Linear Algebra and Differential Equations

Sartaj Ul Hasan

Department of Mathematics
Indian Institute of Technology Jammu
Jammu, India - 181221

Email: sartaj.hasan@iitjammu.ac.in

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 Lecture 28
(June 01, 2021)

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 Differential Equations
(Second part of the course)

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Outline of the lecture

Second order linear equations

Method of reduction of order
Second order linear equations with constant coefficients

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Test for L.I.

Suppose that
y 00 + p(x)y 0 + q(x)y = 0
has continuous coefficients on an open interval I . Then
1. two solutions y1 and y2 of the DE on I are linearly dependent iff their
Wronskian is 0 at some x0 ∈ I .
2. Wronskian =0 for some x = x0 =⇒

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Test for L.I.

Suppose that
y 00 + p(x)y 0 + q(x)y = 0
has continuous coefficients on an open interval I . Then
1. two solutions y1 and y2 of the DE on I are linearly dependent iff their
Wronskian is 0 at some x0 ∈ I .
2. Wronskian =0 for some x = x0 =⇒ W ≡ 0 on I .
3. if there exists an x1 ∈ I at which W 6= 0, then y1 and y2 are linearly
independent on I .

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Examples

1. The continuity of p(x) and q(x) is required in the results of the

previous slide. Consider the DE

x 2 y 00 − 4xy 0 + 6y = 0.

Then, x 2 and x 3 are linearly independent solutions, but W (x 2 , x 3 )(0) = 0.

2. Consider y1 (x) = x 2 and
(
x2 if x ≥ 0
y2 (x) = 2
−x if x < 0,

Then, W (y1 , y2 )(x) = 0 for all x ∈ R, but y1 and y2 are linearly

independent. Does it contradict the result in the previous slide?

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Basis of solutions

Result : If p(x) and q(x) are continuous on an open interval I , then y 00 +

p(x)y 0 + q(x)y = 0 has a basis of solutions on I .
Let y1 & y2 be a basis of solutions of the homogeneous second order linear
DE y 00 + p(x)y 0 + q(x)y = 0 on I , where p(x) and q(x) are continuous on
I . Then,
y (x) = C1 y1 (x) + C2 y2 (x)
is a general solution of y 00 + p(x)y 0 + q(x)y = 0.
That is, every solution y = Y (x) of the DE has the form

Y (x) = C1 y1 (x) + C2 y2 (x),

where C1 and C2 are arbitrary constants.

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Method of reduction of order
We’ve been looking at the second order linear homogeneous ODE

y 00 + p(x)y 0 + q(x)y = 0.

If we know one non-zero solution y1 (x) then we have a method to find

y2 (x) such that y1 (x) and y2 (x) are linearly independent.
To find such a y2 (x), set

y2 (x) = v (x)y1 (x)

We’ll choose v such that y1 and y2 are linearly independent.

Can v be a constant? No.
Now for y2 to be a solution of the given ODE

y200 + p(x)y20 + q(x)y2 = 0.

that is,
(vy1 )00 + p(x)(vy1 )0 + q(x)(vy1 ) = 0.
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Second solution
Thus,

0 = (v 0 y1 + vy10 )0 + p(v 0 y1 + vy10 ) + qvy1

= v 00 y1 + 2v 0 y10 + vy100 + p(v 0 y1 + vy10 ) + qvy1
= v (y100 + py10 + qy1 ) + v 0 (2y10 + py1 ) + v 00 y1 .

Thus,
v 00 2y10 + py1 2y10
= − = − − p.
v0 y1 y1
Therefore,   Z
0 1
ln |v | = ln − pdx;
y12
That is,
R
e − pdx
R
v= y12
dx.

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Second solution

Claim: y1 and vy1 are linearly independent.

Proof. Enough to check Wronskian!

W (y1 , vy1 ) = y1 (v 0 y1 + y10 v ) − y10 vy1

= y12 v 0
R
e − pdx
= y12
y2
R 1
− pdx
=e
6= 0.

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Example
Find all solutions of
x 2 y 00 + xy 0 − y = 0.

Write this in standard form:

y0 y
y 00 + − 2 = 0.
x x
Note that
y1 (x) = x
is one solution. Let y1 = vy1 = vx be another solution. Then,
dx
R R
e − pdx e−
Z Z Z
x dx 1
v (x) = dx = dx = = − 2.
y12 x2 x3 2x
d
Hence, any solution is of the form cx + x for c, d ∈ R.

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Example

Given that y = x is a solution, find a L.I. solution of

(x 2 + 1)y 00 − 2xy 0 + 2y = 0

by reducing the order.

y2 = vy1 = vx. Then,
−2x
R
− dx
R
e − pdx x2 + 1
Z Z Z Z
e x 2 +1 1
v (x) = dx = dx = dx = (1 + ) dx
y12 x2 x2 x2

Hence, v (x) = x − x1 and y2 = x x − x1 = x 2 − 1.

Are y1 & y2 L.I.? What is the general solution?

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Second Order Linear ODE’s
We have developed enough theory to now find all solutions of

y 00 + py 0 + qy = 0,

where p and q are in R; that is, a second order homogeneous linear ODE
with constant coefficients.
Suppose e mx is a solution of this equation. Then,

m2 e mx + pme mx + qe mx = 0,

and this implies

m2 + pm + q = 0.
This is called the characteristic equation or auxiliary equation of the linear
homogeneous ODE with constant coefficients. The roots of this equation
are
√
−p± p 2 −4q
m1 , m2 = 2 .

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Second Order Linear ODE’s

Case I: Real & unequal roots m1 , m2 ∈ R, m1 6= m2 .

When p 2 − 4q > 0, m1 and m2 are distinct real numbers. Moreover,
e m1 x
= e (m1 −m2 )x
e m2 x
is not a constant function. Hence, e m1 x and e m2 x are linearly independent.
So the general solution of

y 00 + py 0 − qy = 0

is
y = c1 e m1 x + c2 e m2 x ,
where c1 , c2 ∈ R.

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Second Order Linear ODE’s
Case II: Equal roots m1 = m2 ∈ R.

m1 = m2 ⇐⇒ p 2 − 4q = 0,
px
and in this case m = − p2 . Hence e − 2 is one solution. To find the other
solution, let px
g (x) = v (x)e − 2 .
Then,
R
e − pdx
Z
v (x) = dx
e −px
= ax + b,
px
for some a, b ∈ R. Choose v (x) = x. Then, g (x) = xe − 2 . Hence the
general solution is px px
y = c1 e − 2 + c2 xe − 2 ,
with c1 , c2 ∈ R.
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Second Order Linear ODE’s
Case III : Complex roots m1 6= m2 ∈ C\R.
m2 + px + m = 0 has distinct complex roots if and only if p 2 − 4q < 0. In
this case, let
m1 = a + ıb, m2 = a − ıb.
Thus,
e m1 x = e (a+ıb)x = e ax (cos bx + ı sin bx),
and
e m2 x = e (a−ıb)x = e ax (cos bx − ı sin bx).
As we are only interested in real valued functions, we take
e m1 x + e m2 x
f (x) = = e ax cos bx,
2
and
e m1 x − e m2 x
g (x) = = e ax sin bx.
2ı
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Second Order Linear ODE’s

Now, gf (x)
(x)
= tan bx is not a constant function. Thus the general solution
is of the form
y = e ax (c1 cos bx + c2 sin bx),
with c1 , c2 ∈ R.

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Example 1
Solve 4y 00 − 8y 0 + 3y = 0, y (0) = 2, y 0 (0) = 12 .
The characteristic equation is 4m2 − 8m + 3 = 0 =⇒ m = 23 , 1
2. The
general solution is
3 1
y = c1 e 2 x + c2 e 2 x .
Now,
3 3 1 1
y 0 = c1 e 2 x + c2 e 2 x
2 2
y (0) = 2 =⇒ c1 + c2 = 2
y 0 (0) = 21 =⇒ 23 c1 + 21 c2 = 1
2
Solving, c1 = − 12 , c2 = 5
2 .
Therefore,
3 1
y = − 12 e 2 x + 52 e 2 x .

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Example 2

Solve y 00 − 4y 0 + 4y = 0, y (0) = 3, y 0 (0) = 1.

The characteristic equation is (m − 2)2 = 0 =⇒ m = 2
The general solution is

y = c1 e 2x + c2 xe 2x = (c1 + c2 x)e 2x .

Now,
y 0 = 2(c1 + c2 x)e 2x + c2 e 2x
y (0) = 3 =⇒ c1 = 3,
y 0 (0) = 1 =⇒ 2c1 + c2 = 1.
Hence, c2 = −5. Therefore,

y = (3 − 5x)e 2x .

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Example 3
Solve y 00 − 6y 0 + 25y = 0, y (0) = −3, y 0 (0) = −1.
The characteristic equation is m2 − 6m + 25 = 0

=⇒ m1 = 3 + 4ı, m2 = 3 − 4ı.

The general solution is

y = e 3x (c1 cos 4x + c2 sin 4x).

Now,

y 0 = 3e 3x (c1 cos 4x + c2 sin 4x) + e 3x (−4c1 sin 4x + 4c2 cos 4x)

y (0) = −3 =⇒ c1 = −3
y 0 (0) = −1 = 3c1 + 4c2 =⇒ c2 = 2.
Therefore,

y = e 3x (−3 cos 4x + 2 sin 4x).

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