iii

To my beloved wife, Siti Shairra Zakaria, my children Nurul Asyikin, Mohd Amir
Arif, Nurul Amira, Mohd Amir Afiq………..
………………..thank you for your love, support and patience during this hard time.

I love you so much!!

7november2006
 iv

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I would like to express my sincere appreciation and thousands of thank you

to my project supervisor, Professor Madya Dr. Mohamad Ibrahim Mohammad for
being patience with me, for his encouragement, guidance, critics, advice and
motivation and last not least the valuable friendship.

While preparing this project, I was in contact with many people,

academicians, and construction professionals in construction firm, consultants and
suppliers. They have contributed towards my understanding and thoughts. In
particular, I am also very thankful to all of them for their willingness to share their
valuable knowledge, expertise and technical know-how which assist me a lot in
preparing this project. Without their continued support and interest, this project
would not have been the same as presented here.

I am also would like to thank all the lecturers who have conducted the course
from the beginning and not hesitating to share their knowledge with us. I am grateful
to all my family members who are very understanding and have been patience with
me during my hard time. My fellow postgraduate students should also be recognized
for their support. My sincere appreciation also extends to all my colleagues and
others who have provided assistance at various occasions. Their views and tips are
useful indeed. Unfortunately, it is not possible to list all of them in this limited
space.
 v

ABSTRACT

The bridge construction utilizing the concept of erecting the precast

segmental panel has been a chosen method for bridge construction within restricted
area. This method has been successfully exhibit the constructability within the urban
area and also crossing the wide water body, valley and existing highway or railroad.
The suitability of this method of construction is depending on the availability of
working space, which govern the major cause in selection of this construction
method. The aim and objective are to study the problem in the manufacturing the
segment and segment erection. This master project has studied the procedures in
construction of precast segmental box girder bridge by balance cantilever method
using the overhead gantry. This project also studied the segment manufacturing
procedures and discovers some problem problems faced in segment manufacturing
that is interesting and need to expose for awareness to the bridge professional. The
segment erection procedures and sequence also has been studied and the related
problems have been highlighted and need further study by the professional bridge
designers and constructors. The study has been conducted by direct structured
interview and questionnaire with the bridge expertise. The bridge professional from
consultants, segment manufacturer, main contractors and specialist sub contractor
have shared their knowledge, technical know-how and experience and has been
elaborated in details in this project. The finding is very interesting and it has exposed
the problem related to the segmental bridge construction that need further study by
the bridge expertise. This study also recommended some idea about working
concurrently and simultaneously without fragmentation that could lead to errors. It is
expected that by addressing the problem at early stage could assist the designer,
manufacturer and constructor to foresee the problem and find the mitigation
measures thus could eliminate the errors that may occurs in manufacturing the
segment and erection on site.
 vi

ABSTRAK

Pembinaan jambatan menggunakan konsep pemasangan panel segmen

pratuang telah menjadi pilihan utama dalam pembinaan jambatan dikawasan tapak
yang terhad. Kaedah ini telah mepamirkan kebolehbinaan dalam kawasan bandar,
merentasi laluan air, lembah, dan laluan keretapi atau lebuhraya. Kesesuaian kaedah
ini bergantung kepada keadaan kawasan tapak kerja, yang menjadi faktor utama
dalam pemilihan kaedah ini. Tujuan dan objektif kajian kes ini adalah untuk
mengkaji masalah dalam pembuatan panel segmen pratuang dan pemasangan panel
tersebut. Projek Sarjana ini mengkaji prosidur pemasangan panel segmen pratuang
dengan kaedah Balance Cantilever menggunakan overhead gantry. Projek ini juga
mengkaji prosidur dalam pembuatan panel segmen pratuang dan telah menemui
beberapa masalah yang sangat menarik untuk dikaji dan perlu diumumkan kepada
pakar-pakar dalam pembinaan jambatan. Kaedah pemasangan juga telah dikaji dan
beberapa masalah telah dibangkitkan dan perlu pemerhatian dari pakar-pakar bidang
jambatan. Kajian telah dijalankan secara temuduga yang terancang dan soal-selidik
dengan pakar-pakar jambatan. Pakar-pakar jambatan dari pihak perunding, pembuat
panel segmen, kontraktor utama, kontraktor pakar dalam bidang jambatan dan pakar
dalam bidang pra-tegasan telah berkongsi kepakaran teknikal, pengetahuan dan
pengalaman masing-masing dalam projek Sarjana ini. Hasil kajian amat menarik
dan telah mendedahkan masalah yang berkaitan dan kajian lanjut perlu dibuat.
Projek ini juga telah mengemukakan beberapa cadangan kepada pihak-pihak yang
terlibat untuk membentuk kerjasama dalam satu pasukan tanpa pembahagian kerja
yang merumitkan Adalah diharapkan dengan mengenalpasti masalah diperingkat
awal dapat membantu pihak yang terlibat mengurangkan kesilapan dalam
pembuatan segmen dan pemasangannya.
 vii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER TITLE PAGE

DECLARATION ii

DEDICATION iii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS iv

ABSTRACT v

ABSTRAK vi

TABLE OF CONTENTS vii

LIST OF TABLES xi

LIST OF FIGURES xiii

LIST OF APPENDIX xvii

1 INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background 1

1.2 Problem Statement 1

1.3 Objective 5

1.4 Scope and Limitation 5

1.5 Brief Research Methodology 6

1.6 Limitation of the Study 7

2 OVERVIEW OF PRECAST SEGMENTAL

BOX GIRDER BRIDGE CONSTRUCTION
 viii

2.1 Introduction 9

2.2 The Historical Background 10

2.3 The Adaptation of the Technology 12

2.4 The Advantages of Segmental Construction 13

2.5 The Disadvantages of Segmental Construction 17

2.6 Alternative Construction Methods 19

3 MANUFACTURING OF SEGMENTAL BOX GIRDER

3.1 Segmental Box Girder Production 26

3.2 The Concrete Segment 28

3.3 Segment Manufacturing 31

3.3.1 Fabrication of Reinforcement 31

3.3.2 Segment Mould 32

3.3.3 Casting of Segment 34

3.3.3.1 Shortline Match Casting 35

3.3.3.2 Longline Match Casting 35

3.3.4 Geometry Control during Casting 37

3.3.5 Rejection of Segment 38

3.3.6 Handling, Storage and Delivery 40

4 OVERHEAD GANTRY OPERATION AND SEGMENT

ERECTION

4.1 Introduction 43

4.2 Design of the Overhead Gantry 43

4.3 Assembly of the Gantry Launcher 44

4.4 Testing the Overhead Gantry 46

4.5 Segment Delivery 52

4.6 Erection of Segment 54

 ix

4.6.1 Erection of Pier Segment 54

4.6.2 Erection of Expansion Joint 55

Segment at Expansion Joint Pier

4.7 Launching the Gantry 57

4.8 Epoxy Bonding Agent for Precast Segment 57

4.6.1 Mixing and Application of Epoxy 65

4.9 Stressing Works 68

4.9.1 Temporary Stressing 68

4.9.2 Cantilever Stressing 69

4.9.3 Continuity Stressing 69

4.9.4 Stressing Wire 70

4.10 Concrete Stitching 73

4.11 Tendon Grouting 74

5 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

5.1 Introduction 78

5.2 Determination of Research Objective 78

5.3 Literature Review 79

5.4 Data Collections 79

5.4.1 Questionnaire Survey 79

5.4.2 Interview with the Experts 80

5.4.2.1 Objective of the Interview 81

5.4.2.2 Methodology of the Interview 81

5.5 Data Analysis 82

5.5.1 Content Analysis 82

5.5.2 Frequency Analysis 82

 x

5.5.3 Relative Index Analysis 82

6 ANALYSIS AND FINDING

6.1 Introduction 84

6.2 Questionnaire Survey 85

6.2.1 Section A – Respondent Back 86

Ground

6.2.2 Section B - Manufacturing of 88

Segmental Box Girder

6.2.3 Section C – Erection of Segmental 95

Bridge

6.3 Analysis of the Structured Interview 102

7 DISCUSSION

7.1 Introduction 106

7.2 Manufacturing of Segment 107

7.3 Erection of Segment 108

7.4 New Invention 118

7.4.1 Transparent Sheath 118

7.4.2 Ducting Coupler 119

7.4.3 Stainless Steel Plated Strand 121

8 RECOMMENDATION AND CONCLUSION

8.1 The Recommendation 123

8.1.1 At Inception and Design Stage 123

8.1.2 At Segment Manufacturing Stage 126

8.1.3 At Construction Stage 127

8.2 Conclusion 128

REFERENCES 129
 xi

APPENDICES 133

LIST OF TABLE

TABLE NO TITLE PAGE

2.1 FHWA Condition Ratings for Concrete Bridges 21

2.2 Segmental Concrete Bridge Inspection Report Summary 22

3.1 Segment dimension tolerances 29

4.1 Erection tolerances 60

4.2 Steel wire relaxation loss 72

4.3 Tendon anchorage 73

6.1 Number of respondents 86

6.2 Distribution of the expert respondents based on position 86

6.3 Distribution of Respondent based on experience in 87

bridge construction

6.4 Modification on segment as responded in questionnaire 91

6.5 Reinforcement most congested area in segment 91

6.6 Analysis of respond on the contribution factor 93

to problem in manufacturing the segment

6.7 Frequency analysis of the factor contribute to problem 94

in manufacturing the segment with Relative Index analysis

6.8 Checking on the pier capacity 96

6.9 Modification to pier column 97

6.10 Analysis of respond on the contribution factor to 100

problem in erection the segmental bridge

6.11 Frequency analysis of the factor contribute to 101

 xii

problem in erection of segmental bridge with Relative

Index analysis

6.12 Distribution of expertise for interview 102

6.13 Analysis of structured interview with expertise 103

6.14 Frequency analysis on the respond to interview 104

 xiii

LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURE NO TITLE PAGE

1.1 Research methodology sequence 8

2.1 Nineteenth century cantilever bridge construction 13

(the Firth of Forth Bridge in Scotland)

2.2 Precast span-by-span construction with overhead truss 23

(the Spaghetti Bowl in Las Vegas, Nevada)

2.3 Cast-in-place span-by-span construction with self- 23

launching forms (Rosario Victoria Bridge in Argentina)

2.4 Incrementally launched deck for Neckarburg Arch 24

Bridge in Germany, 1977

2.5 Vietnam Veterans Memorial Bridge - cantilever 24

construction of a segmental box girder using traveling
forms

2.6 Typical shape of box girder on pier for Subang Kelana 25

Link Project

3.1 Arrangement of the segment between intermediate piers 30

3.2 The rebar jig where the reinforcement is being fix 31

3.3 Reinforcement arrangement in the segment at the left 32

and right web area

3.4 Reinforcement at center web with blister 33

3.5 Schematic diagram for curing cell for SKL Project 36

3.6 Longline casting yard 36

3.7 Arrangement of the segment’s marking 38

3.8 Typical segment shape 39

 xiv

3.9 Sand blasting to the match-cast surface of the segment 41

3.10 Straddle carrier being used to shift the segment within 42

casting yard

4.1 Typical gantry launching steps 45

4.2 Preparing the hardstand for gantry assembly near P13 and 47
P12 at Subang Kelana project

4.3 Part of the gantry being assembled at Bayan Baru bypass 47

Project

4.4 Schematic figure for step by step gantry assembly 49

4.5 Schematic figure for step by step gantry assembly 50

4.6 Schematic figure for step by step gantry assembly 51

4.7 Deflection checking point on the gantry truss 52

4.8 Load testing for the complete assembled gantry prior to 53

segment erection to a 1.5 factor of safety

4.9 Arrangement of segment delivery 53

4.10 Pier segment being arrange to be seated on the jacks 55

4.11 Schematic figure on the segment seating 55

4.12 Sequence of segment erection at expansion joint 58

4.13 Sequence of segment erection at intermediate piers 59

4.14 Launching step 1 & 2 61

4.15 Launching step 3 62

4.16 Launching step 4 62

4.17 Launching step 5 & 6 63

4.18 Launching step 7 63

4.19 Launching step 8 64

4.20 Mixing the epoxy bonding agent 66

4.21 Applying the epoxy onto the segment surface 67

 xv

4.22 Temporary stressing using stress bar 69

4.23 The tendon stressing anchorage 70

4.24 Stressing step by step 71

4.25 Stressing in progress 71

4.26 Schematic diagram of the stitch 74

4.27 Stitch beam installed and stress to align the box girder 75

4.28 Concreting the stitch in progress 75

4.29 Typical arrangement of the tendon in prestress structure 76

6.1 Distribution of respondent based on position 87

6.2 Distribution of Respondent based on experience in bridge 88

construction for questionnaire

6.3 Distribution of respondent for interview 102

7.1 One of massive modification by contractor to cater for 111

extra construction load

7.2 Close up of the above at the middle and left of the segment 111

7.3 Transverse pre-stressing for one of the segment as design 112

by specialist contractor to cater for extra load

7.4 Pier segment temporarily seated on jacks. Load transferred 112

to pier eccentrically

7.5 Temporary blister at middle of segment for temporary 113

prestressing

7.6 Temporary blister at both left & right of the web for 113
temporary prestressing

7.7 The temporary staging for erection of half end of segment 114
at expansion joint pier design by contractor

7.8 The temporary staging from front view 115

7.9 Temporary nailing (tie down) pier segment to the pierhead 116

7.10 Transparent sheathing used for external tendon in Japan 119

7.11 The Liaseal Coupler 120

 xvi

7.12 Schematic drawing of the Liaseal Coupler 120

7.13 Drawing illustrated cross-section details of Liaseal duct 121

Coupler

7.14 DSI Stainless steel plated strand 122

 xvii

LIST OF APPENDICES

APPENDIX TITLE PAGE

A Questionnaires for the Thesis 133

 1

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background

Bridge construction using the precast post tension segmental box girder is
considered a new trend in Malaysia. This method of construction started with
construction of Light Rail Transit (LRT) viaduct in 1997, post tension box girder
start to gain recognition as a preferred method of construction of bridge within the
urban area. This similar construction follows by construction of Second Link Bridge
to Singapore, Bayan Baru By-pass, Butterworth Offshore ring Road, several bridges
in Kuala Lumpur such as Ampang-Kuala Lumpur Elevated Highway, SPRINT
Highway, Kerinci Link, New Pantai Expressway, Subang Kelana Link and so on.
The constructed box girder bridge has been utilizing several methods such as Span-
by-Span, Balanced Cantilever and Incremental Launching. This master project
explores the process of manufacturing the segmental box girder and the
construction/erection of the post tension precasted segmental box girder bridge using
balance cantilever method.

1.2 Problem Statement

During the design stage, in normal practice, the main consultant design
normally will cater for permanent structure only. Any design for temporary work
such as temporary pre-stressing, segment modification, additional blister, check for
segment lifting, check for segment’s reinforcement for additional load, thickening of
 2

top slab, etc, being carried out by the contractor and / or bridge specialist contractor.
The process of preparing shop drawing, review by consultant, resubmitting the
revised shop drawings, getting the shop drawing endorsed by Professional Engineer
always take a few round and time consuming before it could be approved and use for
manufacturing the segment.

During segment production at casting yard, the problems arise in fabricating

the mould and reinforcement. Due to short size of the segment, longitudinally, the
reinforcement become congested, the reinforcement may collide with the tendon
conduit and other insertions item. The reinforcement also clashes between them and
the gap is very close, make it limited access for concrete to fill up the formworks.
Wollman et. al. (2000) reported that the end diaphragm segment where the tendon is
anchored, which is also the Pier Segment always experience the cracks occurred.
One of the reason mentioned is due to detailing of the congested reinforcement
which limited the access of the concrete to compact, thus created a localise improper
and incomplete compaction to the concrete. This phenomenon created the crack
when stressing applied to the tendon.

FHWA (2005) in their Task Number 7.11 – Proper Detailing had addressed
the common problem in detailing of the segment that result in problem during
casting such as:

1. Reinforcing fit-up. Conflicts can occur at anchorages, blisters, deviation

beams and bearing diaphragms. The three-dimensional space requirements of
tendon anchors and spirals need to be accounted for. Reinforcing should be
arranged to accommodate horizontal and vertical tendon profiles. All
reinforcing bends with the actual curve radius should be drawn to scale.

2. Nodes. All tensile reinforcing entering a structural node (Strut & Tie design)
should be adequately developed. Post-tensioning bars require some distance
from the free, perpendicular edge to become developed; cover requirements,
bar extension, nut and plate thickness can combine to shift a node off of the
center of the neutral axis of an entering thin wall element (e.g. web or slab
entering a diaphragm).
 3

3. Appurtenances. Details for access openings, drains, lighting fixtures etc. are
often presented as separate details at the end of a plan set. These too should
be drawn to scale with the reinforcing from typical plan sheets prior to final
plan preparation. In complex projects, fully-integrated drawings may be
necessary. Access hatches should swing free of external tendons, plumbing
etc. Plumbing should be positioned so that it creates the least interference
with passageways in the box. Additional reinforcing should be added if the
element creates a disturbance in the flow of forces.

4. Short tendons. Post-tensioning bars should be used if the losses in short

tendons are too great.

5. Tolerances. Details need to be buildable by conventional practices. A large,

circumferential stirrup that engages both webs and flanges may need to be
spliced into two telescoping U-shaped bars. Cast-in-place closures joining
two soon-to-be prestressed elements should be wide enough to accommodate
precast duct misalignments.

6. Jack Fit-Up. Hydraulic ram dimensions and stroke need to be accounted for
when locating tendon anchors within the box.

7. Water Control. Methods to control water from broken plumbing and

expansion joint seals should be integrated into the design. Holes cast into the
bottom slab adjacent to bearing diaphragms and deviation beams will both
remove the water from the box and serve as a tattletale for maintenance
inspectors. These holes can easily be clogged with construction debris or
grout and should be cleared before the contractor finishes the project.
Transverse drip beads on the web and underside of the wings located one
inch from the expansion joint should contain the longitudinal spread of stains
resulting from a broken seal. Unsightly column staining can be controlled
with either creative column detailing to channel water or an umbrella (drip
pan) perched on top.
 4

8. Temporary Drain Caps. Plans should specify a temporary plumbing line cap
at the top of the column to discourage solid waste disposal by construction
personnel.

9. Critter Guards. Roosting birds and varmints need to be kept out of the girder.
Expanded metal mesh mounted to a metal frame on the inside circumference
of the box (i.e. oriented in the planes of the webs and flanges) at expansion
joints has worked well. Transverse screens impede movement of
maintenance personnel through the box and should be avoided.

10. Future Post-Tensioning. During the design of the very first segmental

bridges, long-term moment redistribution was an unknown phenomenon. To

counteract unexpected deflections, additional post-tensioning was added
after the bridges were in service. This was accomplished with some
difficulty. Today the more likely cause of future additions of post-tensioning
(although this is very rare in a well-detailed bridge) is from tendon corrosion.
Bridge designs of today should have provisions for easily adding
supplemental post-tensioning. Casting additional, empty post-tensioning
anchorages and deviation pipes into diaphragms is the most common
method. Allowances need to be made for transporting and positioning
hydraulic stressing rams inside the bridge.

Problem during construction is expected when the segment is delivery. For

erection using the gantry launcher, assembling the gantry takes more than two
months, the kinematic drawing for gantry movement during launching should be
prepare for every span. During tendon stressing, the tendon may fail to achieve the
calculated elongation. The segment erected might be difficult to set at design level
and alignment. After stressing, the tendons need to be grouted. The grout materials
shall comply with stringent specification in order to ensure the grout filled up the
whole tendon conduit.
 5

1.3 Objective

The aim of this master project is to study the system of the construction of
post tension precast box girder bridge using gantry launcher by Balance Cantilever
method.

The objectives of this master project are:

1. To determine the problems in manufacturing/fabricating the segmental box

girder at casting yard before deliver to site.

2. To determine the problem in precast segment erection/construction using the

overhead gantry launcher at site.

3. To propose the strategy for coordinated design procedure between consultant

and specialist contractor.

1.4 Scope and Limitation

This master project focused on the construction of bridge using precast

segmental box girder. The study is subjected to the following scopes and limitation:

1. This study is limited to the manufacturing of the segment by the short line
match-casting method.

2. The study is limited to the bridge construct using Post Tension Precasted
Segmental Box Girder erected using the gantry launcher by Balanced
Cantilever method.
 6

Even though there are several method of construction of bridge for segmental
bridge, but the other method does not affected the modification of the segment and
structure.

1.5 Brief Research Methodology

The methodology used in conducting this research is through literature

search, structured interview with selected personnel that have direct involvement
with the manufacturing and erection of the segment and questionnaire survey among
the other person involved. The literature search explored the system used in
constructing the segmental bridge by Balance Cantilever Method as well as other
method available, advantages and disadvantages of the bridge construction method,
the history of it and the problem faced by the works that have been establish
somewhere else. Literature review is referred to the published journal, technical
paper and relevant book on the design, related and reliable website regarding the
construction, management and maintenance of the bridge.

The questionnaire survey has been conducted among the selected person
from the segment manufacturer and contractors in Malaysia to establish the problem
they faced in manufacturing the precast segment and erection of the segmental
bridge using the gantry launcher. A structured interview also has been conducted
with the segment manufacturer, contractors, consultant and the consultant’s
representative at site to seek their opinion and suggestion on how to improve the
construction procedures. The data compiled are analysed using simple frequency
method and Relative Index Analysis. Figure 1.1 shows the research methodology
procedure and sequence in this study.

Based on the analysis and finding, several recommendation have been made
in according to the objective that have been set off earlier. The recommendation
represent constructive proposals and suggestions on how to eliminate or at least
 7

minimise the problem that have been determine, thus could also eliminate the
problem that may occurs during operation and maintenance.

1.6 Limitation of the study

The limitation of the study is confined to construction of segmental box girder

bridge that being built in Malaysia by Balance Cantilever method only. Even though
there is several method of construction for segmental bridge such as span-by-span,
incremental launching, cast-in-situ segmental and normal cast-in-situ, but these
method do not involved modification carried out to the segmental box girder and
pier and no checking need to be done by contractor. The final construction drawing
has been incorporated all the designs and construction requirement by consultant.
 8

START

DETERMINE
TITLE, AIM,
OBJECTIVE, SCOPE &
LIMITATION OF STUDY

LITERATURE REVIEW

DATA
COLLECTION

QUESTIONNAIRE INTERVIEW

ANALYSE
DATA

DISCUSSION

RECOMMENDATION
& CONCLUSION

END

Figure 1.1 Research methodology sequence

 9

CHAPTER 2

OVERVIEW OF PRECAST SEGMENTAL

BOX GIRDER BRIDGE CONSTRUCTION

2.1 Introduction

Precast Segmental Box Girder has become a very popular method of bridge
construction in Malaysia nowadays. The advantages provided by this method have
benefited a lot of highway concession especially those constructing the bridge within
the urban area or crossing the river or wide valley.

The trend emerged in Malaysia when the first segmental bridge being
constructed for the Light Rail Transit (LRT) in Kuala Lumpur and secondly
followed by the Second Link to Singapore in Johor and Ampang-KL Elevated
Highway. The same method of construction using segmental box girder shows its
capabilities in easing the construction in urban area when it being use for MRR2,
Sprint Highway, Penchala Link, New Pantai Expressway, Bayan Baru bypass and
Butterworth Offshore Ring Road in Penang. This same method is now being use in
Subang Kelana Link which connecting Jalan Lapangan Terbang Subang crossing
Federal Highway to Subang Jaya/KESAS Highway.

The construction of the segmental box girder is similar to the construction of

the conventional bridge or precast beam bridge for substructure and pier, however it
is different when comes to construction of bridge deck. The deck is constructed
sequentially beginning from the pier, one section at a time. In pre-cast segmental
bridge, the precasted concrete segment is constructed at the factory, then transported
 10

to the site and hoisted into place. As the new segment is suspended in place by the
crane or gantry, workers install steel reinforced that attaches the new segment to
proceeding segment. Each segment of the bridge is design to accept connections
from both proceeding and succeeding segment. This process is repeated until the
span is completed. The details erection procedure is elaborated in detail in Chapter
4.

2.2 The Historical Background

The post-tensioning method was originally invented in France and was used
in the construction of the Veudre Bridge in 1908 (Juan and Joseph, 2004). The post-
tensioning tendons of this structure were inspected in 1993 and were found to be in
good condition, free of corrosion. The first post-tensioned segmental bridge was also
built in France, over the River Marne in 1939. The use of this type of construction
increased significantly in Europe in the 1950s, and the technology made its way to
the U.S. in the 1970s.

The first segmental concrete bridge, built in 1950, was cast-in-place across
Lahn River in Balduinstein, Germany. The first precast segmental concrete bridge,
built in 1962, was built crossing Seine River, in France (Juan and Joseph, 2004;
FHWA, 2003; LoBuono, 2005).

The first precast segmental bridge built in US, in 1973 was built in Corpus
Christi, Texas. The first cast-in-place segmental bridge built in 1974 was built in San
Diego, California (Juan and Joseph, 2004). The Federal Highway Association of
U.S. Department of Transportation (2003) also reported the same history in their
Research Synthesis Statement on Segmental Concrete Bridge Design and
Construction Practices.

In the early developments of the segmental concrete bridge the iron and steel truss

bridge builders in the nineteenth-century developed a method for constructing large

bridges without the use of falsework. They placed individual members in a sequence
 11

toward outward from the supporting piers toward the midspan in as close to a
balanced condition as possible to prevent “tipping” of the entire, partially completed
structure. This method required only minimal falsework for support during
construction because most of the bridge’s weight was supported by the previously
constructed structure or pier. Resistance to tipping was provided by limiting the
unbalanced weight and either fixing the superstructure to the foundation or using
temporary support. This construction scheme was referred to as “canted lever” or
cantilever erection as shown in Figure 2.1.

Gunnar (2003) quoted the report by Menn (1990) that concrete segmental
bridges were built as early as 1925 (Plougastel Bridge) by French engineer
Freyssinet (1879-1962) who was among the first to implement prestressed concrete
in bridge construction. The adaptation of this kind of construction clearly indicates
the advantages compares to other in terms of cost, buildibility, highly functional and
aesthetically pleasing structure. It also being the most economical for long span
bridge, proven to be versatile and adaptable especially when the construction site is
restricted such as urban area, across the river etc (Vijay et al., 2004). Today
prestressing segmental concrete bridge is widely used method of construction and
has been cited as one of the most important developments in concrete bridge
construction (Richard et al., 2002).

In the 20th century, cantilever methods for building prestressed concrete

bridges were developed in response to advancements in construction technology.
The first generation of prestressed concrete cantilever bridges was constructed in the
1950s as part of the overall reconstruction and expansion of European post-World
War II infrastructure, particularly in Germany and France due to the damaged
infrastructure during the war (Juan and Joseph, 2004). Reconstruction had created a
demand for large highway and railway bridges that could be constructed with a
minimum amount of factory-manufactured items, such as large fabricated steel
members, because many manufacturing facilities had been damaged during the war
and was in the process of reconstruction themselves at that time.
 12

Prestressed concrete was a logical material for development under these

conditions. It allowed for construction of concrete spans with reduced cross sections
and less weight than reinforced concrete construction, and it had undergone an early
period of development in Europe by Eugene Freyssinet and other pioneers in the
early century. Post-tensioning of high-strength steel wires, bars and strands had
become an established construction method by this time (Juan and Joseph, 2004;
Richard et al., 2002). However, prestressing that being introduced in the early stages
is being carried out by cast-in-situ segmental box with balanced cantilever method.

2.3 The Adaptation of the Technology

The expansions of the segmental bridge technology were exhibited with the
increased in number of bridge project, together with the transformation of segmental
construction from R & D to widely accepted mass production environment. The
growth of Asian economy in 1990s has created a demand for more infrastructure
project for transportation with less impact to the environment and existing traffic.
Specialized erection equipment has been developed and large scale prefabricating
yard accommodate for the larger segmental concrete bridge. The Bang Nia
Expressway in Bangkok constructed in late 1990s is a 1200-span continuously for
50 km long viaduct costing about USD 1.0 billion (Juan and Joseph, 2004). The
demand also contributes by the decline in demand for steel bridge in favour of
prestressed concrete structure.

Other mega project in U.S., Canada and Europe such as Storaebelt and
Oresung Bridge in Denmark and Confederation Bridge in Canada gave a better
approach in mega segmental construction to new phenomenon in mega application
of heavy lifting technology due to the weight of concrete segment exceed 6803
metric tonne. Continuing of heavy lifting technology offer the prospect of increasing
span length and mean greater use of prefabrication yard to speed the erection time.
 13

With the computer technology revolution in 1990s provide a numbers of

commercially available design tools for engineering these sophisticated structures.
The increasing usage of internet also provides closer links to the construction site
and provides tools to assist in the management of larger scale project.

2.4 The Advantages of Segmental Construction

The vast majority of the early concrete cantilever bridges were box girders
due to the efficiency of the structural form and the stability inherent in the box cross
section configuration. Without the requirement for falsework, these early bridges
could be constructed at great heights above the ground. The development of high-
strength prestressing steels allowed construction of long spans. By the mid 1960s,
the first generation of prestressed concrete cantilever box girder bridges had
extended concrete girder bridge construction to spans of nearly 150 m (500 feet)
(Juan and Joseph, 2004)

Figure 2.1; Nineteenth century cantilever bridge construction (the Firth of Forth Bridge in
Scotland) (Juan and Joseph, 2004)
 14

The post-tensioned precast segmental box girder bridge has proven to benefit
the highway concession/owner such as Public Works Department (PWD), Malaysian
Highway Authority (LLM), PLUS, SPRINT, and also to the contractors in the
following areas:

1. Ease the construction within the urban area

2. Ease the construction crossing the river or deep valley
3. Not using the costly and environmentally sensitive falsework
4. Buildibility
5. Highly functional
6. Most economical for long span bridge
7. Aesthetically pleasing structure
8. Proven to be versatile and adaptable especially when the construction site is
restricted.

Consideration for choosing the segmental construction also governs by the following
criteria (FHWA, 2003):

1. The maximum span length is greater than 300 feet.

At this range, segmental bridges may be cost competitive compare to
other bridge.

2. There are a lot of repetitive and usually short spans.

If there is more than 20 spans, then it will be more economical
particularly if we have the access to deliver the segment.

3. The site is very restricted.

As other bridge system will be very much expensive, this segmental
bridge cost rise moderately when the access is limited. Overhead gantry
can be utilized to hoist the segment, transport it longitudinally on the
gantry to the place.
 15

4. Traffic disruption needs to be kept to a minimum.

Segmental bridge can in many instances be configured so that very little
superstructure construction impacts to the street below.

5. Aesthetics.
Many bridge projects have tipped in the favour of segmental for their
simple elegance.

Past experience also has shown that segmental concrete bridges are
particularly suited to the following types of projects (Juan and Joseph, 2004):

1. Environmentally sensitive areas where disruption to the ground surface

must be minimized, e.g. wetlands, slope subject to erosion or areas with
hazardous materials.

2. Reconstruction of large scale urban expressway where disruption to

existing operations must be minimized or eliminated.

3. Repetitive bridge projects that lend themselves to standardization of

structural components and construction activities, such as long transit
viaducts or elevated expressway.

4. Long span bridge over navigated waterway, long crossings over water or
crossing over waterways subject to scouring or unique hydraulic features.

5. Bridges over areas with poor construction accessibility, such as steep

terrain or canyons.

6. Large scale projects where a bridge’s construction schedule needs to be

compressed to fit overall project schedule limitations.
 16

Construction technology associated to segmental concrete bridges is originated from

the design and build contract environment, making it extremely well suited to that
project delivery method.

In 1994, the research by American Segmental Bridge Institutes (ASBI)

evaluated 96 bridges constructed in United States and Canada by various method of
segmental concrete bridge recorded that over 98% of the bridges are rated as
satisfactory or better based on the Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) rating
guideline. Again in 1999, the similar research evaluated 131 bridges and all are rated
as fair or better with 99% rated satisfactory and better (Maurice, 2001). This result
shows that segmental bridge is more durable that any other type of bridge and
economically viable thus make it more acceptable by the client/owners. Table 2.1
shows the rating used by Federation of Highway Administration (FHWA) of U.S.
Department of Transportation to evaluate the segmental bridge performance and
durability. Table 2.2 shows the number of bridges constructed in the studied years
and the rating for the deck, superstructure and substructure.

Even though the segmental bridge construction has been the most acceptable
type of construction, it does not means that it was the safest bridge. The incident
happened to the sudden collapsed of Bickton Meadows footbridge in 1967 and
Ynys-y-Gwas Bridge in 1985 due to corrosion of tendon have aroused the concern
among the professional to look into the workmanship and quality of materials too
(R.W. Poston and J.P. Wouters, 1998). The recently collapsed of Setia Alam viaduct
at New Klang Valley Expressway (NKVE) in Shah Alam triggered an alarm to the
professional in bridge engineering to thoroughly study the design and the
construction process and procedure of the segmental bridge.
 17

2.5 The Disadvantages of Segmental Construction

Not many disadvantages have been discussed by the professional in bridge

construction except for the cost in constructing the bridge by this method. The high
cost contributed by the following items:

1. Initial cost for the usage of gantry launcher, include mobilize and
demobilize of the gantry to and from site.

2. Initial cost due to massive segment mould.

3. Transportation cost for segment delivery to site, only one segment

can be loaded on a truck-towed low-loader per delivery.

4. Lack of expertise in the local country where the bridge is being build,
thus expatriate professional has been engaged which increase the cost
for overhead.

5. Lack of facilities and site closer to bridge site for segment casting,
thus the segment has to be casted in the factory far from site, increase
the delivery cost.

Actual cost for segmental bridge can vary widely depending on several
reasons. Large projects about 100 to 200 short spans in favorable locations have
been constructed for USD40/square foot while other long, three-span segmental built
in difficult-to-access sites could reach a cost of USD300/square foot (FHWA, 2005)
The common factors that affect cost are the same for segmental bridge as for other
bridge types:

x Span Length: longer spans have higher per square foot costs.
 18

x Project Size: economy of scale applies especially for segmental

bridges: smaller projects are more expensive per square foot because
of high start-up costs.
x Site Access: restrictions to haul vehicle and crane movements can
increase cost.
x Regional Variance: geological conditions, indigenous concrete
quality and local labor costs can dramatically affect cost.

The different in cost between segmental to normal bridges incurred by the owner is
depending on the factor as bellows:

x Design Fees: Segmental Bridges are non-standard and require

specialized designers and software. Plan preparation is longer than
for other bridge types because there are a lot of various consideration
to look after and the design stage so little is routine.

x QA/QC: Segmental bridges require custom specifications. The

AASHTO "Guide Specifications for Design and Construction of
Segmental Concrete Bridges" contains basic construction
specifications but these need to be tailored for the specific job and
integrated with the owners existing bridge specifications. The owner
will either need to train his own forces or hire specialists to perform
inspections. Early segmental bridge projects frequently had large
claims filed for incomplete plans and specifications.

x Continuing Engineering Services: The owner needs engineering

expertise during the construction phase to approve shop drawings
(contract plans seldom detail every individual segment with every bar
length, drain inlet, electrical conduit etc.), evaluate design alterations
that improve constructability and troubleshoot inevitable design and
construction errors. This is frequently provided by the designer.
 19

Claims can mount for the unprepared owner who delays in

responding to contractor inquiries.

x Longer Construction Time: Segmental bridge construction requires

specialized formwork, falsework and construction equipment. These
all delay the beginning of superstructure construction.

2.6 Alternative Construction Methods.

Alternatives to cantilever erection were developed to extend the scope of

segmental bridge construction to many new applications, including (Joseph, 2004;
Juan and Joseph, 2004):

x Span-by-Span.

An entire span of segments is supported by a temporary truss or

girder which sitting on the pier until it is post-tensioned and self-supporting.
The truss or girder is launched to the next adjacent pier, and the process is
repeated (Figures 2.2 and 2.3).

x Progressive Placement.

The erection of multiple span bridges proceeds in one heading, often

with temporary supports to limit stresses in the structure during erection.
This method is particularly well suited to sites with severe access limitations
or where environmental issues limited contractor access to the work site. Its
first cast-in-situ application was in Finland in 1967
 20

x Incremental Launching.

A segment is attached to the previously completed bridge

superstructure, and then the entire completed bridge is launched outward
before the subsequent segment is assembled. This method was first applied
on the Rio Caroni Bridge in Venezuela in 1963 (Figure 2.4) (Juan and
Joseph, 2004).

x Segmental Cast-in-place with Traveller Formworks

This method of construction still utilizes the segmental method of

construction and balanced cantilever but the segment is casted in-situ. The
traveler formworks which is hang onto the previously casted segment is used
to form the segment. After the segment has been casted, after three to four
days, the temporary stressing will be applied to hold the segment to it place.
The formworks then will be push forward to the next segment and the same
process repeat until the middle of the span on both directions, creating a
balanced cantilever structure. Figure 2.5 shows the construction by traveler
form using balanced cantilever method.
 21

Table 2.1: FHWA Condition Ratings for Concrete Bridges (Maurice, 2001).

Code Description

N Not applicable

9 Excellent condition

8 Very good condition—no problems noted

7 Good condition—some minor problems

6 Satisfactory condition—structural elements show some minor

deterioration

5 Fair condition—all primary structural elements are sound but

may have minor section loss, cracking, or spalling

4 Poor condition—advanced section loss, deterioration, or spalling

3 Serious condition—loss of section, deterioration, or spalling

have seriously affected primary structural components; local
failures are possible; shear cracks in concrete may be present

2 Critical condition—advanced deterioration or primary structural

elements; shear cracks in concrete may be present; unless
closely monitored it may be necessary to close bridge until
corrective action is taken

1 ‘‘Imminent’’ failure condition—major deterioration or section

loss present in critical structural components or obvious vertical
or horizontal movement affecting structure stability;
bridge is closed to traffic but corrective action may put it back into
light service

0 Failed condition—out of service—beyond corrective action

 22

Table 2.2: Segmental Concrete Bridge Inspection Report Summary (Maurice, 2001).

Year CONDITION RATING

Built
Number of bridges Deck Superstructure Substructure

5 6 7 8 9 5 6 7 8 9 5 6 7 8 9

1972 1 1 1 1
1973 1 1
1974 2 1 1 2 2
1975 2 1 1 1
1976
1977 12 1 1 10 1 3 7 1 2 9 1
1978 3 2 2 2
1979 2 2 1 1
1980 6 4 1 3 2 2 3
1981 7 3 2 1 2 2 3 2
1982 7 3 4 4 3 3 2 2
1983 10 9 1 4 4 1 4 4
1984 10 4 5 4 4 1 1 5 3
1985 1
1986 15 11 4 3 8 4 4 11
1987 8 4 3 5 3 3 5
1988 12 1 8 3 1 7 4 1 3 8
1989 7 1 3 1 2 3 1 4
1990 4 1 3 1 2
1991 10 5 3 1 3 4 1 3 4
1992 6 4 1 2 1 4
1993 7 5 3 2 4 1
1994
1995 4 2 1 2 1 1 2
1996 4 3 2 1 3
1997 8 1 5 3 2 1 1 4 1
1998 5 3 3 3
1999 3

.
 23

Figure 2.2: Precast span-by-span construction with overhead truss (the Spaghetti
Bowl in Las Vegas, Nevada) (Juan and Joseph, 2004).

Figure 2.3: Cast-in-place span-by-span construction with self-launching forms

(Rosario Victoria Bridge in Argentina) (Juan and Joseph, 2004).
 24

Figure 2.4: Incrementally launched deck for Neckarburg Arch Bridge in Germany,
1977 (Juan and Joseph, 2004).

Figure 2.5: Vietnam Veterans Memorial Bridge - cantilever construction of a

segmental box girder using traveling forms (Juan and Joseph, 2004).
 25

Figure 2.6 - Typical shape of box girder on pier for Subang Kelana Link project
 26

CHAPTER 3

MANUFACTURING OF SEGMENTAL BOX GIRDER

3.1 Segmental Box Girder Production

A revolution in concrete bridge construction came about during this era in

response to the demands of the post-war economy for a large number of high-quality
concrete structures that could be assembled in a short time frame. In order to allow
for fast construction sequence and short time assembly, the precasting technology of
segmental box girder has been applied. Precasting bridge segments in a plant
environment (Juan and Joseph, 2004):

x Offered the advantages of improved curing and better quality control

x Reduced the influence of weather on production rates
x Offered opportunities for schedule compression because portions of the
superstructure could be fabricated in the plant and placed in storage while the
substructure was being constructed.
x It permits the segments to be fabricated elsewhere (precast) while the
substructure (i.e. piles, footings, pier columns and pier segments) is being
built
x It allows rapid assembly of the segments when building the cantilevers since
the delays in waiting for newly cast concrete to harden are eliminated.

Precasting the box girder segments speeds up the construction of the bridge structure
in two ways:
 27

1. It permits the segment to be fabricated elsewhere while the

substructure (piling, pilecaps) and superstructures (pier column) is
being built on site.

2. It allows rapid assembly of the segment when building the cantilever

since the delays in waiting for newly cat concrete to harden are
eliminated.

Being casted in the plant environment, the erector has to think about transportation
of the segment to the site. Due to the large size of the segment, a special contract for
transportation being given to the heavy transportation company. Normally one
segment will fit onto one truck or low-loader only. Many large construction
companies developed increasingly larger capacity equipment for precasting,
transporting and erecting concrete segments.

Arthur (2004) recommended that the manufacturing plant to secure a plant

quality assurance and quality control certification, in order to gain respect and
maintain reputation of the plant. A level of confidence in the segment manufacturer
can be assured by requiring in the project specifications for plant certification. In the
US, three plants certification are available, namely from:

1. Precast/Prestress Concrete Institute (PCI)

2. National Precast Concrete Association (NPCA)
3. Post Tensioning Institute (PTI)

Specialized epoxies for sealing the precast segment joints were developed. In
addition, match cast technology provided a method to precisely match adjacent
segment face geometry, allowing the necessary precision to achieve the required
structural geometry in the field. The first segmental concrete bridge with precast
segments was the Choisy-le-Roi, constructed in Paris in 1964.
 28

3.2 The Concrete Segment

Segment in segmental concrete bridge is defined as a modular section of the

superstructure formed to the cross sections and length (PWD, 2004). The segmental
box girder consisted of bottom slab, webs and a cantilever top slab (flange) to
provide maximum deck width. For a wider segment, an intermediate web is been
introduce. The segments that design by consultant on cater for the self weight,
operation and service load only. The design by consultant then checked by the
specialist contractor for the capacity and adequacy to cater for construction load.
The modifications for the segment then propose to the consultant which later counter
check the proposal. The modification that normally done by specialist contractor are:

1. Temporary blister for temporary prestressing.

2. Additional reinforcement due to additional construction load.
3. Additional reinforcement due to additional blister
4. Additional concrete due to segment modification for blister.
5. Additional reinforcement due to early stripping of formwork for
curing purposes.
6. Additional reinforcement on top slab to cater for segment lifting.

This modification is necessary to cater for the load from the gantry, which it was not
considered by main consultant during their design.

Upon acceptance by consultant, such modification incorporated into the final

shop drawing. The segment manufacturer then produced the segment catalogue
which consists of:

1. Segment number and type of segment.

2. List of construction drawing that being referred to.
3. List of shop drawing attached.
4. Shop drawing that has been produced and approved by consultant.
5. Construction drawing issued by consultant.
 29

6. Bar bending schedule with the bar size, shape, quantity and total weight.
7. Details drawing which shows the reinforcement arrangement for critical
area such as blister, web-slab junction.
8. Details drawing which shows all the holes and insertions into the
segment.

The segment catalogue will be use by the Resident Engineer or consultant

representative to check the fabricated reinforcement prior to casting the segment.
Any deficiencies from the segment catalogue compare to the actual reinforcement
arrangement have to be made known to the Resident Engineer and/or designer. Any
adjustment to be done also shall be approved and accepted by consultant, in order to
ensure it’s fulfilled the technical requirement. Figure 3.1 above shows the typical
arrangement of the segment.

The precast segments are being manufactured to the following dimensional

tolerances as shown in Table 3.1 (PWD, 2004):

Table 3.1 Segment dimension tolerances

TOLERANCES
SEGMENT’S PART thickness up to thickness exceed
500mm 500mm
1 Web ± 6 mm ± 9 mm
2 Top slab ± 6 mm ± 9 mm
3 Bottom slab ± 6 mm ± 9 mm
4 Overall depth of segment ± 9 mm
5 Overall width of segment ± 10 mm
6 Overall length of individual ± 10 mm
segment
7 Overall length of 2 adjoining ± 15 mm
segments in match cast position
8 Overall length of one complete ± 20 mm
span of segments
9 Straightness or bow (derivation ± 5 mm
from intended line)
 30

Figure 3.1: Arrangement of the segment between intermediate piers

 31

3.3 Segment Manufacturing.

3.3.1 Fabrication of reinforcement

The reinforcement fabrication is done out side of the segment mould in a

compartment call “rebar jig”. The rebar jig is a skeleton or frame of the segment
made of steel frame as shown in Figure 3.2. The reinforcement for each segment
will be erected in the rebar jig rather than the conventional way of fixing the rebar
inside the erected formwork. This rebar jig shall facilitate the fabrication of rebar
into the segment shape and dimension. Precise marking will be made on the jig to
indicate the spacing and length, location of inserts, cable ducts or box-out position.
The fabricated reinforcement together with all the cast-in item such as tendon duct,
temporary stressing duct, and pipe sleeve for lifting purposes, gulley chute and/or
electrical cabling conduit will then be inspect by Resident Engineer or consultant’s
representative for its compliance to the segment catalogue. Figure 3.3 and Figure 3.4
shows the reinforcement arrangement at the most congested area, i.e. web area and
blister

Figure 3.2 The rebar jig where the reinforcement is being fix.
 32

Any deficiencies from the segment catalogue compare to the actual reinforcement
arrangement have to be made known to the Resident Engineer and/or designer. Any
adjustment to be done also shall be approved and accepted by consultant, in order to
ensure it’s fulfilled the technical requirement.

After the reinforcement arrangement passed the inspection, the reinforcement

cage, as it was known after it completed, will be hoisted into the segment mould for
concreting (Raymond and Lee, 2005a, 2005b).

3.3.2 Segment Mould

Prior to assembling of the segment mould, all the shop drawings for the
mould have been submitted to the consultant for approval. Segment mould including
the casting bed and support are made of steel. It has been design structurally
adequate to support segments without distortion or settlement, sufficiently rigid and
tight to prevent loss of grout or mortar from the concrete at all stages of construction
and shall be appropriate for the short line casting method.

Figure 3.3 Reinforcement arrangement in the segment at the left and right web
area
 33

Figure 3.4 Reinforcement at center web with blister

It also should be rigid enough to maintain the casted segment in their correct
position, shape, profile, and dimension. The support have been design to withstand
the worst combination of forces due to self weight, formwork forces, reinforcement
weight, wet concrete weight, construction and wind loads, together with all the
incidental dynamic effects cause by placing, vibrating and compacting the concrete
(PWD, 2004; Lee and Raymond, 2005b; Arthur, 2004). The mould surfaces which
will produce the external surface of the segment have a Class F3 finish as described
in Specification for Concrete. The mould has been so arranged that it is readily to be
dismantle and removed from the casted concrete segment without shock, disturbance
or damage.

The mould also has been design to accommodate the various changes in
segment lengths, widths and cross fall such that on re-assembly on site the
appropriate geometry is achieved.

In the internal side of the mould, the mould lining is applied. The mould
lining is incorporate to the concrete finish requirement and complied to the
following requirement (PWD, 2005):

1. Squareness of panel ± 1 mm in 3 meter, cot cumulative

2. Flatness of skin plate ± 1 mm in 1 meter, not cumulative
 34

3. Straightness of panel ± 1 mm in 1 meter, not cumulative

The mould lining must be suitable for the application of suitable release agents and
capable of repetitive cleaning. Mould lining also should be in accordance to Section
9.8.2.1 of the Specification (PWD, 2005).

Casting surface of the skin plate to be power brushed to remove rust and other
blemishes to enable the required surface to be obtained and to receive a protective
coating of oil based grease to prevent corrosion. Where holes are needed to
accommodate projecting reinforcement or fixing devices, extra care being taken to
prevent loss of grout when concreting, or damage when removing the mould.

3.3.3 Casting the segment.

Prior to casting the segment, another round of inspection with the consultant
is done to ensure all the fitting and insertion such as tendon conduits, pipe sleeve,
anchor head are fixed firmly and does not dislocated during concreting. Before the
segment is casted, the surveyor again checks the alignment control, the super-
elevation, cambering and the level. The surveyor set four points on the top of
segment with a nail and the level and coordinates are checked and confirmed tally
with the consultant’s alignment control.

For the precast segment, concrete Grade G55/20 has been used with a
characteristic strength of 55 N/mm2 at 28 days. During concreting the compaction of
the concrete is achieved by using vibrator attached on the external side of the mould.
A total of 6 nos. of vibrators are attached on the external side of the mould. After
two days the segment will be de-mould. A design checking calculation of the
segment has been carried out by the specialist contractor to determine that at two
days the concrete strength, the segment could stand on its own on the support
without developing any crack due to early de-mould. The two days concrete strength
is being determine by carrying out the concrete cube test. The segment which is
 35

seated on the casting table on castor wheel will be push along it track into the curing
cell. Curing is done by spraying the water to form mist in a closed curing cell (K. M.
Lee and S. Raymond, 2005b). The result is excellent. No crack appears on the
segment after curing completed. The Figure 3.5 shows the schematic diagram of the
curing cell. This method of curing speeds up the production and allow for a cycle of
two day per segment for each mould.

3.3.3.1 Shortline match casting

“Match casting” is the precast concrete fabrication procedure

whereby a segment is cast against the preceding segment thereby producing a
matching interface that will permit re-establishment of the cast geometry at
the time of erection (PWD, 2005)

Shortline match casting is a method of casting segments one at a time

on a casting bed utilizing a fixed or moveable bulkhead. The first segment is
cast between bulkheads and the successive segments are cast one at a time
against the bulkhead at one end and the repositioned, previously casted
segment at the other end (PWD,2005; Lee and Raymond, 2005a; 2005b)

3.3.3.2 Longline match casting.

Longline match casting is not much different from Shortline match

casting. The only different is that in longline match casting, the preceding
segment which has been casted earlier is not being taken out of the casting
cell. The casting of the succeeding segment continues after one another
creating a long line of segments. Normally the segment for a whole span will
be cast all together.
 36

SKL Project-
Project-Curing Chamber

SKL
Subang-kelana link

Figure 3.5: Schematic diagram for curing cell for SKL Project (Raymond and Lee,
2005a)

After the whole span completed, we can witness the geometry of the
bridge. The advantage of this method is that we could always counter check
the geometry control based on the previously casted segments. The longline
match casting is not discussed in this project as stated in the scope and
limitation in Chapter 1.

Figure 3.6: Longline casting yard

 37

Since the erection of the segment is to be carried out by Balance cantilever

method, the casting of segments also follows the similar pattern. Casting of segment
began with starter segment that was either Pier Segment (PS) or Expansion joint
segment (EJS). This segment will be marked as P’X’-PS where X denoted the pier
number, (i.e P3-PS mean Pier Segment for Pier No. 3). For casting the next segment,
the PS or EJS segment which has been casted earlier will be position in front of the
mould for the next segment. This process is called match-cast where the previous
casted segment will act as one side of the mould for the next segment to be cast as
briefed earlier. The next segments were cast in similar manner using the previously
cast neighbouring segment to establish the geometry control as intended for the
completed bridge. A casting run proceeded until a cantilever of segments was
complete for balanced cantilever construction. Casting curves, including bridge
geometry and structural camber, were calculated for each segment and daily
surveying was performed for geometry control of the casting operation (Vijay et al.,
2004).

Particular care is exercise to ensure the correct alignment of the tendon

conduit from one unit to the next unit. This is important as to ensure that during
erection the conduit is fit and aligned, as such, easier to install the strand for the
tendon. The manufacturer should submitted the method statement on how to rectify
the segment should the tendon’s conduit is not align during erection.

3.3.4 Geometry control during casting

Before casting the segment, the manufacturer produces the method statement
for geometry control of the match casting operation. The geometry control
procedure inclusive of:

1. The details narrative of the geometry control theory

2. The details narrative of the step by step geometry control procedure
3. Detail calculation forms and sets of sample calculation.
 38

4. Details of proposed measuring equipment, procedures, the location of the

control points on each segment and the permanent benchmark.

After the segment has been cast and before the bond breaking, the relative position
of the two adjoining segments shall be determine from establish control point. This
information shall then be used to determine the required alignment of the adjacent
matching segment. If the tolerance exceeds the S.O has the discretion to accept or
reject the segment which will look into consideration the effects of the inaccuracies
and whether or not it can be compensated for the subsequent segments. Before
casting the manufacturer shall submit the details of the setting out and geometry
control readings for the segment and obtain approval from the consultant.

The completed segments are marked in the following order as in Figure 3.7:
Px-D04

Px-D03

Px-D02

Px-D01

Px-U01

Px-U02

Px-U03

Px-U04
Px-Dn

Px-Un
Px-PS

Downchainage Pier Upchainage

Key : Px - denote the pier number i.e. P3 mean pier no. 3

D - denote Downchainage bound segment
U - denote Upchainage bound segment
n - denote the segment number

Figure 3.7 Arrangement of the segment’s marking

3.3.5 Rejection of the segment

There are several cases where the casted segment has been rejected by the
S.O. or consultant’s representative. The rejection is normally due to:
 39

1. Concrete failed to achieve the specific characteristic strength at 28 days

as stipulated in the specification.

2. Seriously defected segment which might be beyond repair or

unacceptable rectification.

3. Casted segment with wrong dimension, wrong geometry control and

alignment.

The rejected segment must be replaced by the manufacturer by re-casting the

segment. The manufacturer has to submit the method statement on how cast this
segment. Casting the replacement segment normally called as Sandwich casting or
Tri-cast method. The process of sandwich casting involved setting up the preceding
and succeeding segment of the rejected segment, then recasting the wet-cast segment
in between, after proper geometry control survey coordinates on all three segments
were established and confirmed (Arthur, 2004).

Figure 3.8: Typical segment shape.

 40

3.3.6 Handling, storage and delivery

The mould of the segment shall remain in place until the concrete had
reached a compressive strength of (PWD, 2005):

1. Internal core : 15 N/mm2

2. Cantilever wings : 15 N/mm2

The mould stripping times apply to strength criteria only and the cantilever
should be check for creep deflections and some adjustment to the stripping
procedure. The segment should not be lifted from the mould forms until strength of
20 N/mm2 has been achieved. In order to optimize the production of the segment at
two days per segment per mould, the segment is being de-moulded at two days. In
this procedure, the manufacturer has carried out the checking that at the concrete
strength of two days, the segment should be able to be seated on the support during
curing period. The manufacturer might have to put additional reinforcement to cater
for this practice. The manufacturer have carried out trial at their own cost to
demonstrate that the segment is not damage at the time of removing the forms or
handling the segments with the concrete of strength and age as that proposed on site
when these operation will occur.

The segment shall be lifted and supported only at points and by methods
agreed by S.O. and handle and placed without impact, and to prevent torsion or other
undue stress. At storage yard, the area should be clear from ponding water and
deleterious matter in the units shall be prevented. Care should be taken to avoid
staining and efflorescence.

At the yard, the segments are normally kept double stack. The manufacturer
has to ensure that double stacking is being done in a manner where the older
segment is laid at the bottom. The manufacturer also carried out design check to
ensure reinforcement is adequate to support the other segment on it. Any damaged
segment should be reported to the S.O. and manufacturer should propose the
 41

remedial measures. Acceptance of the damaged and rectified is subject to S.O.

approval.

The contractor should deliver the precast segment from the casting yard on a
suitable trucks or trailer units. The precast segment is not allowed to be erected until
they have reached an age of 28 days unless approved by S.O. However the
longitudinal post tensioned tendons should not be stressed until the concrete
segments have attained the specific 28 days characteristic strength. Prior to delivery
of the segment, the match-cast side of the segment shall be sand blasted to roughen
the surface to receive the epoxy for jointing, as shown in Figure 3.9.

Figure 3.9: Sand blasting to the match-cast surface of the segment. (Raymond and
Lee, 2005a).

At casting yard a special straddle carrier is utilize to shift the segment within the
casting area. Figure 3.10 shows the straddle carrier use within the casting yard.
 42

Figure 3.10: Straddle carrier being used to shift the segment within casting yard.
(Raymond and Lee, 2005a)
 43

CHAPTER 4

OVERHEAD GANTRY OPERATION AND

SEGMENT ERECTION

4.1 Introduction

There is several method of erecting the segmental bridge that available. The
selected method normally decided by the consultant after details consideration of
several factors that affected the choice as briefed in Chapter 2. This chapter
discusses the erection of segmental box girder bridge utilising Balance Cantilever
method using overhead gantry truss.

4.2 Design of the Overhead Gantry

The decision to precast obviously requires a method for transporting the

segments to the bridge site and also a means for lifting the segments in place to
assemble them on the structure. Oftentimes, when bridges are constructed over
water, the segments can be shipped to the site on barges and lifted into place by
equipment positioned at the end of the cantilevers. For construction in the restricted
area such as city center the segment shall be transported by low loader or truck-
towing-cometo to site. The solution chosen to meet these special conditions was to
build the bridge entirely from above using a specialized piece of equipment called
"overhead gantry". Segment loaded low-loader will be tow toward the underneath
the gantry and the segment will be hoisted up and fix to the position. A specially
 44

built self-launching overhead gantry used allow all works to be carried out above the
ground and eliminated possible conflicts with the traffic on at grade road.

The massive size and length of the gantry is not so much for lifting the
segments but to launch it to move from pier to pier as it completes one section of the
bridge and moves on to the next. It normally sits on supports near the center and the
rear of the gantry while lifting segments to build a cantilever. With the aid of
temporary props, the gantry can be raised so the supports can be moved to the next
pier. The gantry then follows by sliding along the top of the supports as
demonstrated in Figure 4.1

Design of the overhead gantry launcher is the sole responsibility of the

contractor and/or specialist subcontractor. No specific provision been made by client
or main consultant in the design of permanent structure for loading imposed on any
portion of permanent structure by erection equipment other than for the loads
allowed for during erection of segment which are (PWD, 2004):

1. Uniformly distributed load of 0.5 kN/m2.

2. 50 kN point load applied at the tip of the cantilever.

The subcontractor is solely responsible for the design, fabrication, assembly and
operation of all equipment within the loading limitations mentioned above to be
used for handling, transporting and erecting the segments. The erection equipment or
gantry was design based on several codes of practice and guideline.

4.3 Assembly of the Gantry Launcher

The gantry launcher normally comprised of several module of triangular steel truss
with each module length up to 15 meter. Assembling the gantry, means all the
module should connected to made a complete gantry of length about 120 meter
spanning between three pier and supported on moveable support legs. For assembly
 45

Figure 4.1: Typical gantry launching steps.

of the gantry, the ground between these three piers has to be replace with hardstand
to cater for the gantry load. One or two temporary steel tower is erected in the
middle between the piers depending on the length of the span between two piers.
Next step is to assemble one of the gantry legs onto the pier to support the gantry
truss and the tower will support the truss at the other end. In some cases the gantry’s
leg is design to seat direct on the pier and others may design the gantry’s leg seat on
the pier segment. If the gantry’s leg seat on the pier segment, then the pier segment
should be erect first onto the pier. In this case the design checking has been carried
out to check the strength of the segment and might need some additional
reinforcement to cater for extra load from gantry.

The erection of this pier segment is being carried out using the crane. Two
cranes might be needed if the segment is huge and heavy. This pier segment is not
seating direct on the bearing on the pier but is seated on a temporary bearing made
up of jacks. In this situation the load from gantry and segment is not transferred to
the pier through the bearing. Again, here the design checking has been carried out to
ensure the pier could take the load from gantry and segment at different position
 46

temporarily. The figure on how the segment erection is explained in Section 4.4 of
the chapter.

The first two intermediate modules of the gantry are jointed on the ground,
then by using two cranes, the module being hoisted and seated on the pier and
temporary tower. Then the next module is hoisted up and joint to the modules that
have been jointed together on the pier. Until all the modules are joint together, then
the assembly is completed. The completed gantry is now seated on three piers and
the temporary tower could be dismantled. The overhead gantry is now ready for
testing and erection of the segment (Poh and Raymond, 2006). The Figure 4.2 to
Figure 4.6 shows the assembly procedure as explained above.

4.4 Testing the Overhead Gantry

Prior to the handling and erection of any segment, the contractor submitted
the method statement for performing the test to the satisfaction of the S.O. The tests
that need to be performed are (PWD, 2004):

1. Test on welded part (Magnetic Particle Inspection, X-ray Test, and

Hardness Test).

These tests are performed by an independent third party testing

specialist which engaged by contractor. The tester shall be an
accredited party by local or overseas accreditation agency.

2. Load test which consist of:

a. Full scale test on lifting and holding hardware

b. Full scale loading test up to 1.5 times the maximum weight of
the segment.
 47

Both tests are performed by the contractor onto the overhead gantry and
witnessed by personnel from Department of Occupational Safety and Health
(DOSH). The overhead gantry is being support in the same manner and using the
same supporting devices as to be used during erection the span.

Figure 4.2: Preparing the hardstand for gantry assembly near P13 and P12 at
Subang Kelana project (Poh and Raymond, 2006)

Figure 4.3: Part of the gantry being assembled at Bayan Baru bypass project,
Pulau Pinang. The same gantry is being use at Subang Kelana Link project, the
similar assemblies steps being utilize. (Poh and Raymond, 2006)
 48

The overhead gantry is loaded in a manner in which it will be used during

erection of the span with load equivalent to 1.5 times the maximum weight of the
segment. The test is performed by engaging the heaviest segment, normally pier
segment to the hoisting jack and hoists it up and holds for thirty (30) minutes. In
order to obtain the factor of 1.5 time maximum load, two number of counter weight
is attached to the segment to make up extra load. During the testing the deflection of
the gantry is monitored and recorded. Several points of deflection measurement have
been marked underneath the bottom chord of the gantry truss. At Subang Kelana
Link project, a maximum deflection of three inches is allowed at the midspan.
Figure 4.7 shows the marking made onto the gantry, meanwhile Figure 4.8 shows
the load test being carried out to the gantry at Bayan Baru Bypass project in Penang
(Poh and Raymond, 2006).

The purposes of the test are to:

a. Ensure the capacity of the overhead gantry to carry out the

erection.
b. Ensure the safety of the overhead gantry to carry out the
erection.
c. Obtain the Hoisting Machine Permit (Permit Mesin Angkat –
PMA) from DOSH

The equipment could only be operation after granted the PMA by

Department of Occupational Safety and Health and the PMA should be renew
annually by re-do the test. Another test being done is the lifting jack movement. The
test is done by engaging the heaviest segment, this time without the additional
counter weight and moves the lifting jack from end to end between two piers. Since
the overhead gantry is seating on three piers, the test is conducted twice, once on the
back portion between first and second pier and another one on front portion between
second and third pier. The test also being conducted on other machinery on the
gantry such as the motor that move the hoisting jack, the chain that move the
workers working platform (gondola) and etc.
 49

Figure 4.4: Schematic figure for step by step gantry assembly (Andrew and
Raymond, 2006)
 50

Figure 4.5: Schematic figure for step by step gantry assembly (Andrew and
Raymond, 2006)
 51

Figure 4.6: Schematic figure for step by step gantry assembly (Andrew and
Raymond, 2006)
 52

Figure 4.7 Deflection checking point on the gantry truss.

4.5 Segment Delivery

Segment delivery is also a special task to be handled. Since the segment is

huge and heavy, a special low loader or cometo is design to transport the segment.
The transportation is more difficult if the casting yard and site is far apart. When the
erection site is in the urban area, the proper traffic diversion and management should
be planned.

Figure 4.9 shows the schematic traffic arrangement at Subang Kelana Link
project where the erection is being done in the middle of the busy road. At most of
the project where the erection is done within the urban area and no storage or
holding bay nearby the site, the contractor has successfully implemented the concept
of “Just in Time” in delivery the segment from casting yard to site. The segment
delivered to site and arrived at the site just in time the gantry is already ready to lift
the segment and erected it. Low and Choong (2001) strongly recommended that all
the precast construction to utilised the concept of “Just In Time”, where it has
tremendous potential for managing the movement of precast concrete component
 53

from fabricating yard to site, especially those with space constraint and restricted
site area.

Figure 4.8: Load testing for the complete assembled gantry to a 1.5 factor of
safety. To achieve 1.5 FOS, additional weight was attached to the segment. (Poh and
Raymond, 2006)

Segment Delivery

Distance of
Road Clearance
48m 48m
Pier

12m

Trailer Length
Plan View

SKL
Bayan Baru Viaduct

Subang-kelana link

Figure 4.9 Arrangement for segment delivery (Raymond, 2005)

 54

4.6 Erection of the Segment

Erection of the segment by balance cantilever method commenced

from the first pier after the abutment for the erection that started from the ramp or
the first pier after expansion joint pier for the erection started from the expansion
joint. However, prior to assembling and launching the gantry launcher, the pier
segment (PS) has to be erected onto the pier first. This is because the legs of the
gantry will be seated on the pier segment (or expansion joint segment (EJS)). This is
where the segment needs some modification from what has been design by
consultant due to extra load from the gantry.

4.6.1 Erection of Pier Segment

Erection of pier segment will be carried out using cranes to hoist up

the segment onto the pier. Two cranes might be needed if the segment is
huge and heavy and depends on the weight and size of the segment. This pier
segment is not seating direct on the bearing on the pier but is seated on a
temporary bearing made up of several jacks as shown in Figure 4.10. The
schematic arrangement is illustrated in Figure 4.11. In this situation the load
from gantry and segment is not transferred to the pier through the bearing.
Again, here the design checking has been carried out to ensure the pier could
take the load from gantry and segment at different position temporarily.

The segment later being tied down to the pierhead by four (4) nos. of
stress bar embedded in the pierhead. The design for the embedded stress bar
and the pierhead design have been checked by the contractor for its moment
and capacity. The contractor will propose the modification to the pierhead
and segment by issuing the shop drawing and design check (Andrew and
Raymond, 2006).
 55

Pier Segment Supported by Jacks

Support Jacks

Bearing

Bayan Baru Viaduct

Figure 4.10 Pier segment being arrange to be seated on the jacks

(S. Raymond, 2005)

PS U1

Temp.
Grout StressBar
Jacks

Sledge Plate
M. Bearing

SKL
Bayan Baru Viaduct
Subang-kelana link

Figure 4.11 Schematic figures on the segment seating.

4.6.2 Erection of Expansion Joint Segment at Expansion Joint Pier

Erection of expansion joint segment (EJS) at expansion joint pier also

carried out using cranes to hoist up the segment onto the pier. Two cranes
might be needed if the segment is huge and heavy and depends on the weight
 56

and size of the segment. This expansion joint segment (EJS) also not seating
direct on the bearing on the pier but is seated on a temporary bearing made
up of several jacks. In this situation the load from gantry and segment is not
transferred to the pier through the bearing, the contractor also carried out
design checking ensure the pier could take the load from gantry and segment
at different position temporarily.

The segment later being tied down to the pierhead by four (4) nos. of
stress bar embedded in the pierhead. The contractor will propose the
modification to the pierhead and segment by issuing the shop drawing and
design check (Andrew and Raymond, 2006).

After the gantry is ready to receive the segment, the first two segments (the
first segment on left and right of the pier – known as upchainage and downchainage
of the respective pier), marked as PnU01 & PnD01 respectively, where “n” denote
the pier number, “U” denoted for upchainage and “D” denoted for downchainage,
will be delivered to site. The two segments shall be hoisted concurrently by the
hoisting lift hanging underneath the gantry, in order to balanced up the gantry
loading. Prior to fixing the segment onto the matching segment, a layer of epoxy
mortar is applied on the match-cast interfacing face of the segment. The epoxy
mortar will act as an adhesive between the two segments and also provide a layer of
water proofing to avoid water from entering the tendon conduit before the tendon is
pre-stress and grouted. The segments then will be fixing to the pier segment (PS)
and temporary stressing using stress bar will be applied to fix the segment together.
Again here the temporary stressing is design by contractor and therefore segment
need to be modified. Modification is done by proposing the temporary blister to hold
the stressing.

After the segment being secured with temporary stressing, the next two
segments marked as PnU02 and PnD02 will be erected by the same procedure.
When the segments were placed matched to the previously fixed segment, the strand
will be push in through the tendon conduit. This strand will make up a stressing
tendon for permanent stressing to hold the segment permanently. This tendon also
 57

known as cantilever tendon and being applied for every two segment fixed on both
end of the cantilever.

The same erection sequence will be apply for the next segment until all the
segments are erected and formed a balanced cantilever structure of bridge deck for a
span. The schematic diagram in Figure 4.12 and Figure 4.13 shows the erection
sequence for erection commence at intermediate pier and expansion joint pier
respectively.

Table 4.1 shows the erection tolerance which has been set up by Public
Works Department for project handle by them (PWD, 2004)

4.7 Launching the Gantry

After the erection of the segment is completed as a balance cantilever, a

stitch beam is attached at the middle of the span to joint the segment of two balance
cantilever portion as shown in Figure 4.14. The next step of launching is shown in
the following figure from Figure 4.14 to Figure 4.19

4.8 Epoxy Bonding Agent for Precast Segment

During erection of the precast segment, epoxy is applied to the surface of the
match-cast side prior to fixing the next segment. Epoxy bonding agent for match
cast joint shall be thermosetting 100% solid compositions that do not contain solvent
or any non-reactive ingredient except for pigments required for coloring. Epoxy
bonding agent comes in form of two components, a resin and a hardener. The two
components shall be distinctly pigmented so that mixing produces a third colour
similar to the concrete in the segments to be joint and packaged in per-portioned,
labeled, ready to use container. Epoxy bonding agent is formulated to provide
application temperature ranges that permit erection of match cast segment at
 58

Figure 4.12: Sequence of segment erection at expansion joint

 59

Figure 4.13: Sequence of segment erection at intermediate piers

 60

Table 4.1 Erection tolerances.

No Description Tolerances
1 Maximum differential between outside faces of adjacent Not exceed 3mm
segments in the erected position

2 Across concrete-filled joint on all faces exposed in the 3 mm max.

completed structure.

3 Across all joint not exposed in the completed including 5 mm max.

box interiors

4 Transversely the angular deviation from the theoretical Not exceed 0.001
slope difference between two successive segments joint radians

5 Vertically the angular deviation from the theoretical Not exceed 0.003
slope difference between two successive segments joint radians

6 The different in deck elevation at the connection of two Not exceed 3 mm

adjacent segments (measured perpendicular to the deck
surface)

7 The horizontal and vertical alignment of the pier ± 5 mm

diaphragm segments measured at the centerline of that
required by as-cast curves.

8 In plan the centerline of each segment shall not depart Not more than 10
from the nominal design centerline. mm

9 In elevation, the position of the top surface of the

segments shall be such as to result in a roadway surface
which complies with the specification in respect of
thickness of asphalt wearing course, roadway levels and
evenness of surface.

substrate temperatures from 5oC to 45oC. If the two surfaces to be bonded have
different substrate temperatures, the adhesive applicable to the lower temperature
shall be used.

Epoxy bonding agent is sensitive to damp conditions during application and

after curing, shall exhibit high bonding strength to cured concrete, good water
resistively low creep characteristics and a tensile strength higher than concrete. The
 61

bonding agents also must function as a lubricant during the joined of the match cast
segments, as a filler to accurately match the surfaces being joined, and a durable,
water tight bond at the joint.

The bonding agents also being tested to determine their workability, gel time,
open time, bond and compressive strength, shear and working temperature range.
The following tests have been carried out (PWD, 2004):

Start To Launch Girder

2. Move Front Support to Next Pier

1. Adjust Front Leg

Figure 4.14 Launching step 1 & 2

Step 1 Engaged and adjust the front leg ( Yellow item )

Step 2 Release Front Support and move to next pier.
Note : The blue bar shows the completed cantilever and the green bar shows the
stitch beam connected for stitch concreting.(Raymond, 2006)
 62

Launching Forward

Figure 4.15 Launching step 3

Step 3 Engaged the Front Support and the Rear leg

Launching Forward

3. Move Rear Support to Next Pier

Figure 4.16 Launching step 4

Step 4 Release Rear Support and move it to next pier

 63

Launching Forward

4. Launch Girder Forward

Figure 4.17 Launching step 5 & 6

Step 5 Engage Rear Support

Step 6 The truss now supported by Front, Rear Support and rear leg and
ready to be launch forward.

Completion Of Launching

5. Engage Front Support Leg

6. Re-
Re-engage Truss Support

Figure 4.18 Launching step 7

Step 7 After the truss move forward and the front leg reach next pier, engage
the Rear Support and Front Support firmly and also the Front leg on
the next pier.
 64

Ready For Erection

Figure 4.19 Launching step 8

Step 8 Now the gantry truss is ready to carry out segment erection.

1. Open time test

Defined as the minimum allowable period of elapsed time
from the application of the mixed epoxy bonding agent to the
precast segment until the two segments have been assembled
together and (temporarily) post-tensioned.

2. Gel time test

Defined as the period of time the mixing bonding agent
remains workable in the mixing container during which it
must be applied to the match cast joint surface.

3. Sag flow test

4. Compressive strength test

3 nos. samples of 50mm cubic per joint
One sample to be tested at 24 hrs, the rest at 48 hrs.
Must achieved 20MPa at 24 hrs and 55MPa at 48 hrs.
 65

5. Bonding strength test

3 nos. samples per cantilever.
Each test consist of 2 nos. 100mm x 100mm x 200mm
concrete of compressive strength of 55 MPa at 28 days joint
properly on 100mm x 100mm face with epoxy.
Test conducted at 24 hrs. using Standard ASTM C78 test for
flexural strength. A companion test beam shall be prepared of
the same concrete, cured for the same period and test the
similar way. The epoxy bonding agent is acceptable if the
load on the prisms at failure is greater than 90% of the load on
the reference test beam at failure.

6. Slant shear test

3 nos. samples cylinder per cantilever
One sample to be tested at 24 hrs, the rest at 48 hrs.

All the tests except compressive strength are carried out once in one
cantilever whereas the compressive test is carried out once per joint, however
the frequency of test is decided by the S.O.

4.8.1 Mixing and Application of Epoxy

Joints between abutting segments is made using an approved epoxy

bonding agent as specified. Surfaces of the segment where the epoxy to be
applied, shall be free from oil, laitance, form grease agent, or other materials
that would prevent the materials from bonding the segments. The surface
must be dry or equivalents of surface dry (no visible water).

The level and alignment of each segment being checked against the
previous segment prior to application of epoxy bonding agent. Correction of
the alignment, if necessary, must be made prior to application of epoxy.
 66

Mixing and placing of epoxy is carried out under the trained supervision.
Mixing should not start until the segment is prepared for installation.
Application shall according to the manufacturer’s instruction using trowel,
rubber glove or brush on one or both surfaces to be joined. The coating must
be smooth and uniform and shall cover the entire surface with a minimum
thickness of 1.5mm if applied on both surfaces and 3.0mm if applied on one
surface.

The epoxy materials must be applied to all surfaces within the first
half of the gel time as shown on the containers. The segment shall be joined
within 45 minuets after application of the first epoxy materials placed and a
minimum average temporary prestress of 0.2MPa over the cross-section

Figure 4.20 Mixing the epoxy bonding agent

 67

Figure 4.21 Applying the epoxy onto the segment surface

should be applied within 70% of the open time of epoxy materials. At no

point of the cross-section shall the temporary prestress be less than
0.15MPA, and shall complied to BS5400 : part 4 (1990), Clause 7.3.3.

The epoxy shall be prevented from coming into contact with

permanently visible concrete surfaces. The epoxy also should be preventing
from entering the tendon ducts. Contractor shall proposed the measure to
avoid the epoxy from entering the duct by placing sealing gaskets around the
ducts holes and roding the duct until the epoxy sets.

If the joint is not completed within 70% of the open time, then the
bonding agent shall be completely removed from the surface. The surfaces
must be prepared again and fresh epoxy shall be applied to the surface before
resuming jointing operations.

A record for each joint shall be prepared which should exhibit the following:

1. Joint reference,
2. Date and time of jointing,
3. Ambient temperature,
4. Weather conditions,
 68

5. Epoxy resin formulation,

6. Batch numbers,
7. Number and quantity of mixes,
8. Observed gel time of the epoxy,
9. Surface conditions of the segments.

Personnel applying the epoxy shall be notified about the dangers of skin
contact and supplied with suitable protective clothing. Chemical for removal
shall be available within 10m from the mixing place.

4.9 Stressing Works

In balanced cantilever method of construction, there are three step of

stressing namely Temporary stressing, Cantilever stressing and Continuity
stressing.

4.9.1 Temporary Stressing

Temporary stressing is being done to hold the segment

temporarily attached to the preceding fixed segment on the cantilever
structure. In this case the temporary stressing design calculation is
being done by contractor and/or specialist contractor. The contractor
then proposed the additional blister added to the segment after
checking the required forces and effect to the segment part. The
temporary stressing will be done by inserting the stress bar into the
duct and spanning between two segments. The stress bar will be
stress to the pre-determined forces to hold the segment. The
temporary stressing will be done for every segment to hold them
temporarily before the permanent tendon is applied. Figure 4.22
 69

shows the temporary blister and temporary stress bar being stressed
to hold the segment.

4.9.2 Cantilever Stressing

After the second segment (segment PxU02 & PxD02) being

fit on both side of the cantilever, the temporary stressing bars are
inserted and the segment will be fix to the segment by stressing the
temporary stress bar as explained above. At this moment, there are
five segments have been fit onto the cantilever structure. Next, the
permanent cantilever tendon will be installed and stressed. The
permanent cantilever tendon is installed and stressed after every two
segment erected at both end of the cantilever structure.

Stress bar

Top temporary blister

Figure 4.22 Temporary stressing using stress bar.

4.9.3 Continuity Stressing

Continuity stressing is carried out to the continuity tendons that being

installed after two cantilever structure are completed. The continuity tendon
 70

will hold the bridge structure of two cantilever structure as a continuous

structure. This tendon is applied after the concrete stitching is done between
two cantilever structures. Figure 4.23 shows a sample of stressing anchorage
provided by VSL Engineer Sdn Bhd. Figure 4.24 shows the stressing
sequence for the stressing work for continuity stressing and also cantilever
stressing. Figure 4.25 shows the stressing works for the tendon is in progress
at one of the project in Malaysia.

Figure 4.23 The tendon stressing anchorage (VSL Far East)

4.9.4 Stressing Wire

The prestressing wire shall be of 7-wire with low relaxation super

strand complied to ASTM A416-85 Grade 270 with the following properties.

Nominal size 15.2 mm

Nominal cross section area 140 mm2
Specific characteristic strength 260.7 kN
Modulus of Elasticity 195 kN/mm2
 71

Figure 4.24 Stressing step by step (VSL Far East)

Figure 4.25 Stressing in progress

 72

The maximum jacking forces that could be applied is 80% of the

specific characteristic strength and maximum force in tendon at lock-off
should not more than 70% of the specific characteristic strength.

During the prestressing works, the losses in the ducts of post

tensioning box girder should be as follows:

1. Friction coefficient ( µ ) = 0.25/radians for internal tendon

0.15/radians for external tendon

2. Wobble factor 0.0033/m for internal tendon

0.001/m for external tendon

3. Anchorage draw-in after lock-off is 7 mm

The estimated losses of prestressing in post tensioned box girder have been
design as shows in Table 4.2:

Table 4.2 Steel wire relaxation loss

Initial Relaxation Initial Relaxation

Load Load
Relaxation Class2
(1000 hours at 200) 60% 1.0% 80% 4.5%
70% 2.5%

Elastic deformation of concrete and subsequence shrinkage and creep

of the concrete as per Appendix B & C of BS 5400 : Part 4 : 1990
considering relative Humidity of air = 90%, with cement content of 400
kg/m3 and water/cement ration of 0.4.

Meanwhile losses in the stressing jacks and amount of anchorage

draw in may vary by the different system use by the contractor and
contractor had carried out the adjustment during prestressing stages. The
adjustment proposed has been submitted to consultant for review and
approval. Prior to carry out the stressing, the pre-stressing specialist
 73

submitted the calculation of the estimated tendon elongation for each tendon.
After stressing, the deviation of elongation from actual to the estimated one
should be ± 5% for each tendon measured at one-forth of the tendon length
and ± 8% of overall tendon in a span.

Meanwhile, tendon duct is of corrugated steel sheaths for internal

tendon. In the area where the curvature is very high, the pre-bent steel tube is
utilized. Meanwhile tendon for external duct is of HDPE tubes with
minimum internal diameter of calculated based on 1.7 x sq. root of steel area
(1.7x¥steel area) and round up to nearest 5 mm.

The tendon deviators both within the span and adjacent to anchorage
should be formed to required radius with bell mouth entries using galvanized
steel tube. The bell mouth radius should not less than 1000 mm. the external
diameter of deviator should be at least 15 mm greater than outside diameter
of the tendon sheaths.

Tendon anchorage size is shown in the Table 4.3 below:

Table 4.3 Tendon anchorage.

Tendon Minimum anchorage Maximum anchorage

7 / 15 205 x 205 220 x 220
12 / 15 265 x 265 280 x 280
19 / 15 310 x 310 340 x 340
27 / 15 380 x 380 400 x 400
31 / 15 380 x 380 400 x 400

4.10 Concrete Stitching

Concrete stitching is an activity where the gap between two cantilever

structures is seal with concrete. The gap is normally about 200mm to 300mm
depends on the design. The gap is created at every middle of the span for adjustment
 74

of the box girder in term of level and alignment. Figure 4.26 shows the schematic
diagram of the stitch arrangement. If the precasting of the box girder has been done
accurately, the problem with alignment should not exist. Problem in level do exist
due to discrepancies in actual stressing compare to theoretical stressing forces. At
this gap, the cantilever structure sometime did not match in term of level and/or
alignment. Therefore before the gap is stitch, the different in level and alignment
have to be resolved. The realignment is being done by installing the stitch beam
across the gap. The stitch beam is later tie to the segment at both sides with stress
bar and the bars are later stress to level up and realign the box girder as shown in
Figure 4.27. After the level is up to the acceptable tolerance, the steel formwork is
installed underneath the gap and the gap is concreted with the same grade of
concrete as the box girder. After the concrete achieved the specific characteristic
strength, the continuity tendon is installed and stressed.

Mid Span Closure

Launching Direction

Concrete
Stitch Beam

Continuity Tendon Formwork

SKL
Bayan Baru Viaduct
Subang-kelana link

Figure 4.26 Schematic diagram of the stitch (Raymond, 2005)

4.11 Tendon Grouting

Tendon in a prestress structure is the one that carry service load from the
structure. In post tensioned prestressed box girder bridge, tendon is the element that
hold the segmental box girder intact to form a bridge deck for a span. No doubt the
 75

Mid Span Closure Stressing Jack

Stressbars

200mm Gap

Stitch Beam
Bayan Baru Viaduct

Figure 4.27 Stitch beam installed and stress to align the box girder.
(Raymond, 2005)

Figure 4.28 Concreting the stitch in progress (Raymond, 2005)

tendon is the most important element, thus we cannot afford to allow the tendon to
be deteriorated. The actual deterioration affected the tendon is corrosion. In order to
avoid the tendon from corroded; the tendon has to be grouted. This exercise applied
to both internal and external tendon.
 76

Tendon grouting is normally made of non-shrink grout which is available in

the market by the name such as MAPEI, SIKA etc. After stressing has been
completed and the elongation is checked and verified by engineer, the protruding
tendon at the anchor will be cut. The grout that has been mixed is injected into the
tendon by pressure from one end to another end of the tendon. Along the tendon
duct, several access tubes are installed, especially at sagging point as drain tube and
top point as air vent tube. These access tubes will flush out the air and water that
trapped in the duct during grouting, hence the grout will be free from water and air
that could activate the corrosion process. These tubes also act as an element to
ensure the duct is filled-up and grouted properly, when the grout spilled out at these
tubes.

Figure 4.29 Typical arrangement of the tendon in prestress structure (VSL Far
East)

However serious problem can develop in grouted post-tensioned structures if

void are present within the grout that is used to fill the tendon ducts and protect the
prestressing steel. Inadequate grouting may allow water to penetrate into the duct,
initiate corrosion of the tendon and potentially lead to failure of the structure. The
collapse of Bickton Meadows footbridge in Hampshire in 1967 and Ynys-Y-Gwas
Bridge in West Glamorgan in 1985 due to tendon corrosion and other reason lead to
ban of the construction of new bonded post-tensioned bridge in United Kingdom in
1992. Both structure age 15 years and 32 years old respectively. The problems
mainly due to deficient construction and poor design choices rather than intrinsic
 77

deficiencies with segmental and post-tensioning structural system (Maurice, 2001).

Poston and Wouters (1998) wrote in their report stated that in the United
Kingdom the experience of the corrosion to the grouted tendon happened due to
improper grouting, detailing for the Walnut Lane Bridge, meanwhile Sixth South
Street Viaduct experienced corrosion distress of post tension tendon.

In United State, tendon grouting is a specialist job, where the engineer or supervisor
in charge for grouting work should have a Grouting Competency Certificate issued
by American Segmental Bridge Institutes (ASBI). The certificate shall be renewing
every five years by attending the refreshing course and sit for an examination
(ASBI, 2006).
 78

CHAPTER 5

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

5.1 Introduction

This chapter elaborated the methods utilised in carrying out the study for this
project. A proper planning and schedule had been organied on the methodology of
the study in proper sequence to ensure a smooth running of this project from
literature review, questionnaire survey, and interview with the experts, data
collections, data analysis, until the discussion, recommendation and conclusion.

5.2 Determination of the Research Objectives

Preliminary interview and talk has been done with the consultant and
contractor in the related field to determine the research objectives and scope of the
project. Some information pertaining to the problem faced by contractor has been
raise up by the contractor which has not being considered by the consultant in their
design. The contractor also point out the problem at casting yard as well as the
problem faced in checking the segment. After the preliminary review, specific
scopes of the study has been recognized considering various scope such as
probability to achieve the target or objective of the project, the time constraints,
availability of the literature materials and other scopes.
 79

5.3 Literature Review

Literature review has been carried out to establish some technical knowledge
and problem that has been encounter by other bridge project. The literature review
has been obtained from several sources such as published books, textbooks,
information from internet, articles in journals and papers of some published
guidance from practice in the industry and previous construction records. The
purpose of literature review is to gather important information related to the project
and deepen the understanding of the construction of the segmental bridge and the
precast segmental box girder bridge in particular. The author faced with difficulties
in looking for book in this field as the published books is very limited, thus have to
rely on the journals and on-line journal, magazines and a few unpublished materials
such as method statement and PowerPoint presentation. The author also referred to
some technical articles that produced by local department of transport of certain city
in U.S but it only accessible through the internet.

5.4 Data collections

Data collections have been done in two stages namely by interviews with the
expertise and professional in bridge construction and questionnaire survey with the
contractors and segment manufacturer in the industry. The structured interviews are
conducted for the purposes to obtain the data and information that is not mentioned
in the questionnaire. After the interview, the respondent is given a set of written
questionnaire for them to answer. In the interview with consultant, no questionnaire
is given for answer.

5.4.1 Questionnaire Survey

The structured questionnaires survey has been develop to determine the

actual problem faced by the contractor in two areas, i.e. manufacturing the segment
 80

and construction and erection of the segment. The questionnaire has been divided
into three sections.

Section A – Professional Background

- to obtains the professional background of the respondent on the
bridge construction.

Section B – Manufacturing the segment

- to confirm that the segment need to be modify
- to determine which segment is modify the most
- to determine what kind modification done
- to determine other problem that contributes to difficulties in
manufacturing the segment.

Section C – Construction and erection of the segment

- to confirm whether the pier column need checking and
modification
- to determine the competency of the gantry operator
- to determine the competency of the grouting supervisor
- to determine other factor that contributes toward difficulties in
erection of the segmental bridge.

The author faced with the problem to get the information as only two companies that
involved in manufacturing the segment and only three companies that is the
specialist in erecting the precast segmental box girder bridge.

5.4.2 Interview with the Experts

The interview with panel of professional experts comprises of professionals

from consultant, segment manufacturer, as well as the contractor themselves who
involved in segmental bridge construction. Again the author faced with difficulties
since not many construction firm involved in segmental bridge. Same thing
 81

happened with the consultant when only a handful of consultant expert in segmental
bridge. Most of the contractor’s personnel are not totally involved in bridge
construction but they are assigned to the project for the sake of handling the project
only.

5.4.2.1 Objective of the Interview

The objectives of the interviews are to obtain additional information and data
regarding the design and construction of segmental bridge. The interview
strengthens the research findings based on the main objectives as specified earlier.
These objectives are:

(I) To identify the limit of design done by the consultant.

(II) To identify the understanding of consultant regarding the problem

faced by segment manufacturer, and
(III) To identify the understanding of consultant regarding the problem
faced by the erector/constructor of the segment.

5.4.2.2 Methodology of the Interview

The interviews were conducted with the consultant’s main person in their
team. In this project, interview was conducted with the Chief Designer and Senior
bridge designer. With the contractor, the interview conducted with their top
management in the manufacturer and erector. The same person has been interview at
the beginning of the project for preliminary interview. This time they are being
interview on more details information and why the fragmentation of design
happened between consultant and specialist contractor.
 82

5.5 Data Analysis

A simple data analysis is being carried out from the questionnaire. The
statistical methods used here are content analysis and relative indices technique to
analysis the data. The discussions are mainly to evaluate the results obtained from
the survey to compare with the experts opinions in conjunction with the objectives
of the study. The summary of the study are presented with the recommendations and
conclusion.

5.5.1 Content Analysis

Content analysis is used to determine the number of response that the

respondents gives in proposing to different variables based on the same
questionnaires. The proposed variables are tabulated and analyzed based on the
opinions given by the total respondents.

5.5.2 Frequency Analysis

The frequency analysis is used to represent results of data analysis of the

number of response that the respondent gives to different variables in the
questionnaire. The result has been tabulated in the form of frequency number and
percentage according to total respondents.

5.5.3 Relative Index Analysis

Relative Indices is a technique used to compute the strength of indices of

agreement for each question so as to enable subsequent comparison between each
factor to support the level of importance of the subject.
 83

The result will be summarized to obtain ranking according to the level of

importance in evaluating the understanding toward the contribution factor of the
problem. The respondents have been requested to evaluate the factors that
contribute to difficulties in segment manufacturing and segment erection. The
respondents are required to expressed their understanding toward problem based on
five-point scale starting with 1 for Less, 2 for Slightly, 3 Moderately, 4 Extensively
and 5 Most extensively.

The relative index analysis for each variable is calculated by using the
formula as follows:

Relative Index (R.I) = ™1x1 +2x2 + 3x3 + 4x4 + 5x5

5™ x1 +x2 + x3 + x4 + x5

Where,

x1 = Number of respondents for Least Important /Least agreed;

x2 = Number of respondents for Fairly Important /Fairly agreed;
x3 = Number of respondents for Important/ Agreed;
x4 = Number of respondents for Strongly Important/Strongly Agreed; and
x5 = Number of respondents for Very Strongly Important/ Very Strongly
Agreed.

The computation of Relative Index using this formula yield the value of
Relative Index (RI) ranging from 0.2 to 1, where 0.2 denoted the minimum strength
and 1 denoted the maximum strength. The RI computed is referred to make
comparison between each factor generated from the survey.
 84

CHAPTER 6

THE ANALYSIS AND FINDING

6.1 Introduction

In this project case study, questionnaires have been distributed to the person
that has direct involvement in manufacturing and erection of the segmental box
girder bridge. Several interviews have been conducted with several personnel from
consultant and contractor in this field. The persons interviewed actually have hands-
on experience with the works. However, in arranging the questionnaire and
interview we experienced some difficulties due to limited construction company and
limited person that actually have experience in this method of construction. Most
main contractor that secured the contract to build such bridge is only managing the
construction and sub-contracts it to the specialist contractor. The sub-contractor that
specializes in prestressed segmental box girder bridge is only three in Malaysia,
namely Freyssinet PSC Sdn Bhd, VSL Engineers Sd Bhd, a company belong to
Germany’s VSL International plc, and Persys Sdn. Bhd, a local company under
Associate Concrete Product Industries Berhad (ACPI) which is a well known
concrete product manufacturer in Malaysia. The segment manufacturer in Malaysia
is only two companies, namely PROJALMA Sdn Bhd and ACPI. PROJALMA has
involved in producing the segment for several project such as Ampang-KL Elevated
Highway, Seremban Middle Ring Road, Jalan Gopeng bypass in Ipoh and currently
for Subang Kelana Link Project in Subang Jaya and another project in Singapore.
ACPI has produced the segment for many projects in Malaysia such as LRT
Viaduct, Jalan Duta – Jalan Kuching Interchange, Sprint Highway, New Pantai
Expressway etc.
 85

6.2 Questionnaire Survey

The questionnaire survey has been divided into three sections.

Section A - Professional background.

Section B - Manufacturing of Segmental Box Girder and
Section C - Erection and construction of segmental box girder bridge.

The respondent for the questionnaire survey has been selected from engineer
to managing director in the company that has direct involvement in manufacturing
the segment and specialist contractor that carry out the erecting of the segmental
bridge. Unfortunately there are only three companies in Malaysia that involved
direct in erecting the segmental bridge and two companies in manufacturing the
segment, thus the information is quite limited. The authors’ efforts to seek respond
from overseas company failed after several email sent are not answered. Twelve
questionnaires have been sent out to local company but only nine responded, which
comprised of 75% of all questionnaires. The distribution of the person that
responded to the questionnaire is shown in the Table 6.1.
 86

Table 6.1 Number of respondents

Respondents Number Percentage

Replied for
1 8.3%
Section B only
Replied for
3 25.0%
Section C only
Replied for both
5 41.7%
section

Not reply 3 25.0%

Total 12 100%

Note : Section A : Professional background

Section B : Manufacturing the segment
Section C : Erection of segmental bridge

6.2.1 Section A - Respondent Background

The analysis of the respondent background has been done and

tabulated as per Table 6.2 and pie chart below.

Table 6.2 Distribution of the expert respondents based on position.

Type of General Project Design

Engineer Total
Respondents Manager Manager Manager

No.of
1 2 3 3 9
Respondents
Percentage 11.1% 22.2% 33.3% 33.3% 100%
 87

Distribution of Respondent based on position

GM
ENG. 11%
33% PM
22%

DM
34%
GM PM DM ENG.

Figure 6.1 : Distribution of respondent based on position

Table 6.3 Distribution of Respondent based on experience in bridge

construction

Experience
Below 5 5 to 10 More than
of Total
years years 10 years
Respondent
No. of
1 5 3 9
Respondents

Percentage 11.1% 55.6% 33.3% 100%

 88

Distribution of Respondent based

on years of experience

Below 5 yrs
More than 10 11%
yrs
33%

5 to 10 yrs
56%

Below 5 yrs 5 to 10 yrs More than 10 yrs

Figure 6.2 Distribution of Respondent based on experience in bridge

construction for questionnaire

From the questionnaire that has been replied by the respondents, we have carried out
the analysis on the data. The analysis is divided into two main categories, namely
Section B for manufacturing of Segmental box girder and Section C for
erection/construction of segmental box girder bridge. Section A is for professional
background of the respondent only.

6.2.2 Section B - Manufacturing of Segmental Box Girder

A. Method of Casting

Most of the productions of the segment are produced by match-cast

short line casting. This method of casting utilizes the previously casted
segment as one side of the mould. This method eases the setting for the
alignment and profile control of the bridge. The other advantage in match-
 89

cast short line is does not acquire big area as it could cast only one segment
at a time in each casting bay, thus it could allow other area to be use for
storage area. Long line match casting could only be done if the casting yard
area is big and have ample space for storage.

B. Segment Modification

All the respondents agreed that they have to carry out modification to
the segment from the construction drawing issued by consultant, and this
phenomenon has become a trend in construction of segmental bridge in
Malaysia due to fragmentation of work between consultant and contractor.
The modification is done to suit the erection requirement as required by the
specialist contractor.

C. Which Segment has been Modifying?

The analysis from the questionnaire from respondents is being

tabulated in Table 4.4 which shown that almost all the respondents notify
and agreed that the segment need to be modify from the drawing issued by
consultant.

From the questionnaires responded, the most segment that has been carried
out modification is Pier Segment (PS), Expansion Joint Segment (EJS), the
First Segment after Pier Segment (1stAPS) and Deviator Segment (DS). The
reasons given were:

1. To suit the erection sequence.

2. To cater for extra load as the gantry leg is seating on the segment for Pier
Segment and Expansion Joint Segment.
 90

3. To cater for temporary stressing where the blister has been added to the
segment.

Due to this modification, the respondents have indicated that an extra

volume of concrete and reinforcement has been added into the segment.
However from the analysis the volume of extra concrete added is less than
0.25 m3 for each segment. Even though the volume is small, but taking into
consideration that in one span, there will be two Pier Segments, two nos. of
1st segment after PS, possibly two or three DS, thus making the extra load is
quite significant.

The extra reinforcement also ranging between zero to 0.75 tonne per
segment and according to one of the respondent which is the segment
manufacturer, the additional reinforcement may exceed 0.75 tonne per
segment for 1st after PS and DS due to additional load to be support.

D. Congested Reinforcement

All the respondents in the questionnaire agreed that the reinforcement

arrangement inside the segment is congested and hard to arrange. The steel
fabricator has to study the reinforcement arrangement in order not to miss the
rebar and if this occurred, it is difficult to insert it as it is congested. The
fabricator has to arrange which rebar shall be install first and some has to be
install concurrently.
 91

Table 6.4 Modification on segment as responded in questionnaire

Type of Resp. Resp. Resp. Resp. Resp. Resp. Resp. Resp. Resp
segment 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 .9
Pier
segment / / / / / /
Expansion
joint / / / / / /
segment
1st segment
after PS / / / / / /
2nd segment
after PS
Deviator
segment / / / / / /
Standard
segment / /

Table 6.5 Reinforcement most congested area in segment

Segment part Resp. Resp. Resp. Resp. Resp. Resp. Resp. Resp. Resp.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Top slab
Bottom slab
Web / / / / / /
Centre web
Flange
Blister / / / / /
Junction between
top slab & web / / / / / /
Junction between
bottom slab & web / / / / / /

E. Other Factor That Contribute to Problem in Segment

Manufacturing

From the questionnaire, the respond is tabulated in Table 6.6.

Respondent no. 2, 5 and 7 do not involve in manufacturing the segment. The
rating is based on the following rating.
1 – None
2 – Slightly
 92

3 – Moderately
4 – Extensively
5 – Most extensive

Table 6.7 shown the contribution factor being analyse using Relative Index.
The result shown that:

A. The main contribution factor toward problem in segment manufacturing

is due to mould fabrication and tendon and reinforcement clashes.
However, mould fabrication is a one time process prior to casting the
segment. Tendon and reinforcement clash created more headaches since
in the reinforcement arrangement, the tendon position and location shall
prevail against the reinforcement since the tendon is the one that holds
the bridge in position.

B. The second contribution factor contributes from the arrangement of the

reinforcement. It confirms the claims by the respondents that the
reinforcement in the segment is congested.

C. The third contribution factor comes from quality of the concrete.

Normally the segment manufacturer tries their best to get the concrete
supply from only one supplier. This practice is done in order to control
the appearance of the segment which may differ in colour if the concrete
is supplied by different supplier, it means the quality control is important.
The segment production the supplier also tries their best to get the
cement from one single supplier since this problem is not new to them.

D. Forth factor contributes by three items namely tendon conduit

arrangement, insertion items and reinforcement clashes and skill of the
workers.
 93

Table 6.6 Analysis of respond on the contribution factor to problem in

manufacturing the segment

Resp. Resp. Resp. Resp. Resp. Resp. Resp. Resp. Resp

Other factor
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 .9
Mound fabrication
5 1 3 4 4 5
Mould modification
3 2 3 3 2 2
Rebar arrangement
4 4 4 4 4 4
Tendon conduit
arrangement
2 3 4 3 3 3
Tendon & rebar
clash
3 4 5 4 3 3
Insertion & rebar
clash
4 3 4 3 2 2
Quality of concrete
3 3 5 3 3 2
Supply of concrete
3 2 5 2 2 2
Equipment efficiency
4 2 4 3 2 2
Survey setting out
5 1 5 2 2 2
Alignment control
5 1 5 2 2 2
Workers skill 4 2 5 3 2 2
 94

Table 6.7 Frequency analysis of the factor contribute to problem in

manufacturing the segment with Relative Index analysis

Frequency of rate Relative

Ranking
Other factor 1 2 3 4 5 Index

Mound
fabrication
1 0 1 2 2 0.73 1
Mould
modification
0 3 3 3 0 0.50 7
Rebar
arrangement
0 0 0 5 0 0.67 2
Tendon
conduit 0 1 4 1 0 0.60 4
arrangement
Tendon &
rebar clash
0 0 3 2 1 0.73 1
Insertion &
rebar clash
0 2 2 2 0 0.60 4
Quality of
concrete
0 1 4 0 1 0.63 3
Supply of
concrete
0 4 1 0 1 0.53 6
Equipment
efficiency
0 3 1 2 0 0.57 5
Survey setting
out
1 3 0 0 2 0.57 5
Alignment
control
1 3 0 0 2 0.57 5

Workers skill 0 3 1 1 1 0.60 4

The above analysis has been done based on the Relative Index

Relative Index (R.I) = ™1x1 +2x2 + 3x3 + 4x4 + 5x5

5™ x1 +x2 + x3 + x4 + x5

Where,

x1 = Number of respondents for None;

x2 = Number of respondents for Slightly;

x3 = Number of respondents for Moderately;

x4 = Number of respondents for Extensively; and

x5 = Number of respondents for Most Extensively.

 95

6.2.3 Section C - Erection of the Segmental Bridge

A. Segment Weight

From the responded questionnaire that has been received, the

respondents agreed that the segment is heavy. All the segments weight more
than 70 tonne, with the pier Segment (PS) and Expansion Joint Segment
(EJS) weight between 90 to 100 tonne. Meanwhile other segment like 1st
segment after PS, 2nd segment after PS, DS and SS is at lower range between
70 to 90 tonne. The heavy weight of PS and EJS contributed by big
diaphragm which meant for taking force from stressing load from the tendon.
It also contributed by additional concrete and reinforcement that being added
to cater for erection sequence as discussed earlier.

B. Method of Erection

All the respondents experience in erecting the Pier Segment (PS) and
Expansion Joint Segment (EJS) using both crane and gantry. The erection of
this segment is address here because this segment is difficult to be erected by
crane as it was heavy. In erection by Balance cantilever method, the first PS
and EJS was erected by crane and the gantry truss will sit on the segment. If
erection is done by Span by span method, the PS and EJS are erected using
gantry truss.

Five of the respondents have experienced erecting the segmental

bridge by balance cantilever method and six have experience using span by-
span method. Meanwhile three of them, from the same company experience
both methods.

All the respondents have experience with wet joint when jointing the
segment with three of them from the same company experience using dry
joint.
 96

C. Checking the Pier Capacity

All the respondents agreed that the pier capacity has to be re-
checking by them to ensure that the design by consultant could take the extra
load from the gantry. The checking done is tabulated in the Table 4.8 below.

Table 6.8 Checking on the pier capacity

Resp. Resp. Resp. Resp. Resp. Resp. Resp. Resp. Resp.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Moment capacity / / / / / / / /
Adequacy of
reinforcement / / / / / / /
Torsion / / / / / / / /
Unbalance Moment / / / / / / / /
Others

D. Modification to Pier Column

All the respondents responded to the questionnaire confirmed that the

pier columns need to be modifying in order to cater for the extra load from
the gantry and other construction load. This additional load should be inform
to the consultant at earlier stage before the consultant confirmed the design
for piles, pilecap and pier column. This is where the confirmation of the
method of construction and erection is necessary at earlier stage to avoid any
under design structure.
 97

Table 6.9 Modification to pier column

Resp. Resp. Resp. Resp. Resp. Resp. Resp. Resp. Resp.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Add bracket / / / / / / / /
Gantry tie down / / / / / / / /
Additional
reinforcement / / / / / / / /
Temporary
additional support / / / / / / / /
Others

E. Inspection of The Gantry

The analysis shows that the respondents confirmed that they have
carried out the inspection onto the gantry. The inspections that have been
done are:

1. Gantry design check

2. Gantry welding test ( Magnetic particle test and X-ray test)
3. Hardness test
4. Load test.

Load test will be the last to be carried out before the gantry is allowed
to commence segment erection. Load test will be carrying out for 1.5 times
the service load. The load test will be witnessed by officer from Department
of Occupational Safety and Health and upon passing the load test, the gantry
will be granted a “Permit for Hoisting Machine” certificate (Permit Mesin
Angkat – PMA) with a serial number with it. This load test shall be done at
every different project site even if the same gantry is being use.
 98

F. Competency of the Gantry Operator

From the analysis that been carried out, five respondents confirmed
that their gantry operator and supervisor is competence in this field of
operation. The competency of operator and supervisor is being tested by their
internal certification body. Meanwhile, three respondents noted that their
operator is not competence in operating the gantry truss. Non competence
operator is considered a serious misconduct since the gantry truss is a huge
steel structure that carried a huge load and might be operating just next to the
busy road. Any mishap could result in serious accident.

G. Competency of the Grouting Supervisor.

All the respondents confirmed that their grouting supervisor is

competence in his area of works, but the level of competency is not known.
The competency test is being done by their internal tester. The competency
of grouting supervisor has been address by American Segmental Bridge
Institute (ASBI) as a compulsory requirement. The competence supervisor
knows how to determine that the grouting work has filled-up the tendon
conduit by some calculation on the calculated volume of grout versus the
actual volume and the pressure applied.

H. Other Contributing Factor to Problem in Erection of Segmental

Bridge

From the questionnaire, the respond is tabulated in Table 6.6.

Respondent no. 2, 5 and 7 do not involve in manufacturing the segment. The
rating is based on the following rating.

1 – None
 99

2 – Slightly
3 – Moderately
4 – Extensively
5 – Most extensive

The respond is tabulated in the Table 6.10 and the analysis by Frequency Analysis
and Relative Index is shown in Table 6.11. From the Relative Index analysis
tabulated in Table 6.11, the main contribution factors to problem in erection process
are:

1. Assembly of the gantry truss

2. Disassembly of the gantry truss
3. Clogged tendon conduit
4. Segment alignment control and segment level control
 100

Table 6.10 Analysis of respond on the contribution factor to problem in erection

the segmental bridge.

Resp. Resp. Resp. Resp. Resp. Resp. Resp. Resp. Resp

Other factor
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 .9
Gantry assembly
4 4 5 5 4 5 4 5
Segment delivery 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2
Traffic management 1 2 4 1 2 1 1 1
Tie down gantry leg 3 1 4 4 3 3 3 3
Erection Pier segment 1 3 4 3 3 4 3 4
Gantry kinematic
drawing
3 1 4 3 4 4 2 4
Segment Alignment
control
2 2 5 4 4 4 3 4
Segment Level
control
2 2 5 4 4 4 3 4
Clogged Tendon
conduit
4 4 5 3 3 3 3 4
Misalign tendon
conduit
1 3 5 3 4 3 3 3
Blister Position
1 3 4 3 3 3 3 3
Tendon strand
Installation 1 2 4 2 2 2 2 2

Tendon stressing 1 2 5 2 2 2 2 2
Efficiency of gantry
operation
1 1 5 2 3 3 2 3
Competency of
gantry operator
1 2 5 1 3 3 3 2
Gantry launching
procedure
2 2 5 4 2 3 2 2

Gantry disassembly 4 4 5 5 4 4 4 4
 101

Table 6.11 Frequency analysis of the factor contribute to problem in erection of

segmental bridge with Relative Index analysis

Frequency of rate Relative

Ranking
Other factor 1 2 3 4 5 Index

Gantry
assembly
0 0 0 4 4 0.90 1
Segment
delivery
5 3 0 0 0 0.27 14
Traffic
management
5 2 0 1 0 0.32 13
Tie down
gantry leg
1 0 5 2 0 0.60 6
Erection Pier
segment
1 0 4 2 0 0.52 9
Gantry
kinematic 1 1 2 4 0 0.62 5
drawing
Segment
Alignment 0 2 1 4 1 0.70 4
control
Segment
Level control
0 2 1 4 1 0.70 4
Clogged
Tendon 0 0 4 3 1 0.72 3
conduit
Misalign
tendon 1 0 5 1 1 0.62 5
conduit
Blister
Position
1 0 6 1 0 0.57 7
Tendon strand
Installation 1 6 0 1 0 0.42 12
Tendon
stressing
1 6 0 0 1 0.45 11
Efficiency of
gantry 2 2 3 0 1 0.50 10
operation
Competency
of gantry 2 1 4 0 1 0.52 9
operator
Gantry
launching 0 5 1 1 1 0.55 8
procedure
Gantry
disassembly
0 0 0 6 2 0.85 2
 102

6.3 Analysis on the Structured Interview

The analysis of the respondent background for the interview has been done
and tabulated as per Table 6.12 and pie chart in Figure 6.3 below.

Table 6.12 Distribution of expertise for interview

Type of
Consultant Contractor Total
respondent
No. of
3 3 6
Respondents
Percentages
50% 50% 100%

Consultant,
50%
Consultant
Contractor
Consultant,
50%

Figure 6.3 Distribution of respondent for interview.

The respond from the interview is shown in Table 6.13 based on the following
rating:

1 – Less
2 – Slightly
3 – Moderately
4 – Extensively
5 – Most extensive
 103

Table 6.13 Analysis of structured interview with expertise

Resp Resp Resp Resp Resp Resp

Questions
1 2 3 4 5 6
1. Do you think the segment is congested
with reinforcement, insertions and tendon 4 5 5 5 5 5
conduit?
2. Do you carry out modification to the
segment? 4 4 5
3. In general, to which extend the
modification done? 3 3 3 4 5 5

4. Do you agree if the segment is

standardized by the client (JKR, LLM) 3 3 3 4 4 4
5. For erection purposes, do you need to
check and/or modify pier column capacity. 4 5 4 5 5 5

6. Do you think the segment weight

contribute to difficulties in erection of the
bridge.
3 3 3 3 4 3

7. To what extend the gantry assembly

and disassembly affected erection activity. 4 5 4 4 4 5
8. Do you agree if main contractor and
specialist contractor joint venture in this
kind of project.
4 5 4 4 4 3

9. Do you agree that the segmental

bridge should be a design & build project 4 4 4 4 4 4

Respondent no. 1, 2 and 3 is representing the consultant in one of the on going

project. Respondent no. 4, 5 and 6 is a representative from the segment manufacturer
and segment erector. Respondent no. 1 is a Chief Designer, respondent no.2 is a
Resident Engineer and respondent no.3 is an Assistant Resident Engineer at Casting
Yard.
 104

Table 6.14 Frequency analysis and Relative Index analysis on the respond to
interview

Relative
Questions 1 2 3 4 5 Ranking
Index
1. Do you think the segment is
congested with reinforcement, insertions 0 0 0 1 5 0.97 1
and tendon conduit?
2. Do you carry out modification to the
segment? 0 0 0 2 1 0.43 8
3. In general, to which extend the
modification done? 0 0 3 1 2 0.77 5

4. Do you agree if the segment is

standardized by the client (JKR, LLM) 0 0 3 3 0 0.70 6
5. For erection purposes, do you need to
check and/or modify pier column
capacity?
0 0 0 2 4 0.93 2

6. Do you think the segment weight

contribute to difficulties in erection of
the bridge.
0 0 5 1 0 0.63 7

7. To what extend the gantry assembly

and disassembly affected erection
activity.
0 0 0 4 2 0.87 3

8. Do you agree if main contractor and

specialist contractor joint venture in this
kind of project.
0 0 1 4 1 0.80 4

9. Do you agree that the segmental

bridge should be a design & build project 0 0 0 6 0 0.80 4

From the Frequency Analysis and Relative Index tabulated in Table 6.14 above, the
respondents agreed that:

1. The main problem is contributed by congested reinforcement in the segment

and difficult to arrange.

2. Secondly the respondent agreed that there is necessity to check the capacity
of the pier column in term of moment capacity, unbalance moment, etc.
 105

3. Thirdly the respondents agreed that the assembly and disassembly of the
gantry delay their work due to difficulties in the works.

4. The respondents also agreed that the main contractor and specialist
contractor to joint venture in this kind of project and the project should be a
design and build project.
 106

CHAPTER 7

DISCUSSION

7.1 Introduction

Construction of segmental box girder bridge has become one of the chosen
methods for bridge construction within restricted area. Restriction may be in forms
of access, sensitive environment, crossing river, deep valley, existing railway or
crossing wide expressway etc. The constructability shown by this method has
proven that is was the most practical to construct the bridge with this method. The
only disadvantage that wondering the client is the cost due to usage of the gantry
launcher and setting up the casing yard if the site is remote.

This master project has discussed the manufacturing of precast segment and
erection of the precast segmental box girder bridge in length and addressed the
problem faced by the professional in the field.

In the current practice in Malaysia, the main consultant will only carried out
the design for permanent structure only and any temporary requirement has to be
done by the contractor and/or specialist bridge sub-contractor. The fragmentation of
design works by consultant and contractor cause time consuming due to submission,
review, resubmission and acceptance and approval by consultant for the shop
drawing and alternative system. The practice in Malaysia also sees that the main
contractor that secured the bridge contract is not a bridge contractor but merely a big
player in construction industry and a general contractor. This main contractor later
 107

sub contract the bridge works to the bridge contractor at later stage and the main
contractor played the role as construction management company.

7.2 Manufacturing of the Segment

In manufacturing the segment, the manufacturer has highlighted the problem

faced by them. All the checking for the purpose of modification is the responsibility
and obligation of contractor to resolve. The contractor has to propose the adjustment
and modification to suit the erection procedure. The construction procedure, beside
the normal progress of the gantry, the site condition also governs the method of
construction. All the adjustment and modification proposed by contractor have to be
reviewed and approved by the consultant’s representative. If the adjustment affected
the design, then the proposal has to be review by the designer and this process in
time consuming. The manufacturer has carried out some modification to the segment
based on the construction requirement, thus make it more problematic in order to
cater for actual design and additional design which requires more reinforcement,
concrete and some adjustment to the segment.

All the segment manufacturers agreed that the segment need to be modified. The
reason given is:

1. to suit the construction sequence

2. to cater for extra load from the gantry.
3. to cater for temporary prestressing

The manufacturers also utilized only one method of segment casting, namely
Shortline Match Casting due to the advantage in space planning for casting yard and
easiness to control the alignment and level of segment. The manufacturers also
agreed that the most extensively modified segment is pier segment (PS), expansion
joint segment (EJS) and first segment after pier segment.
 108

The other factor that contributed to problem in segment manufacturing as

analyse by Frequency Analysis and Relative Index shows that:

E. The main contribution factor toward problem in segment manufacturing

is due to mould fabrication and tendon-reinforcement clashes. However,
mould fabrication is a one time process prior to casting the segment.
Tendon and reinforcement clash created more headaches since in the
reinforcement arrangement, the tendon position and location shall prevail
against the reinforcement since the tendon is the one that holds the bridge
in position.

F. The second contribution factor contributes from the arrangement of the

reinforcement. It confirms the claims by the respondents that the
reinforcement in the segment is congested.

G. The third contribution factor comes from quality of the concrete.

Normally the segment manufacturer tries their best to get the concrete
supply from only one supplier that use one type of cement. This practice
is done in order to control the appearance of the segment which may
differ in colour if the concrete is supplied by different supplier; it means
the quality control is important. The segment manufacturer also tries their
best to get the cement from one single supplier since this problem is not
new to them.

H. Forth factor contributes by three items namely tendon conduit

arrangement, insertion items and reinforcement clashes and skill of the
workers.

7.3 Erection of segment

In erection of segment, the erectors has mentioned that most of the segment
are weighted more that 70 tonne, with the pier segment to be weighted the most
 109

which may reach more than 100 tonne. The weight is due to the design of the
segment based on the number of carriageway needed. The widest segment so far has
been design for four lanes for single carriageway with width of 21 meter.

Based on the interview with the specialist contractor, they have carried out
several design and checking to the segment and requires modification and additional
reinforcement. The checkings done are:

1. Checking on segment upon mould stripping.

2. Checking on segment double stacking for storage at casting yard for
every type of segment.
3. Checking on segment for hoisting purposes for every type of segment
4. Design & checking on segment for transverse prestressing for First
segment after Pier Segment for additional load from gantry
5. Check the capacity of blister due to forces from internal strut.
6. Check on segment due to bottom temporary prestressing
7. Design for temporary blister for temporary prestressing for all segments.
8. Check on top slab of segment due to suspension bar force.
9. Check on Pier Segment and Expansion Joint Segment due to seating of
gantry leg.
10. Check on Pier Segment and Expansion Joint Segment due to nailing (tie
down) to the pierhead.
11. Adequacy of shear key during erection.
12. Design and check for temporary prestressing during erection.

Meanwhile design check also being carried out to check the impact and ensure the
additional forces and stresses occurs during erection of segment to the pier column
and pilecap and piles are catered for. The checkings done are:

1. Check on moment, shear & torsion capacity check during cantilever stage
for every pier.
2. Check for unbalanced moment during construction for every pier.
 110

3. Design for incremental launching for expansion joint pier.

4. Design and checking for in-situ concrete stitch.
5. Check for unbalance moment impact on piles for every pier.
6. Temporary prestressing during construction for every segment.
7. Bridge deck stresses during construction.
8. Design of temporary working platform.
9. Design for temporary tie-down segment to pierhead.
10. Checking on pier column due to temporary eccentric load from segment
and gantry.
11. Moment capacity check during construction.

There are several way of erection can be done by the erectors such as span by
span, balance cantilever, incremental launching and etc. The decision to erect the
bridge in different method is based on the site condition and this method of
construction has to be decided during initial stage by consultant, as advice by the
erector during the interview. On the pier modification, not many modification
actually done but they have to check the capacity of the pier on the moment, torsion
and shear during cantilever construction.

Based on the design and design check being carried out, the modification has been
made to the segment. The Figure 7.1 to Figure 7.6 below show several segment
modification that has been done by contractor.
 111

Massive modification with additional

support within the segment to cater
for extra construction load

Figure 7.1 One of massive modification by contractor to cater for extra

construction load

Figure 7.2 Close up of the above at the middle and left of the segment.
 112

Figure 7.3 Transverse pre-stressing for one of the segment as design

by specialist contractor to cater for extra load.

Figure 7.4 Pier segment temporarily seated on jacks. Load transferred

to pier eccentrically.
 113

Figure 7.5 above and Figure 7.6 below show the additional blister design by
contractor for temporary pre-stressing to hold the segment temporarily before
permanent stressing

Figure 7.5 Temporary blister at middle of segment for temporary prestressing

Figure 7.6 Temporary blister at both left & right of the web for
temporary prestressing
 114

Figure 7.7 The temporary staging for erection of half end of segment at
expansion joint pier design by contractor
 115

Figure 7.8 The temporary staging from front view

 116

Figure 7.9 Temporary nailing (tie down) pier segment to the pierhead
 117

For the purposes of gantry operation, the erectors mentioned that their gantry
operator is a competent operator but the competency test was done by their own
internal tester and the competency level is questionable. Prior to commencing the
gantry operation the erector has carried out the test on the gantry by their internal
safety and technical auditor. After the gantry certified by their internal auditor, the
load test being carried out witnessed by officers from Department of Occupational
Safety and Health (DOSH). The test is necessary and requested by the client and
consultant for safety reason. It also has to comply with requirement from
Department of Occupational Safety and Health, which will issue the “Hoisting
Machine Permit” (Permit Mesin Angkat – PMA) prior to gantry operation. The
specialist erector also has invented the “Safe-Fail” mechanism onto the gantry
whereby if the normal mechanism failed; the contingency safety mechanism will
automatically activate and secure the gantry and the load into safe situation. The
“Safe-Fail Mechanism” and Safety Plan and Procedure have been produced and
vetted through by consultant and client and must be adhere by the operator and
supervised by engineer in-charge. The erector also produced the kinematic drawing
which shows the details step by step gantry movement for the gantry launching with
the checklist. During launching, no further movement of the gantry shall be done
without consent by engineer-in-charge. Any deviation from the kinematic drawing
for the movement, the operator shall refer to the engineer and confirmed by the
erector’s designer.

Other contribution factor that raised problem in erection is due to:

1. Gantry assembly and disassembly, but this is a one time activity.

2. Clogged tendon duct due to misalignment of the duct during casting
which only being identify after the segment is erected.
3. Alignment and level control during erection.

During the interview, the contractor agreed that the contract for bridge project is a
design and build contract. They also purpose that the specialist contractor should be
identified and awarded the sub contract at early stage, but they do not favorable for
 118

joint venture with main contractor mainly due to commercial reason. The overall
conclusion on the respond is as follows:

1. From the analysis the respondents agreed that the main problem is
contributed by congested reinforcement in the segment and difficult to
arrange.

2. Secondly the respondent agreed that there is necessity to check the capacity
of the pier column in term of moment capacity, unbalance moment, etc.

3. Thirdly the respondents agreed that the assembly and disassembly of the
gantry delay their work due to difficulties in the works.

4. The respondents also agreed that the main contractor and specialist
contractor to joint venture in this kind of project and the project should be a
design and build project.

7.4 New Invention

Apart from the problems that have been discussed earlier, the specialist
contractor and supplier keep updating their products and accessories in order to
ensure the bridge is safe and sound. Even though the maintenance part is not discuss
in this project, but it is interesting to know several new invention has been made by
the supplier and specialist in prestressing which could enhance the safety and
durability as well as minimise the maintenance of the bridge..

7.4.1 Transparent sheath

In Japan, the industry has started using the transparent sheathing developed
for external tendon of segmental bridge. The sheathing called "Himilan" is an
 119

ethylene based ionomer resin. Transparent sheathing offers the substantial

advantages of permitting rapid visual inspection of the filling of the duct during
grouting operations, as well as visual inspection of the condition of the tendons
throughout the life of the structure. Development of "Himilan" transparent sheathing
was a cooperative effort by Japan Highway Public Corporation, Anderson
Technology Corporation, and Shinko Wire Company, Ltd.

Figure 7.10 Transparent Sheathing Used for External Tendons in Japan

7.4.2 Ducting Coupler

Freyssinet LLC, one of the specialist in prestressing has come out with a new
invention to reduce the leakage of water into the tendon duct at segment joint. The
invention consists of the duct jointing accessories as shown in the Figure 7.11, 7.12
and 7.13 below.

Freyssinet LLC has completed testing and production tooling is online for
the patented Freyssinet Liaseal Couplers. The Liaseal was developed in response to
the demand for additional corrosion protection for prestressing steel passing through
match-cast joints in concrete segmental projects. The three (3) - piece assemblies
(Refer to Figures 7.11 and 7.12) are manufactured entirely of HDPE and are
designed to be water tight at a dry joint at 3 bars (43 psi). Actual test results proved
the Liaseal to be watertight at pressures up to 24 bars! (Nearly 350 psi!).
 120

Liaseal Couplers are currently available for duct outside diameters of 3-3/8", 3-5/8"
and 4-1/4". In addition to providing enhanced corrosion protection to prestressing
steel, Liaseal Couplers ensure perfect duct alignment at the match-cast joints,
maintain ducts free from epoxy intrusion during segment erection and eliminate
grouting crossovers at segment joints.

Applications include segmental superstructure as well as substructure joints.

Floating structures including pontoon bridges, concrete barges, precast piers, etc.,
are also examples where added corrosion protection can be easily obtained through
the use of Freyssinet Liaseal Couplers. The first major project to specify the use of
Liaseal Couplers is the Ringling Bridge in Florida.

Figure 7.11 The Liaseal Coupler

 121

Figure 7.12 Schematic drawing of the Liaseal Coupler

Figure 7.13 Drawings illustrate cross-section details of Liaseal duct coupler.

7.4.3 Stainless Steel Plated Strand

Dywidag-Systems International (DSI) has developed a strand plated with

stainless steel as shown in Figure 7.14. Each individual wire is covered by a 0.35mm
stainless steel coating. The wedge and the wedge plate must also consist of stainless
steel. Due to the potential difference between the wedge plate and anchor body, an
electrically isolating seating is provided. The dimensions and mechanical properties
of the plated strand (0.6 inch diameter) do not differ from conventional strand. DSI
developed the stainless steel plated strand to guarantee sufficient corrosion
 122

protection, and to facilitate handling of the systems during installation. At this time,
the system is being produced in Germany (ASBI, 2006)

Figure 7.14 DSI Stainless Steel Plated Strand

 123

CHAPTER 8

THE RECOMMENDATION AND CONCLUSION

8.1 The Recommendation

The construction of segmental box girder bridge in Malaysia is growing with

many more bridge are on the drawing board. The next bridge to be built is the
second bridge to Penang which is going to be a segmental bridge also. In this kind of
construction, as discussed earlier, the method of construction must be confirmed at
inception stage, prior to detail design by consultant.

8.1.1 At Inception and Design Stage

Lubuono (2005) recommended that the consultant and client had to look into
several scope of factor that governs the selection of the bridge construction method
such as:

1. Should precast or cast-in-situ segmental construction be used for the

proposed bridge?
2. Should wet or dry joint be used for the precast segments?
3. Should external or internal tendon be used?
4. What type/s of grouts should be used for the tendons?
5. What is the square foots cost, unit cost, life-cycle cost?
6. What is the optimum span arrangement?
 124

From the database they have to come out addressing the following:

1. What successful technology transfer activities are most effective?

2. What are the limiting factors or current-state-of-the-art-practice for
fabrication, construction and handling of the segment sizes before
equipment are required?
3. What QA/QC plans or processes for precast versus cast-in-situ?
4. What are some of the good and bad experience for bridge owner?

In normal practice in Malaysia, the main contractor is not the bridge

specialist contractor, thus the main contractor will appoint another bridge specialist
sub-contractor to take the bridge job, and thus the appointment of the specialist
contractor is at later stage. This practice is not suitable now and there are several
solutions for this problem.

To overcome this problem we recommended that:

1. If the main contractor is not the bridge specialist contractor, then the
appointment of bridge specialist contractor must be made at early stage,
possibly during tender stage or negotiation stage. The client should insist
the main contractor to nominate their specialist bridge sub contractor
during tender stage by incorporated the requirement in the tender
document.

2. The client could award direct the project to the bridge specialist
contractor as main contractor. For any civil works, the bridge contractor
could sub contract the work to other sub contractor.

3. The main contractor and the bridge specialist contractor to form a Joint
Venture company to take this project. As what we have discovered in the
finding that the specialist contractor is not favourable in this proposal.
 125

The reason for this rejection is not clear, but most probably due to
commercial issues.

4. The client like Public Works Department (PWD) or Malaysian Highway

Authority (MHA) could take initiative to standardize the segment size,
shape and dimension based on the number of carriageway and ranges of
span length. This could help them to control the quality of the segment
produce and quality and safety of the bridge. Through this procedure also
the client could scrutinize the cost of manufacturing and erection of the
segment, thus control the overall cost of the project. This practice has
been done by American Segmental Bridge Institute (ASBI) in
collaboration with AASHTO and Precast Concrete Institute (PCI) to
standardize the segment size, shape and dimension. The sample of the
segments by them is shown in Appendix B.

Cliff (2006) expressed the two real challenges that the client should respond to,
the challenges are:

1. The owner shall formulate performance requirements to the structure in a

format that can be translated into a quantified design basis, taking the long
terms effects or consequences, including acceptable needs for maintenance,
into account technically as well as in the economic evaluations.

2. The designer and the contractor need to combine readily available

knowledge from design, construction, materials technology and deterioration
mechanisms into an integral solution adapted to the individual structure in it
foreseen environment.

In Chapter 6, the specialist bridge contractor has stated that they agreed with the
proposal that they enter the contract at the early stage. In order to do so, the
author recommended that the concept of Partnering or Concurrent Engineering
 126

being implemented. The client should take the initiative to insist the main
consultant, main contractor and/or specialist bridge contractor and segment
manufacturer to form a team of contractor based on design and build contract.
The client also should play a bigger role to ensure the team carry out their duty
without fragmentation.

8.1.2 At Segment Manufacturing Stage

Problem occurred during segment manufacturing always related to materials

and workmanship. Materials involved are reinforcement, concrete, tendon duct,
insertion items. The most common problem is related to congested reinforcement in
Pier Segment (PS), Expansion Joint Segment (EJS), next segment after PS, next
segment after EJS and Deviator segment (DS). PS and EJS are creating the most
cases as this segment normally small in term of it width and have to support extra
load from the gantry. Due to constraint space, the reinforcement became congested
and limited the access for concrete to fill in, thus could produce honeycombs,
incomplete compaction, air void etc. This segment also experiences the collision of
reinforcement and duct, reinforcement and insertions.

It is recommended here that the width of PS and EJS to be review. This

adjustment does not increase any additional load to the bridge structure.

Meanwhile, it is strongly advice that the manufacturing plant is being

certified by a governing body, such as Public Works Department (PWD) or
Construction Industry Development Board (CIDB) as this agency promoted the
Industrialised Building System. The manufacturing company also are advise to
obtain the ISO 9001 (2000) Certification for the quality assurance and quality
control. The governing body related to bridge construction also could start to
establish the standard size and dimension of the segmental box girder based on the
number of carriageway and lanes. This exercise has been developed by American
Segmental Bridge Institutes in collaboration with AASHTO and Precast Concrete
 127

Institutes. The governing body could always monitor and scrutinise the level of
competency of the plant as well as controlling the quality and cost of the segment
and the project.

8.1.3 At Construction Stage

At this stage, the common problem occurs due to alignment and the level of
the segmental bridge. If the segment which was match casted is being cast
accurately according to the theoretical alignment at casting yard, the problem of
alignment could be resolved.

Problem about level has to do something with the stressing force. Prior to
erection the contractor has come out with precamber calculation to determine the
amount of deflection to the bridge when stressing is being carried out. Based on the
calculation, the adjustment could be done to the level of the deck during stressing,
thus we could achieve the design level after the stressing is completed.

Another problem is related to grouting the tendon. Tendon is the main

element that hold the bridge segment intact as one span as well as continuous span,
thus the tendon should be free from corrosion that might ruin the tendon. The grout
is meant for protecting the tendon from corrosion. Therefore grouting the tendon is
an important job and should be done precisely. However the level of competency of
the grouting supervisor and workers are questionable. There is no agency that
certified the competency of the grouting supervisor. Since the tendon is the main
item that holds the bridge, grouting the tendon is vital. The grouted tendon should
not have any void inside the duct as it could initiate the development of corrosion to
the tendon, with the existence of water or moistures. American Segmental Bridge
Institutes (ASBI) has initiated the Grouting Certification to the engineers and
construction personnel who supervise and carry out grouting works. The
certification has started in 2001 and shall be renew every five (5) years by attending
the refreshing course and examination. (ASBI, 2006).
 128

8.2 The Conclusion

Precast segmental bridge project is a unique project due to the uniqueness of

the structure. This kind of project has exhibited it advantages in easing the
construction in the urban area and constraint site with limited access. The client or
concession company should foresee the problem of the project, and it is consultant
obligation to advise the client on the method of construction available and which one
is the most suitable to project. While addressing the problem at early stage, both
main contractor and specialist contractor also should come in together and address
the possible difficulties that may affected the design, cost and time. It is a good
practice that the bridge project is being done by design and build or turnkey as the
contractor could work hand in hand with consultant and foresees the problem during
the initial design stage. The client should play a bigger role to lead the project team
instead of being the monitoring agent and not totally let the contractor took control
of the project. The client should insist all parties involved such as the consultant,
main contractor, specialist bridge contractor, segment manufacturer and prestressing
specialist to work concurrently. Working without fragmentation could eliminate the
time consuming activities such as submitting and resubmitting shop drawing and
proposal by contractor and/or bridge contractor.

There is more space for improvement and this study should not stop here and
hopefully someone could resume the study on other method of erection of the
segment.
 129

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 130

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 131

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Practice, April, pg 83-87
 132

Poston R.W., Wouters J.P. (1998). “Durability of Precast Segmental Bridges” Final
Report for National Cooperative Highway Research Program, Transportation
Research Board, National Research Council, United State of America, June.

Wollman G. P., Breen J. E., Kreger M. E. (2000). “Anchorage of External Tendon in

End Diaphragms”, Journal of Bridge Engineering, August, pg 208-215

Vijay C., Peter A., Paul J. T. (2004), “South Bay Interchange: New Frontiers in
Segmental Construction”, PB Networks Online Magazine, Feb, Issue No. 57, Vol.
XIX, Number 1.
Website: http://www.pbworld.com

VSL Far East (2005) “Post tensioning Systems”, VSL Engineering Pte. Ltd., Hong
Kong.
 133

APPENDIX
A

Example of Questionnaire
 134

JAZLAN BIN SALLEH

MSc. Construction Management
University Technology Malaysia
School Of Graduate Study
MA 041159

Tel : 019 – 243 4489

03 - 7805 3351

Email : jazlan@azrb.com

TO WHOM IT MAY CONCERN

Questionnaire for preparing the thesis

I, the above mentioned name, am a post graduate student at University Technology

Malaysia in Construction Management. Currently I am in the final semester and
preparing the thesis on construction of segmental box girder bridge using gantry
launcher. In order to prepare the thesis, I have to collect some information from the
professional personnel that have direct involvement in manufacturing the segment
and erection of the segment.

All information given will be treat strictly confidential and for the purposes of
preparing the thesis only.

I would like to thank you in advance for willing to spared your valued time to
respond to this questionnaire and share your experience, knowledge, and technical
know-how in this field.

Kindly return the questionnaire to me by fax at 03 – 7804 3353

Thank you,

JAZLAN BIN SALLEH

MA 041159
 135

QUESTIONNAIRE FOR THE THESIS

The purposes of this questionnaire are to compile the information pertaining to the
manufacturing and construction/erection of post tension precast box girder bridge
using gantry launcher.

This questionnaire is divided into three sections namely

Section A: Professional Background,
Section B: Manufacturing of Segmental box girder and
Section C: Construction and erection of box girder bridge.

SECTION A: PROFESSIONAL BACKGROUND

1. Respondent Position: ……………………………………...

2. How long have you involved in segmental bridge project?

A. Less than 5 yrs B. 5 to 10 yrs C. more than 10 yrs

3. How long your firm has been involved in segmental bridge project?
A. Less than 5 yrs B. 5 to 10 yrs C. more than 10 yrs

5. How many segmental bridge project has your firm participated

A. Less than 5 B. 5 to 7 C. more than 10

6 Your firm involved in:

A. Manufacturing the segmental box girder
B. Construction/Erection of segmental box girder

If you and/or your company involved in manufacturing of segmental box girder,

please answer Section B, otherwise please proceed to Section C for bridge erection.

SECTION B: MANUFACTURING OF SEGMENTAL BOX GIRDER

1. How was the segmental panel manufactured?

Shortline match casting
Longline casting

2. Does the segment has been modified from the original construction drawings
issued by consultant
Yes No

3. Which type of segment those beings carry out the modification? (You may
tick more than one )
A. Pier Segment (PS)
B. Expansion Joint Segment (EJS)
C. First segment after PS
D. Second segment after PS
E. Deviator Segment (DS)
F. Standard intermediate segment
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4. To what extend the segment is being modified.

Please answer the question based on the rating below.
1. Slightly 2. Moderately 3. Extensively

A. Pier Segment (PS) 1 2 3

B. Expansion Joint Segment (EJS) 1 2 3
C. First segment after PS 1 2 3
D. Second segment after PS 1 2 3
E. Deviator Segment (DS) 1 2 3
F. Standard intermediate segment 1 2 3

5. What kind of modification that being done for the following segment. Please
tick based on the item mention. (You may tick more than one choice )
1. Dimension change
2. Additional blister for temporary pre-stress
3. Additional reinforcement
4. Additional concrete
5. Others

A. Pier segment (PS) 1 2 3 4 5

Reason for
modification:…………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………
…………

B. Expansion Joint segment (EJS) 1 2 3 4 5

Reason for
modification:…………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………
…………

C. First segment after EJS/PS 1 2 3 4 5

Reason for
modification:…………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………
…………

D. Second segment after EJS/PS 1 2 3 4 5

Reason for
modification:…………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………
…………

E. Deviator segment (DS) 1 2 3 4 5

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Reason for
modification:…………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………
…………

F. Standard immediate segment 1 2 3 4 5

Reason for
modification:…………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………
…………

6. What is the extra quantity of concrete being used for modification?

1) Less than 0.5 m3 2) 0.5 m3 to 1.0 m3 3) more than 1m3

A. Pier Segment (PS) 1 2 3

B. Expansion joint segment (EJS) 1 2 3
C. First segment after PS 1 2 3
D. Second segment after PS 1 2 3
E. Deviator Segment (DS) 1 2 3
F. Standard intermediate segment 1 2 3

7. What is the extra quantity of steel reinforcement being used in modification?

1) Less than 0.25 tonne 2) 0.25 tonne to 0.75 tonne
3) more than 0.75 tonne

A. Pier Segment (PS) 1 2 3

B. Expansion joint segment (EJS) 1 2 3
C. First segment after PS 1 2 3
D. Second segment after PS 1 2 3
E. Deviator Segment (DS) 1 2 3
F. Standard intermediate segment 1 2 3

8. Do the reinforcements in the segment congested and difficult to arrange?

A. Yes B. No

9. Which part of the segment where the reinforcements is most congested?

(You may tick more than one choice.)

A. Top slab
B. Bottom slab
C. Web
D. Center web
E. Flange
F. Blister
G. Junction between web & top slab
H. Junction between web & bottom slab
 138

10. Please indicate whether the following item contribute to problem in the
process of manufacturing the segment at the factory/casting yard.
(Please tick based on the rating shown below).
1. Less 2. Slightly 3. Moderately 4. Extensively 5. Most extensive

A. Mould fabrication 1 2 3 4 5
B. Mould modification 1 2 3 4 5
C. Reinforcement arrangement 1 2 3 4 5
D. Tendon conduit arrangement 1 2 3 4 5
E. Tendon collide with reinforcement 1 2 3 4 5
F. Insertion clash with reinforcement 1 2 3 4 5
G. Quality of concrete 1 2 3 4 5
H. Supply of concrete 1 2 3 4 5
I. Efficiency of the equipment 1 2 3 4 5
J. Survey setting out 1 2 3 4 5
K. Alignment survey 1 2 3 4 5
L. Workers skills 1 2 3 4 5

SECTION C: ERECTION / CONSTRUCTIONS OF THE BRIDGE USING

GANTRY LAUNCHER

11. What is the weight of the segment?

1. 70.0 to 90.0 tonne 2. 90.0 to 100.0 tonne
3. more than 100.0 tonne

A. Pier Segment (PS) 1 2 3

B. Expansion joint segment (EJS) 1 2 3
C. First segment after PS 1 2 3
D. Second segment after PS 1 2 3
E. Deviator Segment (DS) 1 2 3
F. Standard intermediate segment 1 2 3

12. How do you erect the Pier Segment / Expansion Joint Segment?
A. Using crane B. Using gantry launcher

13. How the other segments were erected?

A. by Balanced Cantilever Method
B. by Span to Span Method

14. What kind of joint between the segments?

A. Wet joint B. Dry joint

15. Do you make any design checking to the pier column/ pierhead design?
A. Yes B. No
 139

16. What kind of checking made to the pier column/pierhead?

(You may tick more than one, whichever applicable).
A. Moment capacity due to extra gantry load
B. Adequacy of reinforcement in pierhead/pier column
C. Torsion check due to gantry load
D. Unbalance moment due to unbalance cantilever
E. Others (Please state )

…………………………………………………………………………
………..
…………………………………………………………………………
………..

17. Do you make any modification to the pier column/ pierhead

Yes No

18. What kind of modification made to the pier column/pierhead?

(You may tick more than one, whichever applicable).
A. Additional bracket for gantry legs
B. Tie down for segment
C. Additional reinforcement due to
additional load
D. Others – please state
…………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………
.

19. What kind of checking/inspection carry out to the gantry?

(You may tick more than one, whichever applicable).

A. Overall gantry Design check

B. Welding check
C. Hardness test
D. Load test
E. Others (please state)
……………………………………………………….

20. Does your gantry supervisor/operator have been certified as competent by

any agency?

Yes No
If YES, please state the agency’s name:
..……………………………………..

21. In tendon grouting, does your grouting supervisor is a competent & certified
person to do the grouting.

Yes No
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Which agency that issues the Competency / certificate for grouting job.
(Please
state)………………………………………………………………………

22. Do the following items contribute to the problem in erection of the segment?
(Please tick based on the rating below)
1. Less 2. Slightly 3. Moderately 4. Extensively
5. Most extensive

A. Segment delivery from factory 1 2 3 4 5

B. Traffic management 1 2 3 4 5
C. Quality of the segment 1 2 3 4 5
D. Tie down for the gantry leg 1 2 3 4 5
E. Erection of Pier segment 1 2 3 4 5
F. Gantry kinematic drawing 1 2 3 4 5
G. Alignment control of the segment 1 2 3 4 5
H. Level control of the segment 1 2 3 4 5
I. Clogged tendon conduit 1 2 3 4 5
J. Misaligned tendon conduit 1 2 3 4 5
K. Blister for temporary stressing 1 2 3 4 5
L. Tendon strands 1 2 3 4 5
M. Stressing of tendon 1 2 3 4 5
N. Efficiency of the gantry operation 1 2 3 4 5
P Competency of the gantry operator 1 2 3 4 5
Q. Launching the gantry 1 2 3 4 5
.

23. In order to expedite the construction, ensure the good quality, and
effectiveness of the construction sequence of construction of segmental box
girder bridge, do you agree with the following statement. Give your respond
based on the following rating.
1. AGREE 2. NOT AGREE

A. The consultant and client should confirmed method of construction before

proceed with details design .
1 2

B. The main contractor should confirmed their specialist sub contractor earlier
for construction of box girder portion earlier
1 2

C. The main contractor and specialist sub contractor should form a joint venture
for this portion of construction
1 2

D. Partnership between consultant, main contractor and specialist sub contractor

is a good practice for this kind of project.
1 2
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E. This kind of project should be based on turnkey/design & build contract.

1 2

I would like to thank all the respondent of these questionnaires that have spared
their valued time to share their experiences, knowledge and technical know-how
in this field. All the respondents data will be treat strictly confidential and for the
purposes of this study only. I sincerely hope that all the information discussed in
this project will be further study for the used of the other professional in the
future.

Please return the answered questionnaire to me at fax no: 603 – 7804

3353 or email at jazlan@azrb.com

Thank you.

JAZLAN SALLEH
MSc. Construction Management
UNIVERSITY TECHNOLOGY MALAYSIA
SCHOOL OF GRADUATE STUDIES