multi  VLSI Used
programming as operating system.  Very Cheap
 Also, the high-level programming  Very Small Size
languages like FORTRAN-II TO IV,  Portable and Reliable
COBOL, PASCAL PL/1, ALGOL-68 were  Ac was not needed
used in this generation.  Supported High Level Language (C,
 Some of the popular third generation C++)
computers are;  Network Distributed OS used
1) IBM-360 series  Used as PCs
2) Honeywell-6000 series  Concept of Internet was Introduced
3) PDP (Personal Data Processor)  Computers became easily available
4) IBM-370/168
5) TDC-316
 Fifth Generation Computers
 In fifth generation (1980-till date)
 Summary
computers, the VLSI technology was
 IC used
replaced with ULSI (Ultra Large Scale
 More Reliable Integration).
 Smaller Size  It made possible the production of
 Generate less heat microprocessor chips with ten million
 Lesser Maintenance electronic components.
 Faster  These generation computers used parallel
 Costly processing hardware and AI (Artificial
 Ac Required Intelligence) software.
 Consume less Electricity  The programming languages used in this
 Support High level Language generation were C, C++, Java, .Net, etc.
 Some of the popular fifth generation
 Fourth Generation Computers (1971-1990) computers are;
 The fourth generation computers used very 1) Desktop
large scale integrated (VLSI) circuits; 2) Laptop
 A chip containing millions of transistors and 3) NoteBook
other circuit elements. 4) UltraBook
 These chips made these generation computers 5) ChromeBook
more compact, powerful, fast and affordable.
 These generation computers used real time,  Summary
time sharing and distributed operating system.  ULSI used
 The programming languages like C, C++,  Parallel Processing Hardware used

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 Development of Artificial Intelligence
 Development of Natural Language
 Advancement in Parallel Processing

Gen Heat
SN Electricity Languages
erat Year Based Size Cost Generat
o Consumption Supported
ion ion
1946- Lot of Huge Very Lot of
1 I Vacuum Tubes Machine
1959 Electricity Size Costly Heat

Less
Smaller
1959- Less Electricity Machine & Very Heat(co
2 II Transistor (compar
1965 (compared to I) Assembly Costly mpared
ed to I)
to I)
1965- Integrated Less
3 III Less Electricity High Level Smaller Costly
1971 Circuit Heat
1971- VLSI Less
4 IV Less Electricity High Level Small Cheap
1980 microprocessor Heat
1980- ULSI Less
5 V Less Electricity High Level Small Cheap
Till microprocessor Heat

SNo. Equipment Generation Invented By Year

1 Vacuum Tube I John Ambrose Fleming 1904
2 Transistor II William Shockley, John Bardeen, 1947
and Walter Brattain
3 IC(Integrated III Jack Kilby 1958
Circuits)

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CLASSIFICATION
OF COMPUTERS
 There are three basic kinds of computers.
 This is based on the hardware structure and
the way physical quantities are represented in
a computer.
 The following are the three types:
 Analog computers
 Digital computer
 Hybrid computers

Computer

Analog Digital Hybrid b) Digital Computers

a) Analog Computers
 Analog computers are used to process
analog data.
 Such type of data includes temperature,
pressure, speed weight, voltage, depth etc.
 These quantities are continuous and having
an infinite variety of values.
 It measures continuous changes in some
physical quantity e.g. The Speedometer of
a car measures speed, the change of
temperature is measured by
Thermometer, the weight is measured by
Weights machine.
 These computers are ideal in situations
where data can be accepted directly from
measuring instrument without having to
convert it into numbers or codes.
 A Digital Computer, as its name implies,
works with digits to represent numerals,
letters or other special symbols.
 Digital Computers operate on inputs which
are ON-OFF type and its output is also in
the form of ON-OFF signal.
 Normally, an ON is represented by a 1 and
an OFF is represented by a 0.
 So we can say that digital computers
process information which is based on the
presence or the absence of an electrical
charge or we prefer to say a binary 1 or 0.
a

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3) Mainframe Computer:
 It can handle millions and trillions of
Super Computer online transactions per second.
Digital Computer
 They are also quite expensive
 Mainframes are computers used by
Mainframe organizations like banks, airlines and
railways.
Computer  Important features of mainframes are −
 Big in size
 Hundreds times Faster than servers,
Mini Computer typically hundred megabytes per
second
 Very expensive
 Use proprietary OS provided by the
Micro Computer manufacturers
 In-built hardware, software and
firmware security features
 There are four different types of computers
when we classify them based on their 4) Super Computer:
performance and capacity these types of  They are the best in terms of processing
computers are discussed as under: capacity.
1) Micro computers  The most expensive ones these computers
2) Mini computers can process billions of instructions per
3) Mainframe computers second (1012 floating point operations per
4) Supercomputers second).
 Normally they will be used for
1) Micro Computer
applications which require intensive
 The invention of a microprocessor (single- numerical computations such as stock
chip CPU) gave birth to the much cheaper analysis weather forecasting etc.
microcomputer
 They are used for carrying out complex,
 They are further classified into different fast and time intensive calculations for
categories which are given as under: scientific and engineering applications.
 Desktop computers (personal computers)  Molecular mapping and research
 Laptop computers  Weather forecasting
 Handheld computers(PDAs)  Environmental research
 Oil and gas exploration
2) Mini Computer:
 Minicomputer is lower to a mainframe
computer in terms of speed and storage
capacity
 They are also less expensive than mainframe
computers
 Their performance also will be less than of
mainframe.

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c) Hybrid Computer
 A hybrid computer combines the desirable
features of analog and digital computers
 It is mostly used for automatic operations of
complicated physical processes and
machines.
 Nowadays analog to digital and digital to
analog converters are used for transforming
the data into a suitable form for either type of
computation
 For example, in hospital ICU analog devices
might measure the patient’s temperature
blood pressure and other vital signs these
measurements which are in analog might then
be converted into numbers and supplied to
digital components in the system these
components are used to monitor the patients
vital sign and send signals if any abnormal
reading is detected hybrid computers are
mainly used for specialized tasks.

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COMPUTER
COMPONENTS

 There are 5 main computer components that 4) Outputting: It is the process of presenting
are given below: the processed data through output devices like
1) Input Devices monitor, printer and speakers.
2) CPU
3) Output Devices 5) Controlling: This operation is performed
4) Primary Memory by the control unit that is part of CPU. The
5) Secondary Memory control unit ensures that all basic operations
are executed in a right manner and sequence.

The operations of computer components are

given below:
1) Inputting: It is the process of entering raw
data, instructions and information into the
computer. It is performed with the help of input
devices.
2) Storing: The computer has primary memory
and secondary storage to store data and
instructions. It stores the data before sending it to
CPU for processing and also stores the processed
data before displaying it as output.
3) Processing: It is the process of converting the
raw data into useful information. This process is
performed by the CPU of the computer. It takes
the raw data from storage, processes it and then
sends back the processed data to storage.

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1) Input Devices 3) Central Processing Unit (CPU)
 Input device enables the user to send data,  A Central Processing Unit is also called a
information, or control signals to a computer. processor, central processor, or
 The Central Processing Unit (CPU) of a microprocessor.
computer receives the input and processes it  It carries out all the important functions of
to produce the output. a computer.
 It receives instructions from both the
hardware and active software and produces
Keyboard output accordingly.
 It stores all important programs like
Mouse operating systems and application
software.
Scanner  CPU also helps Input and output devices to
communicate with each other.
Input Devices

Remote  Owing to these features of CPU, it is often

referred to as the brain of the computer.
Joystick  Processor is installed or inserted into a
CPU socket located on the motherboard.
Touch Screen  Furthermore, it is provided with a heat sink
to absorb and dissipate heat to keep the
Web cam CPU cool and functioning smoothly.
 Generally, a CPU has three components:
Digital Camera a) ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit)
b) Control Unit
Touch Pad c) Memory or Storage Unit

Microphone

2) Output Devices
 The output device displays the result of the
processing of raw data that is entered in the
computer through an input device.
 There are a number of output devices that
display output in different ways such as text,
images, hard copies, and audio or video.

Output
Devices

Montior Printer Projector

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a) ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit)
 It is the arithmetic logic unit, which performs TYPES OF CPU
arithmetic and logical functions.
 Arithmetic functions include addition,  CPUs are mostly manufactured by Intel
subtraction, multiplication division, and and AMD, each of which manufactures its
comparisons. Logical functions mainly own types of CPUs.
include selecting, comparing, and merging  In modern times, there are lots of CPU
the data. A CPU may contain more than one types in the market.
ALU. Furthermore, ALUs can be used for
maintaining timers that help run the
computer.

b) CU (Control Unit)
 It is the circuitry in the control unit, which Single Core
makes use of electrical signals to instruct the

CPU(TYPES)
computer system for executing already stored
instructions.
 It takes instructions from memory and then Dual Core
decodes and executes these instructions.
 So, it controls and coordinates the functioning
of all parts of the computer.
 The Control Unit's main task is to maintain Quad Core
and regulate the flow of information across
the processor.
 It does not take part in processing and storing
data.

c) Memory or Storage Unit/ Registers

 It is called Random access memory (RAM).
Core: - A core, or CPU core, is
 It temporarily stores data, programs, and
the "brain" of a CPU. It receives
intermediate and final results of processing.
instructions, and performs calculations,
 So, it acts as a temporary storage area that or operations, to satisfy those
holds the data temporarily, which is used to instructions.
run the computer.

What is CPU Clock Speed?

 The clock speed of a CPU or a processor refers to the number of instructions it can process
in a second.
 It is measured in gigahertz.
 For example, a CPU with a clock speed of 4.0 GHz means it can process 4 billion
instructions in a second.

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 Single Core CPU  Dual Core CPU
 Single Core is the oldest type of computer  As the name suggests, Dual Core CPU
CPU, which was used in the 1970s. contains two cores in a single Integrated
 It has only one core to process different Circuit (IC).
operations.  Although each core has its own controller
 It can start only one operation at a time; the and cache, they are linked together to work
CPU switches back and forth between as a single unit and thus can perform faster
different sets of data streams when more than than the single-core processors and can
one program runs. handle multitasking more efficiently than
 So, it is not suitable for multitasking as the Single Core processors.
performance will be reduced if more than one
application runs.
 The performance of these CPUs is mainly
dependent on the clock speed.
 It is still used in various devices, such as
smartphones.

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 Quad Core CPU
 This type of CPU comes with two dual-
core processors in one integrated circuit
(IC) or chip.
 So, a quad-core processor is a chip that
contains four independent units called
cores.
 These cores read and execute instructions
of CPU.
 The cores can run multiple instructions
simultaneously, thereby increases the
overall speed for programs that are
compatible with parallel processing.
 Quad Core CPU uses a technology that
allows four independent processing units
(cores) to run in parallel on a single chip.
 Thus by integrating multiple cores in a
single CPU, higher performance can be
generated without boosting the clock
speed.
 However, the performance increases only
when the computer's software supports
multiprocessing.
 The software which supports
multiprocessing divides the processing
load between multiple processors instead
of using one processor at a time.

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HARDWARE
 Hardware
 Hardware, which is abbreviated as HW, refers
to all physical components of a computer CRT Monitor
system, including the devices connected to it.
 You cannot create a computer or use software
without using hardware.
 The screen on which you are reading this LCD Monitor

MONITOR
information is also a hardware.
 Some of the commonly used hardware in your
computer are described below:
LED Monitor

Monitor
Hardware

Processor Slot Plasma Monitor

Keyboard
RAM Slot
Mouse
USB Port
Motherboard 2) Keyboard
PCI Slot  It is the most important input device of a
computer.
Heat Sink  It is designed to allow you input text,
characters, and other commands into a
CMOS Battery computer, desktop, tablet, etc.
 It comes with different sets of keys to enter
1) Monitor: numbers, characters, and perform various
 A monitor is the display unit of a computer on other functions like copy, paste, delete,
which the processed data, such as text, enter, etc.
images, etc., is displayed.
 It comprises a screen circuity and the case
which encloses this circuity.
 The monitor is also known as a visual display
unit (VDU).

What is a hardware upgrade?

 A hardware upgrade refers to a new hardware, or a replacement for the old one, or additional
hardware developed to improve the performance of the existing hardware.
 A common example of a hardware upgrade is a RAM upgrade that increases the computer's total
memory, and video card upgrade, where the old video card is removed and replaced with the new
one.
.

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3) Mouse
 It is the most important input device of a
computer.
 It is designed to allow you input text,
characters, and other commands into a
computer, desktop, tablet, etc.
 It comes with different sets of keys to enter
numbers, characters, and perform various
other functions like copy, paste, delete,
enter, etc.
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4) Motherboard:
 The motherboard is generally a thin circuit
board that holds together almost all parts
of a computer except input and output
devices.
 All crucial hardware like CPU, memory,
hard drive, and ports for input and output
devices are located on the motherboard.
 It is the biggest circuit board in a computer
chassis.
 It allocates power to all hardware located
on it and enables them to communicate
with each other.
 It is meant to hold the computer's
microprocessor chip and let other
components connect to it.
 Each component that runs the computer or
improves its performance is a part of the
motherboard or connected to it through a
slot or port.
 There can be different types of
motherboards based on the type and size of
the computers.
 So, a specific motherboard can work only
with specific types of processors and
memory.
COMPUTER BASICS
BASICS OF COMPUTER

COMPUTER
MEMORY

 Computer Memory 1) Cache Memory

 The computer memory holds the data and
instructions needed to process raw data and
produce output.
 The computer memory is divided into large
number of small parts known as cells.
 Each cell has a unique address which varies
from 0 to memory size minus one.
 It is used to store data and instructions.
 Computer memory is the storage space in the
computer, where data is to be processed and
instructions required for processing are
stored.
 The memory is divided into large number of
small parts called cells.
 Each location or cell has a unique address,
which varies from zero to memory size minus
one.
Cache
RAM
Primary
Memory
 Cache memory is a very high speed
semiconductor memory which can speed up
the CPU.
 It acts as a buffer between the CPU and the
main memory.
 It is used to hold those parts of data and
program which are most frequently used by
the CPU.
 The parts of data and programs are
transferred from the disk to cache memory
by the operating system, from where the
CPU can access them.
 Advantages
 The advantages of cache memory are as
follows −
 Cache memory is faster than main memory.
 It consumes less access time as compared to
main memory.
 It stores the program that can be executed
within a short period of time.
 It stores data for temporary use.

 Disadvantages
ROM  Cache memory has limited capacity.
 It is very expensive.
Hard Disk
CPU(Processor)
CD Drive
Secondary DVD Drive
Cache

Pendrive
SD Card Primary Secondary
Memory Memory

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2) Primary Memory
 is also known as main memory or may also
refer to "Internal memory." and primary
storage.
 All those types of computer memories that
are directly accessed by the processor using
data bus are called primary memory.
 That allows a processor to access stores
running programs and currently processed
data that stored in a memory location.
 The use of memories is therefore mandatory
in all systems using a microprocessor,
including computers.
 An example of Primary memory is RAM and
ROM that store programs.
 These memories are limited in capacity and
manufactured by using integrated circuits
(IC) or semiconductor device.
 Its speed of Data accessing is faster than
secondary memory.
 It is more
expensive than secondary memory.
 When you turn on the computer, Generally
CPU searches for essential codes in RAM to
get it.
 Otherwise, it goes to ROM.
 Yes, they both chips collectively called
primary memory in a computer system.
 Types of Primary Memory
 Characteristics of Main Memory
 These are semiconductor memories.
 It is known as the main memory.
 Usually volatile memory.
 Data is lost in case power is switched off.
 It is the working memory of the computer.
 Faster than secondary memories.
 A computer cannot run without the primary
memory.
a) RAM (Random Access Memory)
 The Word “RAM” stands for “random access
memory” or may also refer to short-term
memory.
 It’s called “random” because you can read
store data randomly at any time and from any
physical location.
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 It is a temporal storage memory.
 RAM is volatile that only retains all the data
as long as the computer powered.
 It is the fastest type of memory.
 RAM stores the currently processed data from
the CPU and sends them to the graphics unit.
Types of RAM
i. Static RAM(SRAM)
 Static RAM is the form of RAM and made
with flip-flops and used for primary
storage are volatile.
 It retains data in latch as long as the
computer powered.
 SRAM is more expensive and consumes
more power than DRAM.
 It used as Cache Memory in a computer
system.
 As technically, SRAM uses more
transistors as compared to DRAM.
 It is faster compared to DRAM due to the
latching arrangement, and they use 6
transistors per data bit as compared to
DRAM, which uses one transistor per bit.
ii. Dynamic Random Access Memory
(DRAM)
 It is another form of RAM used as Main
Memory, its retains information in
Capacitors for a short period (a few
milliseconds) even though the computer
powered.
 The Data is Refreshed Periodically to
maintain in it.
 The DRAM is cheaper, but it can store
much more information.
 Moreover, it is also slower and consumes
less power than SRAM.
b) ROM (Read Only Memory)
 ROM is the long-term internal memory.
 ROM is “Non-Volatile Memory” that retains
data without the flow of electricity.
 ROM is an essential chip with permanently
written data or programs.
 It is similar to the RAM that is accessed by
the CPU. ROM comes with pre-written by the
COMPUTER BASICS
BASICS OF COMPUTER
computer manufacturer to hold the
instructions for booting-up the computer.
 There is generally Three broad type of ROM
i. PROM (Programmable Read Only
Memory):
 PROM stands for programmable ROM.
 It can be programmed only be done once and
read many.
 Unlike ROM, PROMs retain their contents
without the flow of electricity.
 PROM is also nonvolatile memory.
 The significant difference between a ROM
and a PROM is that a ROM comes with pre-
written by the computer manufacturer
whereas PROM manufactured as blank
memory.
 PROM can be programmed by PROM burner
and by blowing internal fuses permanently.
ii. EPROM (Erasable Programmable Read
Only Memory):
 EPROM is pronounced ee-prom.
 This memory type retains its contents until it
exposed to intense ultraviolet light that clears
its contents, making it possible to reprogram
the memory.
 It is non-volatile, so permanently stores the
data even when the computer is turned off or
until this data is overwritten or deleted.
 The CPU can't directly access the secondary
memory.
 First, the secondary memory data is
transferred to primary memory then the CPU
can access it.
 Some of the secondary memory or storage
devices are described below:
 Characteristics of Secondary Memory
 These are magnetic and optical memories.
 It is known as the backup memory.
 It is a non-volatile memory.
 Data is permanently stored even if power
is switched off.
 It is used for storage of data in a computer.
 Computer may run without the secondary
memory.
 Slower than primary memories.

iii. EEPROM (Electrically Erasable

Programmable Read Only Memory):
 EEPROM can be burned (programmed) and
erased by first electrical waves in a
millisecond.
 A single byte of a data or the entire contents
of device can be erased.
 To write or erase this memory type, you need
a device called a PROM burner.

3) Secondary Memory
 The secondary storage devices which are built
into the computer or connected to the
computer are known as a secondary memory
of the computer.
 It is also known as external memory or
auxiliary storage.
 The secondary memory is accessed indirectly
via input/output operations.

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 Memory Units S.No. Unit & Description
 Memory unit is the amount of data that can be
stored in the storage unit. 1 Kilobyte (KB)
 This storage capacity is expressed in terms of
Bytes. 1 KB = 1024 Bytes
S.No. Unit & Description 2 Megabyte (MB)
1
Bit (Binary Digit) 1 MB = 1024 KB
 A binary digit is logical 0 and 1 3 GigaByte (GB)
representing a passive or an active
state of a component in an electric 1 GB = 1024 MB
circuit.
4 TeraByte (TB)
2
Nibble
1 TB = 1024 GB
A group of 4 bits is called nibble.
5 PetaByte (PB)
3
Byte
1 PB = 1024 TB
 A group of 8 bits is called byte.
 A byte is the smallest unit, which can
represent a data item or a character.
4
Word
 A computer word, like a byte, is a
group of fixed number of bits
processed as a unit, which varies
from computer to computer but is
fixed for each computer.
 The length of a computer word is
called word-size or word length. It
may be as small as 8 bits or may be
as long as 96 bits.
 A computer stores the information in
the form of computer words.

 The following table lists some higher storage

units −

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SOFTWARE

 Software
a) Operating System
 Software which is abbreviated as SW or S/W,
is a set of programs that enables the hardware  An operating system is the system
to perform a specific task. software that works as an interface to
 All the programs that run the computer are enable the user to communicate with the
software. computer.
 The software can be of three types: system  It manages and coordinates the functioning
software, application software, and of hardware and software of the computer.
programming software.  The commonly used operating systems are
Microsoft Windows, Linux, and Apple
1) System Software Mac OS X.
 The system software is the main software that
runs the computer. b) BIOS (Basic Input Output System)
 When you turn on the computer, it activates  It stands for basic input output system.
the hardware and controls and coordinates  It is a type of system software, which is
their functioning. stored in Read Only Memory (ROM)
 The application programs are also controlled located on the motherboard.
by system software.  However, in advanced computer systems,
 An operating system is an example of system it is stored in flash memory.
software.  BIOS is the first software that gets
activated when you turn on your computer
system.
 It loads the drivers of the hard disk into
memory as well as assists the operating
Operating System system to load itself into the memory.
SYSTEM SOFTWARE

c) A device driver
 This system software controls hardware
BIOS devices connected to a computer.
 It enables the computer to use the hardware
by providing an appropriate interface.
 The kernel of a Computer's CPU
Boot Program communicates with different hardware
through this software.
 Operating systems generally come with
Device Driver most of the device drivers.
 If the operating system does not have a
device driver for hardware, you have to
install the device driver before using that
hardware device.

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programming tool or software development
2) Application Software tool.
 Application software is a set of programs
designed to perform a specific task. Some examples of programming software include:
 It does not control the working of a computer Eclipse: It is a java language editor.
as it is designed for end-users. Coda: It is a programming language editor for Mac.
 A computer can run without application Notepad++: It is an open-source editor for
software. windows.
 Application software can be easily installed or Sublime text: It is a cross-platform code editor for
uninstalled as required. Linux, Mac, and Windows.
 It can be a single program or a collection of
small programs. Microsoft Office Suite,
Adobe Photoshop, and any other software like
payroll software or income tax software are
application software.
 As we know, they are designed to perform
specific tasks. Accordingly, they can be of
different types such as:

MS Word
Word Processing
Application Software

Notepad

Spreadsheet MS Excel

VLC Player
Multimedia
WIndows Media

CRM
Enterprise
ERP
3) Programming Software
 It is a set or collection of tools that help
developers in writing other software or
programs.
 It assists them in creating, debugging, and
maintaining software or programs or
applications.
 We can say that these are facilitator software
that helps translate programming language
such as Java, C++, Python, etc., into machine
language code.
 So, it is not used by end-users. For example,
compilers, linkers, debuggers, interpreters,
text editors, etc. This software is also called a

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