dy1 cos ax

+ 2iy1 = . Now apply second method that is say y1 = u.v

dx 4
cos ax
u0 v + u (v 0 + 2iv) = it can be found v = e−2ix put this in the equation
| {z } 4
0

cos ax
u0 e−2ix = cos ax −→ v 0 = e2ix and
4
Z
1
u= e2ix cos axdx + C1 the result of this integral
4
a sin ax + 2i cos ax 2ix
u= e + C1 and y1
4(a2 − 4)
a sin ax + 2i cos ax
y1 = + C1 e−2ix
4(a2 − 4)
Same calculations should be second equation so this calculatşons give us
a sin ax − 2i cos ax
y1 = + C2 e2ix
4(a2 − 4)
and general solutions
a sin ax
y = C1 e−2ix + C2 e2ix +
2(a2 − 4)

3. Variation of Parameters Method In Inhomogeneous Linear Equa-

tions

If solutions of the equation F (D)y = 0

y = C1 y1 + C2 y2 + . . . + Cn yn

For solutions of the equation F (D)y = Q(x), we suggest Ci = ui (x) instead

of each Ci parameter.The functions ui are unknown functions. This new
solution is considered to satisfy the equation.
To understand this method better, let’s apply it to the 2nd order equation:

a2 y 00 + a1 y 0 + a0 y = Q(x)

46
yp = u1 y1 + u2 y2

yp0 = u01 y1 + u1 y10 + u02 y2 + u2 y20 = (u1 y10 + u2 y20 ) + (u01 y1 + u02 y2 )

yp00 = (u1 y100 + u2 y200 ) + (u01 y10 + u02 y20 ) + (u01 y1 + u02 y2 )0

please note that we will not use second term. Why ? Put these to the
equations and arrange it

u1 (a2 y100 + a1 y10 + a0 y1 ) +u2 (a2 y200 + a1 y20 + a0 y2 ) +a2 (u01 y10 + u02 y20 )+ a2 (u01 y1 +
| {z } | {z }
=0 =0
u02 y2 )0 + a1 (u01 y1 + u02 y2 ) = Q(x)

a2 (u01 y10 + u02 y20 ) + a2 (u01 y1 + u02 y2 )0 + a1 (u01 y1 + u02 y2 ) = Q(x)

Again u1 (x) and u2 (x) are arbitrary we can choose these functions arbitrarily
as freely as possible. Use these functions to be as simple as possible. If we
choose the format;
(u01 y1 + u02 y2 ) = 0 (42)
In this case the equation reduced

Q(x)
(u01 y10 + u02 y20 ) = (43)
a2

These two equations are equations that have two unknowns.

 
 y1 y2 
A= 0  6= 0 (44)
y1 y20 

and unknowns
   
 0 y2   y1 0 
   
 Q/a2 y 0   y 0 Q/a2 
2
u01 =  u02 =  1  (45)
y y
 1 2 
 y y
 1 2 

 y0 y0   y0 y0 
1 2 1 2

We can generalize n th order using procedure Eq. from (42) to Eq. 45

47
 u01 y1 + u02 y2 + . . . + u0n yn = 0
u01 y10 + u02 y20 + . . . + u0n yn0 = 0
u01 y100 + u02 y200 + . . . + u0n yn00 = 0

.
.
.

(n−1) (n−1)
u01 y1 + u02 y2 + . . . + u0n yn(n−1) = Q/an

and coefficient determinant

y1 y2 ... yn
y10 y20 ... yn0
W = . . . . (46)
. . . .
(n−1) (n−1) (n−1)
y1 y2 . . . yn

and for example first solution

0 y2 ... yn
0 y20 ... yn0
. . . .
. . . .
(n−1) (n−1)
Q/an y2 . . . yn
u1 = (47)
y1 y2 ... yn
y10 y20 ... yn0
. . . .
. . . .
(n−1) (n−1) (n−1)
y1 y2 . . . yn

48
 Example 14 Solve following differential equations using variation of pa-
rameters method

1. y 00 − 3y 0 + 2y = e−x sin x −→ m1 = 1, m2 = 2

ex +C2 |{z}
yc = C1 |{z} e2x
y1 y2

yc = u1 ex + u2 e2x

Eq. (42) (u01 y1 + u02 y2 ) = 0 −→ u01 ex + u02 e2x = 0 and

Q(x)
Eq. (43) (u01 y10 + u02 y20 ) = a2
−→ u01 ex + 2u02 = e−x sin x

coefficent determinant of u01 and u02

 x 
 e e2x 
 = 2e3x − e3x = e3x
W =  x
e 2e2x 

and the first solutions

 
 −x 0
 e2x 

 e sin x 2e2x  −ex sin x
0
u1 =  x 
2x 
= 3x
= −e−2x sin x
 e
 x e  e
 e 2e2x 

integral of u01 gives u1 which can be taken integration by parts u1 = − e−2x sin xdx+
R

C1 = 15 e−2x (cos x + 2 sin x) + C1 and first solution

 −2x 
x e
y1 = e (cos x + 2 sin x) + C1
5
Please find second solution using variational parameters method
Homework y 00 − 2y 0 = sin(e−x )

2. y 00 + y 0 + 4y = 3xe−2x −→ m1,2 = −2

49
yc (x) = (C1 + C2 x)e−2x
yc = u1 ex + u2 e2x

Eq. (42) (u01 y1 + u02 y2 ) = 0 −→ u01 e−2x + u02 xe−2x = 0 and

Q(x)
Eq. (43) (u01 y10 + u02 y20 ) = a2
−→ u01 (−2e−2x ) + (−2x + 1)e−2x u02 = 3xe−2x
 
 e−2x xe−2x  = (1 − 2x)e−4x − (−2xe−4x ) = e−4x

W =  −2x
−2e (−2x + 1)e−2x 

and the first solutions

 

 0 xe−2x 

 3xe−2x (1 − 2x)e−2x 
u01 = = −3x2
e−4x

y1 = (−x3 + C1 )e−2x

Please find second solution using variational parameters method

3. y 00 + y = tan x −→ m1,2 = ±i

yc (x) = C1 sin x + C2 cos x

u01 sin x + u02 cos x = 0

u01 cos x − u02 sin x = tan x

 
 sin x cos x 
W =   = sin2 x + cos2 x = 1
cos x − sin x 

and the first solutions

0 cos x
tan x − sin x
u01 = = sin x
1
y1 = (− cos x + C1 ) sin x

Please find second solution using variational parameters method

50
 4. Solving with Indeterminate Coefficients Method in
Inhomogeneous Linear Equations

In the equation F (D)y = Q(x), the solution is suggested according to the

form of Q(x).

1) First, the order of the equation is determined.

2) The derivatives of Q(x) up to that order are taken. The linearf combina-
tion of these derivatives is set as yp

3) Then, by putting this proposed yp into the differential equation, the coef-
ficients in the linear combination are found and yp is determined exactly.

If the derivatives are repeated infinitely, that is, a new term comes after each
derivative and does not end, or if the exponents do not go from constant to
zero at the end, this method is not applied.

This method can be applied to the following Q(x) types;

i) If Q(x) is a polynomial of x

ii) If Q(x) is exponential function such aseax or If sin(bx) is a trigonometric

function
1
However, cannot be applied to a function whose derivatives do not
cos x
terminate.

Case 1: If no terms of yc are found in yp

Example y 00 + 4y 0 + 4y = 6xe3x + 12e−4x

1.yc = (C1 + C2 x)e−2x we found complementary solution of this example

now we suggest

yp = (Ax + B)e3x + Ce−4x first derivative of this

yp0 = −4 Ce−4 x + (3 Ax + A + 3 B) e3 x and second derivative

51
yp00 = 16 Ce−4 x + (9 Ax + 6 A + 9 B) e3 x and put these in the equation and
arrange

4 Ce−4 x + (25 Ax + 10 A + 25 B) e3 x = 6 xe3 x + 12 e−4 x

from this point we get the coefficient of the particlular solution

C = 3, A = 6/25 and B = −12/125 So

General solution
 
−2x 6 12
y = (C1 + C2 x)e + x− e3x + 3e−4x
25 125

2. y 00 +4y = cos 2x+cos 4x we solve lhs before m1,2 = ±2i and complementary
solutions are

yc (x) = C1 cos 2x + C2 sin 2x

the derivatives of Q(x) are sin or cos we suggested following particular so-
lutions

yp = A cos ax + B sin ax + C cos bx + D sin bx

after substituting this in the equation we get following equality

(−Aa2 + 4 A) cos (ax)+(−Cb2 + 4 C) cos (bx)+(−Ba2 + 4 B) sin (ax)+(−Db2 + 4 D) sin (bx) =

cos (ax) + cos (bx)

and equalizng the coeficient of same functions we get follwing results

1 1
A= 2
, B = 0, C = ,D = 0
4−a 4 − b2
General solution is
1 1
C1 cos 2x + C2 sin 2x + 2
cos ax + cos bx
4−a 4 − b2

52
Case 2: If the term in Q (x) is one of the terms of u(x)xr of yc , a linear
combination of up to order 0 derivatives of u(x)xr or if this term u(x)xr is
the s-folded root of yc ,a linear combination of up to order 0 derivatives of
u(x)xr+s is suggested as yp

For example (D − 2)2 (D + 3)y = e2x + x2 we suggest all derivative of x2 e2x

or

(D − 2)3 (D + 3)y = x2 e2x + x2 we suggest all derivative of x2+3 e2x

Example y 00 + 4y 0 + 4y = 3xe−2x m1,2 = −2 complementary solutions are

yc (x) = C1 e−2x + C2 xe−2x

s = 2 and r = 1 u(x)xr+s = e−2x x2+1 and its derivatives perfoırm yp

yp = (Ax3 + Bx2 + Cx + D)e−2x last two terms exist in the yc no need put
here

6 Ae−2 x x + 2 Be−2 x = 3 e−2 x x the sersult is A = 1/2 B = 0 General solutions

1
C1 e−2x + C2 xe−2x + x3 e−2x
2

Example y 00 − 3y 0 + 2y = 3e−2x m1,2 = −2 m1 = 1, m2 = 2 (Case 1)

yc = C1 ex + C2 e2x and yp ;

yp = A cos x + B sin x yp = −A sin x + B cos x, yp00 = −A cos x − B sin c

(A − 3B) cos x + (3A + B) sin x = sin x

3A − 3B = 0, 3A + B = 1 −→ A = 3/10, B = 1/10 and general solutions is

3 1
y = C1 ex + C2 e2x + cos x + sin x
10 10
Example y 00 + y = sin x sin 2x and m1,2 = ±i

yc = C1 sin x + C2 cos x

Q(x) = sin x sin 2x = sin x.2 sin x cos x = 2 cos x sin2 x = 2 cos x − 2 cos3 x

53
 1
cos3 x = (3 cos x + cos 3x)
4
Q(x) = sin x sin 2x = 2 cos x − 21 (cos 3x + 3 cos x)

1 1
Q(x) = cos x − cos 3x so yp ;
2 2
yp = (A1 x + A2 ) cos x + (B1 x + B2 ) sin x + C cos 3x + D sin 3x first two terms
are the element of yc because roots of them same so ve suggest above solution.
and

yp00 + yp = 21 cos x − 12 cos 3x gives us following equality

2 B1 cos (x)−8 cos (3 x) C−2 A1 sin (x)−8 D sin (3 x) = 1/2 cos (x)−1/2 cos (3 x)
from this equality we equaliz the coefficent

A1 = 0, A2 = B1 = 1/4, C = 1/16, D = 0 general solution

1 1
y = C1 sin x + C2 cos x + x sin x + cos 3x
4 16

54
1.6 Variable Coefficient Differential Equations
Solution methods are standard. Those with the second degree are mostly
examined. Major solution methods;
1) Laplace Transform method
2) Fourier transform method
3) Power Series Method

1.6.1 Second Order Variable Coefficient Differential Equations

Differential equations written in the following form are called (f (x) 6= 0
inhomogen) )and (f (x) = 0 homogen) second order differential equations
with variable coefficients.

y 00 + p(x)y 0 + q(x)y = f (x) (48)

again yc (x) is the solution of homogen differential equation. Solution of it

yc (x) = C1 y( x) + C2 y2 (x)

If the values of the solutions of Equation (48) in the range [a, b] of x are
given y(a) = b1 and y(b) = b2 , this problem is called the initial value prob-
lem. As we learned in the method of changing parameters, if wronskian
determinant w = 0 solutions are linear dependent, if w 6= 0 solutions are
linear independent.

y1 y2
w= 6= 0 −→ w = y1 y20 − y10 y2 6= 0 (49)
y10 y20

If w = 0 homogen differential equation has y2 = Cy1 linear dependent so-

lutions if w 6= 0 homogen differential equation has y2 = C1 y1 + C2 y2 linear
independent solutions

55
i) Solution of Second Order Differential Equation with Wronskian
Method

Let y1 and y2 be two linear independent solutions. Both of these solutions

provide the differential equation thus, if we substitute each solution in the
equation and subtract these two equations by multiplying the second solution
with the first equation. Secondly, we need to multiply these two equations
by subtracting them from each other.

y2 y1 00 + p(x)y10 + q(x)y1 = 0

y1 y2 00 + p(x)y20 + q(x)y2 = 0
−
y y 00 − y y 00 +p(x) (y2 y10 − y1 y20 ) = 0
|2 1 {z 1 2} | {z }
d w
(y2 y10 − y1 y20 )
dx
Thus it reduced first order differential equation of of w as follows
dw
+ p(x)w = 0
dx
solution is

w = w0 e−I(x) Abel’s formula for Wronskian (50)

R
where I(x) = p(x)dx and w0 = w0 (y1 (x0 ), y2 (x0 ), x0 )) is specific value of w
at point x0 which is in the [a, b]
 
d y2
Let’s look up ;
dx y1
y2 y10 − y1 y20
 
d y2
=
dx y1 y12
w e−I(x)
= w0 2
y12 y1
Z −I(x)
e
y2 = w0 y1 dx + C1 (51)
y12
This is the method to find y2 if y1 is known

56
 3 3
Example y 00 − y 0 + 2 y = 2x − 1 and first solution y1 = x3
x x
3
R
e x dx
Z
3
y2 = w0 x dx
x6
Z 3
3 x
y2 = w0 x dx
x6
1
y2 = −w0 x3 = C2 x
x2
the solutions of homogen equation is

y = C 1 x + C 2 x3

Solution of Inhomogen Second Order Differential Equation with

Wronskian Method

In the non-homogeneous differential equation there is a partitioner solution

corresponding to each homogeneous solution. With the help of Wronskian
method, particular solutions are found for these solutions.

y1 y1p 00 + p(x)y1p 0
+ q(x)y1p = f (x)
00 0
y1p y1 + p(x)y1 + q(x)y1 = 0
−
y1 y1p 00 − y1p y1 00 +p(x) (y1 y1p0
− y1p y10 ) = y1 f (x)
| {z } | {z }
d 0
w
(y1 y1p − y1p y10 )
dx
now the equation is
dw
+ p(x)w = y1 f (x) (52)
dx
We have already known the solution Eq(52) . In order Rto achieve this proce-
dure multiply each side eI(x) as you remember I(x) = p(x)dx

dw I(x)
e + p(x)w = y1 f (x)eI(x)
dx

57
 d
weI(x) = y1 f (x)eI(x)


dx Z
I(x)
we = y1 f (x)eI(x) dx
Z
0 0 −I(x)
y1 y1p − y1p y1 = e y1 f (x)eI(x) dx

e−I(x)
  Z
d y1p
= y1 f (x)eI(x) dx
dx y1 y12
Z −I(x) Z 
e I(x)
y1p = y1 y1 f (x)e dx dx (53)
y12
This particular solution belongs to complementary solution y1c , likewise in
the particular solution which is the partner of y2c
Z −I(x) Z 
e I(x)
y2p = y2 y2 f (x)e dx dx (54)
y22
Now let’s return to the solution of the non-homogeneous form of the equation
whose homogeneous part is solved.
3 3
Example Ongoing y 00 − y 0 + 2 y = 2x − 1
x x
we have solved homogen form of this equation . The solutions were y1c = x3
and y2c = x. Let’s look the partner of first solution.
Z
3 3
p = − and I(x) = − dx = −3 ln x −→ eI(x) = x−3 we can apply after
x x
finding elements of solution in Eq. (53)
Z −I(x) Z 
e I(x)
y1p = y1 y1 f (x)e dx dx
y12
Z 3 Z 
3 x 3 −3
y1p = x x (2x − 1)x dx dx
x6
Z
3 1  2 
y1p = x 3
x − x dx
x
Z  
3 1 1
y1p = x − dx
x x2

58
 1
y1p = x3 (ln x + ) = x3 ln x + x2
x
Let’s look at the partner of y2c = x in Eq. (54)
Z −I(x) Z 
e I(x)
y2p = y2 y2 f (x)e dx dx
y22
Z 3Z
x
y2p = x x(2x − 1)x−3 dx]dx
x2
Z Z   
2 1
y2p = x x − dx dx
x x2
Z Z   
1
y2p = x x 2 ln x + dx dx
x

ii) Solution of Second Order Differential Equation with Variation

of Parameters Method

1) If one of the solutions is known of homogen equation the solution of

y 00 + p(x)y 0 + q(x)y = 0 equation is y = cy(x) we write as we have done before

y = v(x)y(x) and put this in the equations with its derivatives

y 0 = v 0 (x)y(x) + v(x)y 0 (x)

y 00 = v(x)00 y(x) + v(x)y 00 (x) + 2v 0 (x)y 0 (x)

v 00 y + vy 00 + 2v 0 y 0 + p(v 0 y + vy 0 ) + quv = f

v 00 y + v (y 00 + py 0 + qy) +2v 0 y 0 + pv 0 y = f
| {z }
=0

v 00 y + 2v 0 y 0 + pv 0 y = f ,

by saying v 0 = t the equation can come in following form which is first order
equation wrt t

t0 y + t(2y 0 + py) = f

59
 3 3
Example Again we take y 00 − y 0 + 2 y = 2x − 1 and one of the comple-
x x
mentary solution is y = cx

y = xv(x); y 0 = v + xv 0 ; y 00 = xv 00 + 2v 0
3 3
xv 00 + 2v 0 − (v + xv 0 ) + 2 xv = 2x − 1
x x
3 3 3
xv 00 + 2v 0 − v − xv 0 + v = 2x − 1 −→ say v 0 = t
x x x
xt0 − t = 2x − 1
t 1
t0 − = 2 − −→ the solution is
x x
t = 2x ln x + 1 + cx −→ integral of this gives v

v = x + cx2 /2 + x2 ln x − x2 /2 and finally y

y = x(x + cx2 /2 + x2 ln x − x2 /2)

d2 y dy
Homework 1. (1 − x2 ) 2
− 2x + 2y = x4 , and y1c = x
dx dx
d2 y
Homework 2. + 2y = x sin x,
dx2
p(x)2 p(x)0
iii) Some Special Case : q(x) − − test
4 2
1) If above expression is equal a constant=C the solution is given by
1
R
y = v(x)e− 2 p(x)dx
to reduce to first degree

2) If above expression is C/x2 change with x the solution is given by

1
R
y = v(x)e− 2 p(x)dx
and change independent variable as x = ez to reduce to
first degree

60
 2
Example 1. y 00 − 4xy 0 + 4x2 y = xex

let’s make test p(x) = −4x and q(x) = 4x2

(4x)2 1
 
2
4x − − (−4) = 2 it is providing first case
4 2
1 2
R
y = v(x)e− 2 −4xdx
= v(x)ex put this in the equation
2 2 2
4 xex 4 x2 + 2 v + 4 v 0 x + v 00 − 4 xex (v 0 + 2 v) + 4x2 vex

v 00 + 2v = x

(D2 + 2)v = x
√ √
(D + i 2) (D − i 2)v = x
| {z }
u(x)

√ √ √
(D − i 2)u(x) = x −→ u(x) = 1/2 2x + 1/2 + C1 eix 2
√ √ √
(D − i 2)v = 1/2 2x + 1/2 + C1 eix 2
√ √
v = x/2 + C1 eix 2 + C2 e−ix 2
2
 √ √ 
y = ex x/2 + C1 cos( 2x) + C2 sin( 2x)

let’s turn again previos example and try to solve this merhod
3 3
Example 2. y 00 − y 0 + 2 y = 2x − 1
x x
3 3
p(x) = − , q(x) = 2
x x
 2  !
3 1 3 1 3 3
2
− − − − 2 =− 2
x 4 x 2 x 4x
1
− x3 dx
R
y = v(x)e− 2 = vx3/2

If we put this to equation we get

61
 3 2x − 1
v 00 − 2
v = 3/2
4x x
now we make the change of variable x = ez
d dz d d
= = e−z
dx dx dz dz
d2 2
     2 
dz d d −z d −z d −z −z d −z d −2z d d
= = e e =e −e +e =e −
dx2 dx dz dx dz dz dz dz 2 dz 2 dz
now we apply this to the equation
 2
2ez − 1

−2z d v dv −2z 3
e − − e v =
dz 2 dz 4 e3z/2

d2 v dv 3
− − v = 2e3z/2 − ez/2
dz 2 dz 4
m2 − m − 3/4 = 0 −→ m1 = 3/2, m2 = −1/2 and homogen equation soltion

vc = C1 e3z/2 + C2 e−1/2z
2z − 1 3z/2
vp = e + e1/2z
2
the rest of the example is left to the students

iv) The Case Where Operators Can Be Factored

In Eq. (48) in some cases operators can be factored

y 00 + p(x)y 0 + q(x)y = f (x)

it can be written with D operator.

(D2 + pD + q)y = f

At first glance, it can be thought of as simple factorization as in fixed co-

efficients.But this is not the case. Because it is clear that the derivative of
D will take the derivative of everything that comes before it in variable co-
efficients. When the factorization operators are applied, they should return

62
the differential equation. This method is most commonly used in quantum
mechanics to factor equations and when these factors represent the creation
and destruction operators of particles.

Suppose it can be factored like

F1 (D) F2 (D)y = f
| {z }
v

F2 (D)v = f from this equation v is found and using thisv and

F1 (D)y = v finally we get y

3 3
Example y 00 − y 0 + 2 y = 2x − 1 again same example ^
¨ but different
x x
method
 
2 3 3
D − D + 2 y = 2x − 1
x x

(D − a)(D − b)y = 2x − 1

(D − a)(y 0 − by) = 2x − 1

y 0 (b + a)y 0 + (ab − b0 )y = 2x − 1
3
b+a=
x
3 3 3
ab − b0 = 2
If b(x) = → b0 = 2 and a = 0 s0
x x x
3
D(D − )y = 2x − 1 (D − x3 )y = v → Dv = 2x − 1 → v = x2 − x and
x
3
y 0 − y = x2 − x
x

63
1.6.2 Cauchy-Euler Differential Equation
In this section we will study a special class of second order homogeneous
linear differential equations called Cauchy-Euler equations.

Cauchy-Euler Equation. A second order differential equation is said to

be Cauchy-Euler if it is of the form

ax2 y 00 + bxy 0 + cy = 0 (55)

This equation actually has what it called a singular point at x = 0, which

will be dealt with in next lectures, we restrict ourselves to x > 0. there is a
nice and easy way to solve Cauchy-Euler equations. Notice that with each
derivative in the equation, you gain a power of x. Thus a solution to this
equation must lose a power of x with each derivative. What function do you
know of that does that? The answer is, of course, the simplest function,

y = xn ; y 0 = nxn−1 and y 00 = n(n − 1)xn−2 put these to equation

an(n − 1)xn + bnxn + cxn = 0 and since x > 0 it is ok to divide by xn , giving

us:

an(n − 1) + bn + c = 0 (56)
Eq. (56) is called the indicial equation for equation Eq. (55)

While solving Euler’s equation, we substitute x = et for variables.

dy dy dx dy
y0 = = = e−t similarly previus example
dx dt dt dt
 2 
00 −2t d y dy
y =e − put into Euler Equation
dt2 dt
 2 
2t −2t d y dy dy
ae e 2
− + bet e−t + cy = 0
dt dt dt

d2 y dy
a 2 + (b − a) + cy = 0 this equation also became the quadratic constant
dt dt
coefficient differential equation

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Just as with any polynomial, this polynomial can have three types of roots:

1. Distinct Real Roots → y1 = xn1 and y2 = xn2 two linear independent solutions

Example x2 y 00 + 7xy 0 − 7y = 0 indical equation is

m(m − 1) + 7m − 7 = m2 + 6m − 7 = 0, m1 = −7, m2 = 1

y = c1 x−7 + c2 x

2. repeated real roots n = n1 = n2 −→ y1 = xn , y2 = xn ln x. The

students were allowed to prove

Example x2 y 00 − 3xy 0 + 4y = 0

m(m − 1) − 3m + 4 = (m − 2)2 one of the solutiony1 = c1 x2 apply variation

of parameters

y2 = x2 v(x) put this to equation

x4 v 00 + 4x3 v 0 + 2x2 v − 3x3 v 0 − 6x2 v + 4x2 v = 0

x4 v 00 + x3 v 0 = 0 −→ xp0 + p = 0 where dv/dx

ln(p) = − ln x → p = 1/x → v = ln x

y = c1 x2 + c2 x2 ln x

3. complex conjugate roots.

m1,2 = α ± iβ, y1 = xα cos(β ln x), y2 = xα sin(β ln x). The students were

allowed to prove

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Non-Homogen Cauchy-Euler Equation.

ax2 y 00 + bxy 0 + cy = f (x) (57)

General solution is y = yc + yp same methods also applied this

let d. e. equation

x2 y 00 − 2y = x3 ex
1
n(n − 1) − 2 = 0 n1 = 2, n2 = −1 → yc = c1 x2 + c2 apply variation of
x
parameter yp1 = v(x)/x

y 0 = v 0 /x − v/x2 and y 00 v 00 /x + 2v 0 /x2 + 2v/x3 put these into equation

xv 00 + 2xv 0 = x3 ex . The students were allowed to solve

One of the most important equations in physics is eigenvalue equations.

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