Jurnal Penyuluhan, September 2013 Vol. 9 No.

Kajian Pelaksanaan Penyuluhan dan Partisipasi Perempuan pada Kegiatan Pertanian Tanaman
Palawija di Desa Suka Damai, Kecamatan Dramaga, Kabupaten Bogor

The study of the implementation studies of extension and and women's participation in Agricultural
Crops Activity in Suka Damai Village, District Dramaga, Bogor Regency
Hayati Zakaria1
1
Fakultas Pertanian, Universitas Mataram, Nusa Tenggara Barat

Abstract

The study of the implementation studies of extension and women's participation in Agricultural Crops Activity in Sukadamai
Village, District Dramaga, Bogor Regency aimed to analyze the level of women participation in agricultural crops activity; to
analyze the level of women participation in agricultural crops extension activities; to identify the institusional of agricultural
extension; to analyze the influence factor in the ability of the extension worker to improve women's participation in agricultural
crops extension activities. Sampling was done randomly respondents. Number of study sample as many as 30 people. Primary
data obtained through the use of closed questionnaires, interviews with the use of an open questionnaire, focus group discussion
(FGD), and observations. Stages of data analysis is divided into stages of data description and hypothesis testing phase. Results
showed that the women participation in agricultural crops extension activities in high category is 53,3%; the women participation
in agricultural extension activities in the low category is 50%; the existence of agricultural extension workers is recognized by
women are civil servants extension workers and independent extension workers; the method of agricultural extension and the
attidude of extension workers affect significantly (p < 0,05) to women's participation in agricultural extension activities.

Keywords: participation, agricultural extension, agricultural crops activity, the institusional of agricultural extension

Abstrak

Kajian Pelaksanaan Penyuluhan dan Partisipasi Perempuan pada Kegiatan Pertanian Tanaman Palawija di Desa Suka Damai,
Kecamatan Dramaga, Kabupaten Bogor ditujukan untuk menganalisis tingkat partisipasi perempuan dalam kegiatan pertanian
tanaman palawija, menganalisis tingkat partisipasi perempuan dalam kegiatan penyuluhan pertanian tanaman palawija,
mengidentifikasi kelembagaan penyuluhan apa saja yang berperan dalam kegiatan penyuluhan pertanian tanaman palawija,
menganalisis pengaruh faktor kemampuan penyuluh dalam meningkatkan partisipasi perempuan dalam kegiatan penyuluhan
pertanian tanaman palawija. Jumlah responden penelitian sebanyak 30 orang yang ditentukan secara random. Data primer
dikumpulkan melalui wawancara yang menggunakan kuisioner tertutup, waawancara dengan menggunakan kuisioner terbuka,
focus group discussion (FGD), dan observasi. Tahapan analisis data adalah terdiri dari deskripsi data dan uji hipotesis. Hasil
penelitian bahwa perempuan yang memiliki partisipasi yang tinggi dalam melakukan pekerjaan pertanian tanaman palawija
sebanyak 50%, partisipasi perempuan dalam kegiatan penyuluhan pertanian tanaman palawija dalam kategori rendah sebanyak
53,3%; keberadaan penyuluh yang diakui oleh perempuan adalah PPL PNS, dan penyuluh swadaya; faktor kemampuan penyuluh
dalam melaksanakan penyuluhan yang mempengaruhi partisipasi perempuan dalam kegiatan penyuluhan adalah peubah metode
dan sikap penyuluh (p < 0,05) yang berpengaruh secara nyata.

Kata kunci: partisipasi, penyuluhan pertanian, kegiatan pertanian tanaman pangan, kelembagaan penyuluhan pertanian

Pendahuluan dalam kegiatan pertanian dan produksi makanan (Chizari

Perempuan petani terus memainkan peran yang
menentukan dalam pembangunan pertanian tanaman
pangan. Namun, perempuan petani semakin menghadapi
tantangan di era globalisasi dalam perdagangan pertanian,
memenuhi kebutuhan produksi tanaman pangan bagi
penduduk yang terus bertambah, adanya perkembangan
informasi pertanian yang cepat dan teknologi komunikasi
(FAO, 1996; LEISA Editorial, 2000). Banyak hasil studi
yang menegaskan pentingnya partisipasi perempuan
120
M et al., 1997; Damisa et al., 2007; Elizabeth S, 2007;
FAO, 2009; Oladejo et al,. 2011; Poats, 1990). Selain
temuan bahwa perempuan petani melakukan kegiatan
pertanian tanaman pangan di samping kegiatan rumah
tangga, bukti-bukti empiris dari studi di berbagai Negara
juga menunjukkan bahwa penyuluhan pertanian pada
perempuan petani masih kurang dan perlu dilakukan.
Pengabaian perempuan petani dalam kegiatan
penyuluhan pertanian masih saja terjadi meskipun
upaya untuk meningkatkan partisipasi perempuan
1
Korespondensi penulis
E-mail: hayatizakaria75@yahoo.com
 Jurnal Penyuluhan, September 2013 Vol. 9 No. 2
petani dalam penyuluhan pertanian telah lama
dilakukan (Elizabeth S, 2007; Hayati, 2000, Jiggins,
1997; Mudukuti, 2002; Pini, 2002; Rivera, 1990;
Shibanda dan Seru, 2002; Squire PJ, 2003; Suradkar,
2010). Padahal dengan memberikan kesempatan bagi
perempuan untuk mengikuti kegiatan penyuluhan
pertanian sangat penting dan tidak hanya dipandang
sebagai hal yang lumrah dan baik melainkan juga
untuk mewujudkan kesetaraan akses dan partisipasi
perempuan pada kegiatan penyuluhan, pendidikan atau
pelatihan, serta hal mendasar sebagai pemenuhan hak
azasi perempuan sebagai manusia (Chizari et al., 1997;
Squire PJ, 2003). Berdasarkan pendapat dari para
peneliti terkait dengan partisipasi perempuan dalam
kegiatan penyuluhan pertanian, pengertian penyuluhan
pertanian (agricultural extension) adalah sebagai suatu
sistem pendidikan luar sekolah untuk para petani dan
keluarganya tanpa batasan umur dan tanpa perbedaan
kelamin. Materi penyuluhan ditentukan berdasarkan
kebutuhan sasaran penyuluhan baik laki-laki maupun
perempuan. Tujuan jangka pendeknya adalah
berusaha untuk mengubah perilaku (sikap, tindakan
dan pengetahuan) klien dalam menghadapi tantangan
dan memecahkan berbagai permasalahannya secara
mandiri maupun berkelompok, mengubah perilaku
klien ke arah yang lebih baik lagi; dan tujuan jangka
panjangnya adalah guna terwujudnya peningkatan
kualitas hidup petani ke arah yang diidealkan.
Namun, pengabaian perempuan dalam kegiatan
penyuluhanpertanianmasihsajaterjadi.Halinidisebabkan
oleh factor-faktor yang dapat berasal dari hambatan
internal dan eksternal termasuk hambatan kelembagaan
(Richardson JG et al., 2003). Hambatan kelembagaan
dalam hal ini adalah faktor yang berhubungan dengan
kelembagaan (lembaga penyuluhan) yang menyurutkan
partisipasi atau "semua praktek dan prosedur yang
mencegah orang dewasa untuk berpartisipasi dalam
kegiatan pelatihan/pendidikan/penyuluhan" Beberapa
hasil penelitian menemukan bahwa faktor yang terkait
dengan kelembagaan penyuluhan telah terbukti dapat
mem-pengaruhi partisipasi perempuan dalam kegiatan
penyuluhan pertanian (Akeredolu, 2009; Goff S et
al., 2008; Jiggins, 1997; Mudukuti, 2002; Pini, 2002;
Squire PJ, 2003; Suradkar, 2010).
Di Indonesia, partisipasi perempuan pedesaan
pada pertanian tanaman pangan, khususnya tanaman
palawija belum dipandang sebagai potensi yang dapat
dikembangkan agar dapat bermanfaat bagi dirinya,
keluarganya serta masyarakat. Perempuan petani masih
belum dipandang sebagai “petani” melainkan hanya
sebagai “pembantu suami dalam melakukan pekerjaan
di lahan pertanian”. Pandangan ini berimplikasi pada
terbatasnya akses perempuan petani terhadap informasi
pertanian dalam bentuk pelatihan maupun penyuluhan
(Hayati, 2000; Hayati et al., 2003; Sudarta, Windia
dan Gunarsa dalam Palupi, 1998; Supartiningsih et al.,
1997; Surayasa, 1998, Wahyuni, 2008). Di sisi lain,
untuk mencapai keberhasilan pembangunan pertanian
yang berkelanjutan dan efisien, hendaknya kaum
perempuan petani dikembangkan potensinya melalui
peningkatan partisipasinya mulai dari tahap proses
pengambilan keputusan tentang rencana kegiatan, tahap
pelaksanaan kegiatan, tahap evaluasi kegiatan dan tahap
menikmati hasil dalam kegiatan pertanian tanaman
palawija dan penyuluhan pertanian tanaman palawija
(Cohen dan Uphoff, 1977). Peran kelembagaan dalam
hal ini kelembagaan penyuluhan baik itu lembaga
pemerintah, swasta ataupun swadaya masyarakat
merupakan lembaga yang penting untuk meningkatkan
partisipasi perempuan petani dalam kegiatan pertanian
dan penyuluhan pertanian.
Desa Suka Damai merupakan salah satu desa di
Kecamatan Dramaga Kabupaten Bogor di mana sektor
pertanian adalah salah satu sumber lapangan pekerjaan
bagi penduduk Desa Suka Damainya. Sejalan dengan
temuan di atas (Hayati, 2000; Hayati et al., 2003; Sudarta,
Windia dan Gunarsa dalam Palupi, 1998; Supartiningsih
et al., 1997; Surayasa, 1998; Wahyuni, 2008), berdasarkan
hasil observasi dan wawancara terhadap ketua Gapoktan
Agrisilvo dan perempuan petani pada survey pendahuluan,
diperoleh informasi bahwa perempuan di Desa Suka
Damai Kecamatan Dramaga Kabupaten Bogor tidak
hanya terlibat dalam kegiatan pertanian tanaman pangan
melainkan juga dalam mengambil keputusan terkait
dengan kegiatan usaha tani tanaman palawija. Namun,
pekerjaan perempuan sebagai petani telah dipandang
sebelah mata oleh kaum laki-laki atas partisipasinya pada
kegiatan pertanian tanaman palawija. Persepsi petani laki-
laki yang negatif terhadap partisipasi perempuan dalam
kegiatan pertanian membuat peran perempuan tidak
nampak dan tidak penting, serta diabaikan dalam kegiatan
penyuluhan pertanian. Mengacu pada temuan penelitian
yang dilakukan oleh Akeredolu (2009), Goff S et al.
(2008), Jiggins (1997), Mudukuti (2002), Pini (2002),
Squire PJ (2003), dan Suradkar (2010), kondisi tersebut
mengindikasikan lemahnya dan gagalnya lembaga
penyuluhan, pendidikan, dan pelatihan yang ada dalam
mengadaptasi penyuluhan, pendidikan, dan pelatihan
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 Jurnal Penyuluhan, September 2013 Vol. 9 No. 2
bagi perempuan. Dengan demikian, diduga bahwa factor
kelembagaan mempengaruhi partisipasi perempuan
petani dalam kegiatan penyuluhan pertanian tanaman
palawija di Desa Suka Damai Kecamatan Dramaga
Pengingkaran terhadap partisipasi perempuan
dalam kegiatan produksi pertanian tanaman palawija
yang berdampak pada pengabaian perempuan dalam
kegiatan penyuluhan pertanian di Desa Suka Damai
Kecamatan Dramaga merupakan permasalahan
utama yang dihadapi perempuan sebagai petani untuk
mengembangkan potensi yang dimilikinya. Oleh
karenanya perumusan masalah dalam penelitian ini
adalah Bagaimanakah partisipasi perempuan petani
dalam kegiatan pertanian dan kegiatan penyuluhan
pertanian tanaman palawija di Desa Suka Damai,
dan bagaimanakah pelaksanaan kegiatan penyuluhan
pertanian tanaman palawija di Desa Suka Damai?
Tidak bisa dipungkiri bahwa keberhasilan
pembangunan nasional amat ditentukan oleh
partisipasi masyarakat, bahkan menurut Roger
(1994), pembangunan itu sendiri adalah partisipasi.
Pendapat ini juga didukung oleh Slamet (2003),
yang mengemukakan bahwa indikator keberhasilan
pembangunan bisa diukur dari ada tidaknya partisipasi
masyarakat. Sudah lama esensi partisipasi dijadikan
indikator pembangunan. Mengenai hal ini, Siti Amanah
(2006) mengemukakan bahwa partisipasi menjadi
indikator dari istilah pembangunan masyarakat yang
digunakan pertama kali pada tahun 1930 di AS dan
Inggris. Pernyataan-pernyataan ini juga sejalan dengan
apa yang dikemukakan oleh Jaringan PBB untuk
pembangunan pedesaan dan keamanan pangan sebagai
berikut: “...describes participation as one of the ends
as well as one of the means of development.” Dengan
demikian, partisipasi erat hubungannya dengan kaitan
pembangunan, baik itu pembangunan dari dalam
masyarakat itu sendiri maupun pembangunan dari luar
masyarakat/pemerintah.
Beberapa penelitian tentang partisipasi
perempuan dalam pembangunan menggunakan konsep
partisipasi sebagai keterlibatan perempuan dalam
pelaksanaan kegiatan pembangunan (Akeredolu, 2009;
Barbercheck M et al., 2009; Chizari et al., 1997; Oladejo
et al., 2011; Richardson JG et al., 2003; Squire PJ, 2003;
Strong dan Harder, 2010; Vatta, et al., 2008; Yazdani et
al., 2011). Sementara itu, pendapat lain bahwa partisipasi
adalah keterlibatan perempuan dalam mengambil
keputusan (Goff S et al., 2008). Sedangkan Barbercheck
M et al. (2009) menggunakan konsep partisipasi untuk
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menyatakan keterlibatan perempuan petani dalam
pembangunan dan perencanaan program penyuluhan.
Namun, secara lebih luas dikatakan bahwa partisipasi
perempuan dalam pembangunan tidaklah sebatas pada
keterlibatan perempuan dalam pelaksanaan program
atau pengambilan keputusan melainkan keterlibatan
perempuan dalam tahapan pembangunan yang dipilah
ke dalam perencanaan, pelaksanaan, dan evaluasi
(Squire PJ, 2003; Yazdani et al., 2011).
Pendapat yang lebih luas dikemukakan oleh
Cohen dan Uphoff (1977) yang mengatakan bahwa
partisipasi tidak saja merupakan keterlibatan aktif
masyarakat dalam proses pengambilan keputusan
tentang apa yang akan dilakukan dan bagaimana cara
kerjanya; dalam pelaksanaan program dan keputusan
yang telah ditetapkan melalui sumbangan sumberdaya
atau bekerja sama dalam suatu organisasi dan evaluasi,
melainkan juga kerlibatan masyarakat menikmati
manfaat dari pembangunan itu sendiri. Definisi tersebut
mengacu pada pengertian bahwa partisipasi sebagai
keterlibatan aktif masyarakat mulai dari tahap proses
pengambilan keputusan tentang rencana kegiatan,
tahap pelaksanaan kegiatan, tahap menikmati hasil dan
tahap evaluasi pelaksanaan kegiatan.
Partisipasi perempuan petani dalam kegiatan
pembangunan pertanian hendaknya tidak hanya
sekedar melibatkan perempuan petani pada pelaksanaan
kegiatan pembangunan saja, atau pada perencanaan
saja, atau pada perencanaan, pelaksanaan dan evaluasi
tanpa melihat apakah perempuan petani mendapatkan
manfaat dari partisipasinya pada ke tiga tahapan tersebut.
Sebaiknya, partisipasi perempuan petani harus meliputi
keterlibatan aktif perempuan pada seluruh tahapan
yaitu: tahapan perencanaan, pelaksanaan, evaluasi dan
juga dalam memperoleh manfaat dari pembangunan itu
sendiri. Hal ini mencerminkan sejauhmana perempuan
petani dipandang sebagai subjek pembangunan yang
penting dan bagaimana keberhasilan pembangunan
pertanian yang telah dilakukan. Hal ini mendukung
pendapat Roger (1994) dan Slamet (2003) bahwa bahwa
indikator keberhasilan pembangunan bisa diukur dari
ada tidaknya partisipasi masyarakat.
Petani baik perempuan dan laki-laki memainkan
peran penting dalam pertanian di seluruh dunia,
memproduksi, mengolah dan menyediakan makanan
yang dimakan manusia. Jumlah perempuan merupakan
setengah populasi penduduk pedesaan dan lebih dari
setengah mereka bekerja sebagai tenaga kerja pertanian.
Selain itu, perempuan di pedesaan juga bertanggung
 Jurnal Penyuluhan, September 2013 Vol. 9 No. 2
jawab atas setengah dari dunia produksi pangan dan
menghasilkan antara 60% dan 80% dari makanan di
kebanyakan negara berkembang. Namun, meskipun
perempuan memberikan kontribusi yang besar terhadap
keamanan pangan global, perempuan petani sering
diremehkan dan diabaikan dalam pengembangan strategi
pembangunan. Perempuan petani seringkali dipandang
bukan sebagai petani, melainkan hanya membantu
pekerjaan suami (Afzal, 2010; FAO, 2009; Oladejo et al.,
2011).
Komponen yang mendukung rendahya
partisipasi perempuan dalam kegiatan penyuluhan
pertanian adalah komponen perencanaan, pelaksanaan,
pengawasan dan manfaat yang juga berada pada
kategori rendah. Rendahnya pelaksanaan juga karena
perempuan hanya terlibat sebagai peserta penyuluhan
saja, tetapi rendah partisipasinya dalam hal kegiatan
administrasi dan koordinasi.
Chizari et al. (2003) dan Damisa et al. (2007)
mengatakan bahwa berbagai penelitian tentang
kontribusi perempuan dalam pembangunan pertanian
menunjukkan bahwa kontribusi perempuan dalam
kerja pertanian adalah tinggi yaitu antara 60% dan 90%
dari total tugas pertanian yang dilakukan. Kontribusi
perempuan adalah melakukan tugas-tugas seperti
membersihkan tanah, mengolah tanah, menanam,
menyiangi, memupuk, memanen, mengolah makanan,
mengirik, menampi, penggilingan,transportasi dan
pemasaran serta pengelolaan ternak. Pentingnya
peran yang dimainkan oleh perempuan pada produksi
pertanian tersebut dipandang sama pentingnya dengan
gagalnya penyuluhan pertanian yang mengikutsertakan
perempuan petani karena akan memiliki dampak besar
bagi pendapatan nasional dan ketahanan pangan serta
keadilan sosial (Oladejo et al., 2011). Pengabaian
perempuan petani dalam kegiatan penyuluhan pertanian
masih saja terjadi meskipun upaya untuk meningkatkan
partisipasi perempuan petani dalam penyuluhan
pertanian telah lama dilakukan (Hayati, 2000; Jiggins,
1997; Mudukuti, 2002; Pini, 2002; Rivera, 1990;
Shibanda dan Seru, 2002; Suradkar, 2010).
Jiggins (1997), dan Pini (2002) menemukan
bahwa pelatihan sering dilakukan di pusat pelatihan
di mana pusat pelatihan petani terlihat sangat
“male bias” atau “masculine culture”. Proses yang
berlangsung selama kegiatan selalu berpihak kepada
laki-laki. Pertemuan dipandang sebagai “boy’s club”
karena sangat didominasi oleh peserta laki-laki.
Kondisi ini menyebabkan bahasa, sikap dan tindakan
yang terjadi selama proses kegiatan sangat “sexism”,
pendapat perempuan selalu diabaikan, tidak mampu
menumbuhkan semangat perempuan, dan akhirnya
perempuan merasa tidak diharapkan hadir di
tempat itu. Mudukuti (2002) dan Pini (2002) juga
menemukan faktor kurangnya dukungan. Kurangnya
dukungan terhadap perempuan dapat berasal dari
suami, keluarga, masyarakat dan perempuan lain.
Faktor lainnya adalah berkaitan dengan
bagaimana kegiatan dilaksanakan, waktu dan tempat
kegiatan. Hal ini dapat ditunjukkan dengan waktu
pertemuan yang terlalu lama, membosankan, proses
pelaksanaan yang kurang baik, pertemuan terlalu
formal, “team work” yang tidak memadai, waktu
dimulainya kegiatan, dan tempat yang tidak tepat
bagi perempuan karena jauh dari rumah (Mudukuti,
2002; Pini, 2002). Faktor sosial dan adat budaya
mencegah perempuan pedesaan untuk hadir pada
kegiatan penyuluhan, beban ganda perempuan yaitu
menjalankan peran domestik dan peran di lahan
pertanian (Akeredolu, 2009; Jiggins, 1997; Mudukuti,
2002; Pini, 2002), keyakinan agama (Akeredolu,
2009; Chizari et al., 1997), pegembangan program
dan materi penyuluhan tidak sesuai dengan kebutuhan
perempuan petani (Mudukuti, 2002; Pini, 2002),
tidak ada lahan atau akses terhadap lahan (Mudukuti,
2002), hak milik dan hukum warisan (Jiggins, 1997).
Selain itu, persepsi masyarakat bahwa perempuan
bukan sebagai petani (Akeredolu, 2009; Squire PJ,
2003), berlakunya pembagian kerja berdasarkan
jender dimana perempuan melakukan pekerjaan
rumah tangga, sedangkan laki-laki mencari nafkah
(Akeredolu, 2009; Jiggins, 1997). Faktor lain yang
turut mempengaruhi partisipasi atau keterlibatan/
kehadiran perempuan adalah umur atau penglihatan
yang buruk, tidak konsisten/bersedia turut belajar,
sibuk mencari uang dengan melakukan pekerjaan
tambahan di kota (Vatta et al., 2008); motivasi belajar
(Strong dan Harder, 2010), kurang tersedianya
transportasi, kurangnya informasi tentang kegiatan
penyuluhan dan kurangya akses perempuan terhadap
kredit, ketidakmampuan perempuan untuk membaca
dan menulis, kurangnya penyuluh perempuan
(Mudukuti, 2002), kurangnya fasilitas perawatan
anak (Mudukuti, 2002; Jiggins, 1997).
Berdasarkan uraian di atas, maka masalah
yang ditelaah sebagai pertanyaan penelitian adalah: 1)
bagaimanakah tingkat partisipasi perempuan petani dalam
kegiatan pertanian tanaman palawija; 2) bagaimanakah
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 Jurnal Penyuluhan, September 2013 Vol. 9 No. 2
tingkat partisipasi perempuan dalam kegiatan penyuluhan
pertanian tanaman palawija?; 3) kelembagaan penyuluhan
apa saja yang berperan dalam kegiatan penyuluhan
pertanian tanaman palawija; 4) bagaimanakah pengaruh
factor kelembagaan penyuluhan terhadap partisipasi
perempuan dalam kegiatan penyuluhan pertanian
tanaman palawija?
Berdasarkan permasalah, tujuan penelitian ini
adalah: 1) menganalisis tingkat partisipasi perempuan
petani dalam kegiatan pertanian tanaman palawija; 2)
menganalisis tingkat partisipasi perempuan dalam
kegiatan penyuluhan pertanian tanaman palawija; 3)
mengidentifikasi kelembagaan penyuluhan apa saja
yang berperan dalam kegiatan penyuluhan pertanian
tanaman palawija; 4) menganalisis pengaruh faktor
kelembagaan penyuluhan terhadap partisipasi
perempuan dalam kegiatan penyuluhan pertanian
tanaman palawija?
Metode Penelitian
Jenis penelitian yang digunakan dalam
penelitian ini adalah penelitian deskriptif explanatory
(Singarimbun dan Effendi, 1989), yaitu jenis
penelitian yang ditujukan untuk mendiskripsikan,
menguji hubungan dan pengaruh antar peubah,
mengacu pada hipotesis yang telah dirumuskan
sebelumnya. Model teoritis yang akan diuji dalam
penelitian ini meliputi bentuk hubungan antar peubah,
yaitu hubungan peubah faktor kelembagaan X (Materi
penyuluhan, Metode, Media, Waktu, Tempat, Suasana
(kenyamanan), Persepsi penyuluh, Sikap penyuluh,
Intensitas interaksi penyuluh, Kemampuan penyuluh)
dengan peubah terikat yaitu partisipasi perempuan Y.
Peubah dan sub peubah dalam penelitian ini diukur
berdasarkan persepsi perempuan petani.
Penelitian dilakukan di Desa Suka Damai
Kecamatan Dramaga Kabupaten Bogor. Penelitian
dilakukan selama 2 bulan yaitu pada bulan November
dan Desember 2011. Populasi dalam penelitian ini
adalah perempuan yang bekerja sebagai petani.
Pengambilan sampel responden dilakukan secara
random. Jumlah sampel penelitian sebanyak
30 orang. Jenis data yang dikumpulkan terdiri
dari data primer dan data sekunder. Data primer
diperoleh melalui penggunaan kuisioner tertutup,
wawancara dengan penggunaan kuisioner terbuka,
dikusi kelompok terfokus (FGD), dan pengamatan.
124
Tahapan Analisis data terbagi dalam tahap deskripsi
data dan tahap pengujian hipotesis.
Hasil dan Pembahasan
Karakteristik Responden
Perempuan petani tergolong pada usia produktif
(rataan 47 tahun) dan belum didukung oleh tingkat
pendidikan yang memadai. Responden yang tidak
sekolah sebanyak 66,67%. Hanya terdapat 8 orang
responden (26,67%) yang pernah mengikuti kegiatan
penyuluhan pertanian yang diselenggarakan oleh PPL
(Penyuluh PNS). Namun, hampir semua responden
menyatakan bahwa mereka lebih sering mendapatkan
informasi secara langsung dari Penyuluh Swadaya, yaitu
petani maju yang sekaligus berperan sebagai pedagang
pengumpul produk tanaman palawija. Rendahnya
persentase responden yang mengikuti kegiatan
penyuluhan yang difasilitasi oleh PPL disebabkan karena
mereka yang menjadi anggota kelompok tani wanita
hanya sedikit yaitu 3 orang (10%) dan yang menjadi
ketua kelompok 1 orang (3,33%), dengan rata-rata lama
menjadi anggota kelompok tani wanita sebesar 0,33
tahun. Padahal, di sisi lain pengalaman berusaha tani
responden adalah rata-rata 19,53 tahun yang sebenarnya
dapat diharapkan mendukung keberhasilan agribisnis
petani, namun belum didukung oleh luas penguasaan
lahan pertanian yang memadai. Diketahui rata-rata luas
lahan hanya 0,22 hektar.
Partisipasi Perempuan Petani dalam Kegiatan
Pertanian Tanaman Palawija
Partisipasi perempuan petani dalam kegiatan
pertanian tanaman palawija adalah partisipasi perempuan
pada tahap perencanaan, pelaksanaan, evaluasi, dan
penerimaan manfaat atas partisipasinya dalam melakukan
kegiatan pertanian tanaman palawija. Berdasarkan
temuan penelitian, tingkat partisipasi perempuan pada ke
empat tahapan tersebut tergolong “tinggi” (Tabel 1).
Pada tabel 1 tampak bahwa perempuan memiliki
partisipasi yang tinggi artinya bahwa perempuan
melakukan pekerjaan pertanian adalah lebih banyak
dibandingkan laki-laki (suaminya) yang ditunjukkan
dengan jumlah persentase sebesar 50%. Penilaian tinggi
terhadap partisipasi dan semua komponen manifesnya
mengindikasikan bahwa perempuan mempunyai
peranan dan tanggung jawab yang tinggi dalam hal
 Jurnal Penyuluhan, September 2013 Vol. 9 No. 2
Tabel 1 Sebaran Responden berdasarkan Kategori Partisipasi Perempuan pada Kegiatan Petanian
Tanaman Palawija
Sangat Rendah (Laki-laki) = 30-54
Rendah (Laki-laki > Perempuan) = 55-79
Sedang (Laki-laki = Perempuan) = 80-104
Tinggi (Perempuan > Laki-laki) = 105-129
Sangat Tinggi (Perempuan) = 130-154
Total
Rata-rata
Min-Max
produksi makanan bagi rumahtangganya dan bagi
masyarakat. Temuan ini sejalan dengan apa yang telah
dilakukan oleh peneliti-peneliti sebelumnya (Afzal,
2010; Chizari et al., 2003; Damisa et al., 2007; FAO,
2009; Sharon, 2008 dan Fabiyi et al., 2007 dalam
Oladejo et al., 2011; Okafor C.N, 2008; Syamsiar, 2008;
Taridala, 2010).
Bila dikaji lebih dalam, berdasarkan temuan
lapangan diketahui bahwa partisipasi perempuan
ternyata tidak hanya sebatas pada tahap pelaksanaan
saja melainkan juga pada tahap perencanaan,
pengawasan (Tabel 2). Bahkan terlihat bahwa skor
partisipasi perempuan pada dimensi tahap perencanaan
dan pengawasan adalah lebih tinggi dari dimensi tahap
pelaksanaan. Fakta ini menunjukkan bahwa perempuan
berperan dalam pengambilan keputusan-keputusan
penting di dalam rumahtangga tentang pelaksanaan
kegiatan pertanian dan pengawasannya. Misalnya
keputusan tentang: kapan harus mengolah lahan,
mengambil benih, menanam, menyiang, memupuk,
mengendalikan hama penyakit; menggunakan jenis
pupuk apa; mencari biaya untuk membeli pupuk;
memutuskan jenis tanaman yang akan ditanam.
Demikian pula halnya dengan dimensi tahap
pengawasan. Perempuan petani melakukan kegiatan
Tabel 2 Analisis Deskriptif Skor Dimensi Partisipasi Perempuan dalam Kegiatan Pertanian Tanaman
Palawija
Partisipasi Perempuan Rata-rata
Perencanaan 36,2
Pelaksanaan 23,7
Pengawasan 34,9
Manfaat 10,2
Jml (orang) Persen (%)
0 0,00
5 16,70
5 16,70
15 50,00
5 16,70
30 100,00
105
69,00 -149,00
pengawasan pada kegiatan pertanian meskipun ia tidak
melakukan pekerjaan itu. Hal ini sejalan dengan apa
yang telah dilakukan oleh Okafor C.N (2008) dalam
penelitiannya yang berjudul Women Participation
In Agricutural Decision-Making In Aguata Local
Government Area, Anambra State.
Lebih rendahnya skor partisipasi perempuan
pada tahap pelaksanaan (Tabel 2) dibandingkan dengan
skor pada dimensi perencanaan disebabkan karena
terdapat pekerjaan pertanian yang tidak dilaksanakan
oleh perempuan melainkan dilakukan oleh suami dan
atau buruh tani. Jenis pekerjaan ini adalah pekerjaan
pengolahan lahan dan penyiangan gulma.
Komponen yang mendukung tingginya
partisipasi perempuan dalam kegiatan pertanian
tanaman palawija adalah komponen perencanaan dan
evaluasi, serta manfaat yang juga berada pada kategori
tinggi. Berdasarkan temuan, meskipun perempuan
mempunyai partisipasi yang tinggi dalam kegiatan
pertanian tanaman palawija namun hanya sedikit
(33,33%) yang merasakan manfaat untuk dirinya
sendiri. Manfaat terbesar (66,66%) adalah dirasakan
oleh keluarganya sebagai sumber nafkah bagi keluarga
dan sumber bagi ketahanan pangan rumahtangga.
Berdasarkan hasil wawancara tidak tersruktur dengan
Minimum Maksimum
9 45
13 45
20 45
9 14
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 Jurnal Penyuluhan, September 2013 Vol. 9 No. 2

Tabel 3 Sebaran Responden berdasarkan Kategori Partisipasi Perempuan pada Kegiatan Penyuluhan
Pertanian Tanaman Palawija

Jml. Persen
(orang) (%)
Sangat Rendah 4 13,3
Rendah 16 53,3
Tinggi 7 23,3
Sangat Tinggi 3 10,0
Total 30 100,0
Rata-rata 29,87
Min-Max 13,00-47,00

responden ditemukan bahwa perempuan tidak hanya
melakukan kegiatan pertanian saja melainkan juga
melakukan berbagai kegiatan penanganan pasca panen
dan pengolahan terhadap hasil usahataninya sebagai
makanan bagi anggota rumahtangga dan kemudian
mendistribusikan kepada anggota keluarga. Temuan
ini sejalan dengan hasil penelitian yang dilakukan oleh
Taridala (2010) dan Syamsiar (2008).
Partisipasi Perempuan Petani dalam Kegiatan
Penyuluhan Pertanian Tanaman Palawija
Meskipun perempuan petani memiliki partisipasi
yang tinggi dalam kegiatan pertanian tanaman palawija,
hal ini tidak berarti bahwa partisipasi perempuan
dalam kegiatan penyuluhan pertanian, khususnya yang
dilakukan oleh PPL adalah tinggi. Tabel 3 menunjukkan
bahwa partisipasi responden dalam kegiatan penyuluhan
pertanian tergolong kategori rendah (53,3%). Rendahnya
kategori partisipasi perempuan pada kegiatan penyuluhan
pertanian terkait dengan sedikitnya jumlah perempuan
petani yang pernah mengikuti kegiatan penyuluhan
pertanian di Desa Sukadamai. Data menunjukkan
bahwa hanya terdapat 8 orang responden (26,67%) yang
pernah mengikuti kegiatan penyuluhan pertanian yang
diselenggarakan oleh PPL (Penyuluh PNS). Ini pun
dikarenakan mereka adalah perempuan yang menjadi
Tabel 4 Analisis Deskriptif Skor Dimensi Partisipasi Perempuan dalam Kegiatan Penyuluhan Pertanian
Tanaman Palawija
anggota kelompok tani wanita yang jumlahnya hanya
sedikit yaitu 3 orang (10%) dan yang menjadi ketua
kelompok 1 orang (3,33%). Terkesan bahwa, penyuluh
hanya mau melakukan komunikasi dengan perempuan
petani yang menjadi pengurus dan atau anggota kelompok
perempuan tani.
Komponen yang mendukung rendahya
partisipasi perempuan dalam kegiatan penyuluhan
pertanian adalah komponen perencanaan, pelaksanaan,
pengawasan dan manfaat yang juga berada pada
kategori rendah (Tabel 4). Rendahnya skor komponen
pelaksanaan juga karena perempuan hanya terlibat
sebagai peserta penyuluhan saja, tetapi rendah
partisipasinya dalam hal kegiatan administrasi dan
koordinasi (kategori sangat rendah 30% dan rendah
46,67%), serta kontribusi perempuan dalam pelaksanaan
(kategori sangat rendah 20% dan rendah 53,33%).
Pada Tabel 4 tampak juga bahwa perolehan
skor manfaat adalah lebih besar dari yang lainnya.
Hal ini dikarenakan komponen manfaat adalah terdiri
beberapa item komponen dan merupakan yang terbanyak
penyumbang skor partsipasi dibandingkan komponen
perencanaan, pelaksanaan, dan evaluasi, Namun demikian,
partisipasi perempuan dalam kegiatan penyuluhan
pertanian telah dirasakan dapat memberikan manfaat
bagi perempuan. Manfaat yang tertinggi dirasakan oleh
perempuan adalah memperoleh manfaat secara sosial

Partisipasi Perempuan Rata-rata Minimum Maksimum

Perencanaan 7,33 3 12
Pelaksanaan 5,93 3 12
Pengawasan 4,00 2 7
Manfaat 12,60 5 20

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Tabel 5 Hubungan antara Peubah Faktor yang Mempengaruhi Partisipasi Perempuan dalam Kegiatan
Penyuluhan Pertanian

Persepsi Sikap Kemampuan

Materi Metode
Partisipasi perempuan dalam 0,530** 0,606**
penyuluhan
Intensitas interaksi penyuluh - -
Persepsi penyuluh - -
Keterangan : ** Correlation is significant at the 0,01 level (2-tailed).
yaitu bertambahnya pengalaman dan meningkatnya
pengetahuan dan keterampilan dengan kategori skor
tinggi 33,33% dan sangat tinggi 20%. Meskipun rendah
perolehan skornya, yang paling menarik dari sisi
manfaat adalah perempuan memiliki kepercayaan diri
dan kemantapan status sosial untuk berperan sebagai
penyuluh swadaya bagi sesama perempuan petani dengan
kategori skor tinggi 26,67% dan sangat tinggi 10%.
Hal ini menunjukkan bahwa terdapat potensi
untuk mengembangkan peranan perempuan petani
sebagai penyuluh swadaya. Hal ini didukung dengan
adanya pernyataan responden bahwa perempuan
akan lebih nyaman jika belajar bersama penyuluh
sawadaya perempuan dan akan lebih mudah melakukan
komunikasi karena bertempat tinggal di desa.
Kelembagaan Penyuluhan yang Berperan dalam
Kegiatan Penyuluhan Pertanian Tanaman
Palawija
Berdasarkan temuan di lapangan kelembagaan
penyuluhan yang diakui keberadaannya adalah PPL.
Namun meskipun demikian, PPL dipandang oleh
perempuan petani responden masih belum berperan
dalam kegiatan penyuluhan pertanian tanaman
Tabel 6 Analisa Regresi Linier Berganda Faktor-faktor Kelembagaan yang Mempengaruhi Partisipasi
Perempuan dalam Kegiatan Penyuluhan Pertanian
Media Suasana
penyuluh penyuluh penyuluh
0,625** 0,464** 0,567** 0,580** -
- - - - 0,886**
- - - 0,712** -
palawija. Peran PPL selama ini digantikan oleh
Penyuluh Swadaya, yaitu petani maju yang sekaligus
berperan sebagai pedagang pengumpul produk
tanaman palawija. Kegiatan Program Penyuluhan
yang Berpengaruh terhadap Partisipasi Perempuan.
Berdasarkan Tabel 5 tampak bahwa peubah partisipasi
perempuan petani dalam penyuluhan pertanian
mempunyai hubungan yang sangat kuat atau
signifikan dengan peubah faktor yang mempengaruhi
partisipasi perempuan dalam kegiatan penyuluhan
pertanian (pada taraf nyata p < 0,01) yaitu dengan
materi penyuluhan (koefisien korelasi sebesar 0,530),
metode penyuluhan (koefisien korelasi sebesar
0,606), media penyuluhan (koefisien korelasi sebesar
0,625), suasana penyuluhan (koefisien korelasi
sebesar 0,464), persepsi penyuluh tentang keberadaan
perempuan sebagai petani dan partisipasi perempuan
dalam kegiatan penyuluhan (koefisien korelasi sebesar
0,567), sikap penyuluh tentang kehadiran perempuan
dan partisipasi aktif dalam kegiatan penyuluhan
pertanian (koefisien korelasi sebesar 0,580).
Hal ini menunjukkan bahwa semakin meningkat
kemampuan penyuluh dalam menentukan materi
penyuluhan, metode penyuluhan, media penyuluhan yang
sesuai dengan kebutuhan perempuan serta meningkatnya

Koefisien Tidak Koefisien

Peubah Tidak Bebas T Sig
Terstandarisasi Terstandarisasi
Konstanta B Beta
Metode 2,415 0,557 3,358 0,003
Sikap 2,765 0,445 2,960 0,007
Intensitas interaksi penyuluh 2,903 0,358 1,216 0,235
Kemampuan penyuluh -3,176 -0,475 -1,466 0,155
Nilai Adjusted 0,482
Nilai F Hitung 6,027
Sig F 0,001

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 Jurnal Penyuluhan, September 2013 Vol. 9 No. 2
kemampuan penyuluh dalam menciptakan suasana
penyuluhan yang nyaman dan menyenangkan maka
semakin meningkat pula partisipasi perempuan dalam
penyuluhan pertanian.
Hubungan antara peubah faktor yang
mempengaruhi partisipasi perempuan dalam kegiatan
penyuluhan pertanian menunjukkan bahwa peubah
intensitas interaksi penyuluh dengan perempuan
petani mempunyai hubungan atau korelasi yang sangat
significant dengan peubah kemampuan penyuluh.
Kuatnya hubungan antara peubah ini dapat ditunjukkan
dengan perolehan koefisien korelasi pada taraf nyata
0,01 yaitu sebesar 0,886. Hal ini menunjukkan bahwa
semakin meningkat kemampuan teknis dan non-teknis
penyuluh, mengunjungi perempuan petani secara
teratur dan semakin meningkat kemampuan penyuluh
dalam hal membantu perempuan petani mencari solusi
atas permasalahan yang dihadapi maka semakin aktif
penyuluh membangun komunikasi dengan perempuan
petani dan membangun kesepakatan jadwal pertemuan
periodik antara penyuluh dan perempuan petani.
Selain itu, hubungan yang sangat kuat antara
peubah persepsi penyuluh tentang keberadaan
perempuan sebagai petani dan partisipasi perempuan
dalam kegiatan penyuluhan dengan peubah sikap
penyuluh tentang kehadiran perempuan dan partisipasi
aktif dalam kegiatan penyuluhan pertanian (koefisien
korelasi sebesar 0,712). Hal ini menunjukkan bahwa
semakin positif persepsi penyuluh tentang keberadaan
perempuan sebagai petani dan partisipasi perempuan
dalam kegiatan penyuluhan maka semakin tinggi
sikap penyuluh tentang kehadiran perempuan dan
partisipasi aktif dalam kegiatan penyuluhan pertanian.
Memperhatikan keterkaitan antara peubah
kemampuan penyuluh dan intensitas interaksi penyuluh
jelas bahwa semakin kuat hubungan di antaranya
menunjukkan semakin kuatnya jalinan komunikasi
atau interaksi antara PPL dengan perempuan petani.
Sedangkan, keterkaitan antara peubah persepsi dan
sikap jelas bahwa semakin kuat hubungan diantaranya
menunjukkan semakin tinggi komitmen penyuluh dan
kesadaran jender PPL untuk meningkatkan partisipasi
perempuan dalam kegiatan penyuluhan pertanian.
Namun, hasil analisis regresi terhadap peubah
faktor kemampuan penyuluh dalam melaksanakan
penyuluhan yang mempengaruhi partisipasi perempuan
dalam kegiatan penyuluhan memberikan hasil bahwa
peubah metode dan sikap penyuluh (p < 0,05) yang
berpengaruh secara nyata. Semakin tepat atau sesuai
128
penggunaan metode penyuluhan dengan kebutuhan
perempuan maka akan semakin tinggi tingkat
partisipasi perempuan dalam kegiatan penyu-luhan
pertanian. Temuan ini sejalan dengan temuan penelitian
yang dilakukan oleh Pini (2002) dan Mudukuti (2002).
Semakin positif sikap penyuluh terhadap partisipasi
perempuan dalam kegiatan penyuluhan pertanian
maka semakin tinggi tingkat partisipasi perempuan
dalam kegiatan penyuluhan pertanian. Hal ini sejalan
dengan temuan penelitian yang dilakukan oleh Afzal
(2010), FAO (2009), Sharon (2008) dan Fabiyi et al.
(2007) dalam Oladejo et al. (2011).
Kesimpulan
Berdasarkan tujuan penelitian dan uraian di
atas dapat disimpulkan bahwa partisipasi perempuan
petani pada kegiatan pertanian tanaman palawija
adalah dalam kategori tinggi (53,3%) yang dapat dilihat
pada komponen perencanaan, pelaksanaan, evaluasi
dan manfaat. Namun, hal ini tidak diiringi dengan
tingginya partisipasi perempuan petani pada kegiatan
penyuluhan pertanian tanaman pangan. Hasil penelitian
menunjukkan bahwa partisipasi perempuan petani
dalam kegiatan penyuluhan pertanian dalam kategori
rendah (50%). Hal ini disebabkan karena faktor sikap
penyuluh yang tidak positif atau sangat rendah terhadap
partisipasi perempuan dalam kegiatan penyuluhan
pertanian. Hasil analisis regresi menunjukkan bahwa
sikap penyuluh terhadap kehadiran perempuan sebagai
peserta penyuluhan dan partisipasi aktif perempuan
dalam kegiatan penyuluhan berpengaruh secara
nyata (p < 0,05) terhadap partisipasi perempuan
dalam kegiatan penyuluhan pertanian. Keberadaan
kelembagaan penyuluhan BP3K Kecamatan Dramaga
masih dirasakan merupakan lembaga penyuluhan
yang penting bagi perempuan, namun harus diimbangi
dengan peningkatan kinerja penyuluh lapangannya.
Karena, keberadaan penyuluh swadaya di Desa
Sukadamai juga mempunyai peranan penting dalam
mentransfer inovasi kepada petani.
Semakin meningkat kemampuan penyuluh
dalam menentukan materi penyuluhan, metode
penyuluhan, media-media penyuluhan yang sesuai
dengan kebutuhan perempuan serta meningkatnya
kemampuan penyuluh dalam menciptakan suasana
penyuluhan yang nyaman dan menyenangkan maka
semakin meningkat pula partisipasi perempuan dalam
penyuluhan pertanian. Selain itu, hubungan yang
 Jurnal Penyuluhan, September 2013 Vol. 9 No. 2
sangat kuat antara peubah persepsi penyuluh tentang
keberadaan perempuan sebagai petani dan partisipasi
perempuan dalam kegiatan penyuluhan dengan
peubah sikap penyuluh tentang kehadiran perempuan
dan partisipasi aktif dalam kegiatan penyuluhan
pertanian
Oleh karena itu, perlu dibangun dan
ditumbuhkan kesadaran gender baru dan juga
komitmen yang tinggi dari PPL untuk meningkatkan
partisipasi perempuan dalam kegiatan penyuluhan
pertanian, serta perlunya merancang strategi
peningkatan partisipasi perempuan dalam kegiatan
penyuluhan pertanan.
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131
 The current issue and full text archive of this journal is available at
www.emeraldinsight.com/2046-9012.htm

Communication,
Communication, work systems work systems
and HRD and HRD
R. Wayne Pace
Organizational Leadership, Marriott School of Management, 201
Brigham Young University, Provo, Utah, USA
Received 1 March 2012
Revised 21 October 2012
Abstract Accepted 23 November 2012
Purpose – The purpose of this article is to show the foundational place that communication theory
and its practice occupies in functioning work systems.
Design/methodology/approach – This paper defines the word communication in terms of the
creation and interpretation of displays, describes what it means to have a theoretical foundation for a
discipline, identifies and elaborates on the development driving force of human resource development
(HRD), presents and explains a model of a work system in which HRD functions, and elaborates on the
role, function, and place of communicative acts in the maintenance of the work system and the work of
HRD professionals.
Findings – The article posits that communication theory underlies the processes and activities of
both scholars and practitioners of HRD. Finally, it argues that courses in communication theory and
organizational communication are essential in the preparation of both scholars and practitioners.
Research limitations/implications – Research on the vagaries of communication in work systems
may need to focus on identifying the causes of more easily identified symptoms. Researchers must be
constantly alert to the changing role of communication as both a symptom and a cause of effective and
ineffective work system functioning.
Practical implications – Since human resource development is applied, practiced, and used
predominantly in work systems, sensitivity to the fundamental role that communication plays in work
systems may allow HRD practitioners to take a communicative perspective in analyzing and solving
problems.
Originality/value – This article directs readers to the main, fundamental issue in organizations and
highlights the central role of communication in the functioning and development of both the human
resources and the work system.
Keywords Communications, Work systems, Human resource development
Paper type Research paper

Introduction
The purpose of this article is to show the foundational place that communication
theory and its practice occupies in functioning work systems. Since Human Resource
Development is applied, practiced, and used predominantly in work systems,
sensitivity to the fundamental role that communication plays in work systems may
allow HRD practitioners to take a communicative perspective in analyzing and solving
problems. A successful workplace environment recognizes the social and, especially,
the communicative aspects of its members and develops effective communication
systems based on its central core, the human worker (Pace, 1983). European Journal of Training and
Development
Vol. 37 No. 2, 2013
What is a theoretical foundation? pp. 201-219
Scholars in any particular academic program and field of study are obligated from time q Emerald Group Publishing Limited
2046-9012
to time to examine its theoretical foundation. Many definitions of the term foundation DOI 10.1108/03090591311301699
EJTD exist, depending on the context of their use. For our purposes, the concept of
37,2 foundation is taken to refer to the basic principles, axioms, and tenets that serve as
disciplinary base of the HRD field of study and practice (Pace et al., 1991). That is,
although HRD, as many have asserted, may draw upon a multitude of ideas from many
areas to guide its curricular development and practice, this article makes the argument
that communication should be considered the most fundamental body of principles
202 that undergirds human resource development as a discipline (Pace, 2000, p. 46).
Darlene Russ-Eft (2000) articulated a perspective relevant to this discussion when
she defined HRD as focusing on the development of unique individuals, as individuals,
and because the individual functions within a group and system, their development
may lead to the development of the group and the system. Thus, in that view, the
individual is central to the HRD discipline, making the one feature that distinguishes
human beings from other creatures on the earth, communication, the central and
fundamental issue in HRD academic programs and in the practice of professionals
(Pace and Boren, 1973).

HRD driving force

It has also been argued that a field thrives when it is true to its driving force. It is
postulated here that the field of HRD thrives because of its “development” driving
force, rather than a management, systems, economic, learning, or psychological
driving force (Pace, 1996, pp. 20-3). The development driving force comes from pride in
helping individual human beings expand, unfold, and grow. As human beings develop,
they contribute to the achievement of work systems goals. Individuals are not,
however, fungible tools of the system, marketable like goods and services. In addition,
the development of individuals also leads to the development of the system, making it
more efficient, effective, and productive. Consequently, HRD is most effective when it
adheres to its driving force of development (Pace, 2000, pp. 46-7).
Given those premises, HRD professionals should avoid considering their primary
goals as that of increasing individual salaries or negotiating land deals or selling
products; the HRD professional is there to develop the individual and through them to
develop the system itself; in doing so, both the individual and the system benefit.
Assuming that what has been described above is accurate, other questions of
relevance to this discussion are:
(1) How does one model a system in which the individual is the basic energizing
force? That is, assuming that systems, such as organizations, simply cannot
function without individuals, how should the elements of a system be portrayed
so as to place the individual in the central position?
(2) What is the most inherent body of knowledge for understanding the
development driving force? That is, what knowledge is fundamental to
understanding the development of individuals? The argument here is that
“Communication Theory” provides the most sustainable underlying
explanations for understanding HRD and the development driving force.
Regardless of the goals of HRD – increasing performance, evolving a learning
organization, being financially successful, expanding services, being financially
stable – only communication theory or theories successfully explain the nature
of HRD and its most desirable and appropriate practices. Let’s look at what we
mean by communication.
The meaning of communication Communication,
How do we distinguish communicative phenomena from other behaviors? For work systems
example, which of these constitute forms of communication: writing a letter, saluting a
flag, creating a sculpture? and HRD
The answers to these questions depend on the precision with which you define the
term, “communication” (Pace et al., 1979). The simple answer is that none of the
behaviors mentioned are actually communication. The complex answer is that all of 203
them are part of the communication process. If we look at what happens when a person
engages in communicating, we find that two general types of actions take place (Pace,
1983, pp. 30-3):
(1) Creating message displays.
(2) Interpreting message displays.

Since the term “displays” appear in both types of actions, we need to think about what
the term “display” means before we discuss what it means to create a display. Most
major dictionaries indicate that the term display refers to “bringing something to the
attention of another or others.” A more comprehensive definition of display explains
that to display is literally to spread something out so that it may be most completely
and favorably seen. Thus, to display is to put something in plain view and usually in a
favorable position for particular observation.

Creating message displays

For a display to be a form of communicative behavior, however, it must represent or
stand for or symbolize something else. For example, when you get dressed in the
morning, you create a display of yourself. You put yourself in plain view and you dress
yourself so as to create a favorable image. You create a positive display. Your clothing,
jewelry, shoes, hair, and other accoutrements comprise your display, and furthermore,
they symbolize you, they stand for you. Said another way, you are your display (Pace
and Faules, 1994, pp. 18-21).
Goldhaber (1979) suggests that the body and its appearance, especially the mouth
and eyes, gestures, touching, posture, and general bodily shape; the volume, tone, rate,
pauses, and non-fluencies of vocal expression; the environment, including spaces
between people and the territorial cues they offer; observance of time factors such as
tardiness and promptness; building and room designs, clothing; artwork, parking
space selections, and the number of staff workers assigned to assist a particular
executive all represent different forms of display that may be interpreted, making all of
those phenomena elements of the communicative process.
It is not uncommon, but inaccurate and inappropriate, however, to refer to
communication as “the transfer of information” (Katz and Kahn, 1966). In his seminal
treatise on Living Systems, James G. Miller (1965) explained that information isn’t the
same thing as “meaning.” Information, as used technically, is the degree of freedom
that exists in a given situation to choose among patterns to be transmitted. Information
is the negative of uncertainty. Miller explains that information signifies giving form to
something or to create or to put in order. Information is a technical term that refers to
the display creating process.
Communication theorists consider information to be the results of creating a display.
Words in written messages and sounds in spoken messages are part of the display of
EJTD the writer or speaker. Preparing a policy statement or a memo represents information
37,2 or message displays. Luthans (1973) also included in his definition of information such
things as statistics, accounting, and nonverbal behaviors, which are also only displays.
Ference (1970) referred to “a five-year forecast of industry sales” as information, which
is also a display. Profit and loss statements, performance evaluations, personal
opinions expressed in letters, and technical reports are all forms of information, hence,
204 displays.

Interpreting message or information displays

The second type of behavior that occurs when a person engages in communication is
called “interpreting message displays.” To “interpret” means to make sense of
something, to construe or understand something in a particular way. Communication
can be distinguished from all other human and organizational behaviors because it
involves the mental process of making sense out of various displays presented by
people, objects, and events. The people and what they do and objects such as buildings
and clothing, and events like parades and protests are all displays that must be
interpreted or made sense of for communication to occur.
Making sense of something is the authentic definition of communication. That is,
the personal interpretation of a display is what should be called communicating. In
other words, the display itself does not constitute communication, but the person
interpreting the display does represent communication. Thus, the act of making sense
out of a piece of information is the only act that may be construed as communication.
Too frequently, we behave as though the delivery of information or the display of a
message actually transfers meaning from one person to another. However, that is NOT
the case. Only when a person viewing a display makes sense out of it is there
communication. The critical feature of interpersonal relationships is the imputing of a
meaning that is somewhat similar to the intent of the creator of the display.
Communication may be assessed as successful when you are able to interpret what
another person says in the way the other intended it to mean.
You may feel that just saying something is adequate, that the other person will
automatically understand what you say just as you intended it. Assumptions like that
make a “meaning” sound like something you throw across the room for other people to
catch, and it’s their fault if they fumble it. We should understand that meanings are NOT
in the displays – objects, events or words (Lee and Lee, 1957). Postman and Weingartner
(1969) expressed it this way: “Meanings are in people, not words” or events or actions. In
sum, the real task involved in communicating is NOT making sounds or sending notes,
but in helping others create accurate meanings out of the displays.

A model of people, the communicators

To recognize the centrality of communication theory in HRD, we need to understand
what constitutes the interpretive mechanisms of the human being. Communicating
involves the four basic elements of people described by Bois (1973). His model portrays
people in terms of “what they do,” not what they ”are”, which allows us to pinpoint four
sets of activities that affect communication processes: Electro-chemical activities (the
metabolism of cells, the firing of neutrons, and general biological processes),
Self-Moving activities (sensory perceptions and the autonomic movements of vital
organs such as the heart, lungs, stomach, and vascular system, as well as the skilled
movements of athletes and artists, muscular tenseness and relaxation, and proper Communication,
posture), Feeling activities (affects, motives, and drives, purposes, ambitions, love, work systems
hate, indifference, commitment, joy, sorrow, dedication, contempt, trust, frustration,
and anxiety), and Thinking activities (symbolization, such as conceptualizing, talking and HRD
to ourselves, talking to others, writing, sign language, drawing, gesticulating, showing
facial expressions, listening, reading, asking questions, solving problems, planning,
and reaching decisions). This model is based on the widely accepted idea that human 205
beings are always in movement. After people are born, all one can do, for the most part,
is alter their activities – speed them up, slow them down, give them some other
direction – in an environment.

A communication unit
When people grow up and join an organization or system, they become communication
units – that is, people in positions who display and interpret displays – and use their
energies to accomplish both individual and organizational goals (Pace, 1983). As they
interact, their four human elements contribute to the formation of communicative
displays that are interpreted by their colleagues and other organization members. Since
the four elements are in continuous activity, individuals are continuously affected by
their own activities as well as the activities of people around them. Displays by parties
involved in communicating encourage changes in mental activities, feeling activities,
self-moving activities, and even electro-chemical activities. Changes in everyone
involved in communicative transactions never end, resulting in different
interpretations and, often, different communicative displays.
De Sola Pool (1973) defined a system as “any continuing entity capable of two or
more states.” The basic unit in a work system or organization is a person in a position,
and the “states” are communicative displays and their interpretations by people. As
displays change and their interpretations change, the states of the system are altered.
Bakke (1950) and Argyris (1957) explain, for example, that the person is “socialized”
by the position, creating a person that conforms more closely to the shape of the
position, and the position is “personalized” by the individual occupying the position,
producing a position that conforms more closely to the shape of the person. The
processes of socializing and personalizing are also transactional and are constantly in
movement, resulting in continuous change in both the person and the position.
In sum, the process of communication – that is, transactions involving the mutual
creation and interpretation of message displays by communication units – is the
central feature of organizing, organizations, and work systems. Such systems involve
the display and interpretation of messages by dozens and even hundreds of
communication units, or individuals in positions, at the same time, and who have
different types of relationships connecting them. Downs (1967) attempted to devise
ways to “develop distortion-proof messages” so as to counteract the powerful
tendencies in an organization to alter meanings of messages (pp. 118-31).

Communication rules
The powerful effect of communication on organizational and work system functioning
can be illustrated by the concept of “communication rules” (Cushman and Whiting,
1972, pp. 217-38).
EJTD As theories of organization note, the behavior of people in organizations is governed
37,2 by general but definite rules. Rules do a lot of things in organizations: they protect and
they restrict what people can do; they facilitate effort and they block it; they maintain
stability and urge change; they permit diversity and create conformity. They affect all
aspects of a person’s life in the organization.
A “rule” is a principle designed to govern conduct, action, procedure, or
206 arrangements of some sort. From another perspective, rules are statements of some
expectation or norm or a description of some appropriate form of behavior. When some
act is done regularly, we assume that a principle or rule governs the act. Thus we say
that a person’s behavior is “rule governed” when it occurs regularly and seems
consistent with some principle that can be stated (Littlejohn, 1983, pp. 60-6).
Some organizational rules are stated explicitly, such as when to come to work and to
go home, and are recorded in policy manuals and handbooks. Other organizational
rules are implicit or not recorded formally, but are learned by living in the organization
and watching what happens when a rule is violated.
Communication rules indicate to us what we should say and how we should say it.
Rules that indicate what can and cannot be talked about are called “content” rules.
Rules that indicate how we should talk – openly or only confidentially – about certain
topics are called “procedural” rules. In organizations, communication rules often apply
to specific superior-subordinate relationships. In that case, communication rules are
assumed to govern the communicative behavior of a pair of organizational members
who have specific positional relationships with one another, such as you and your
manager and your manager and her or his boss.
Content rules might indicate that the pair can talk freely about problems of getting
the work done, about employee benefits, and company products. On the other hand,
they may NOT talk about salary raises, promotion opportunities, company earnings,
and union activities. Content rules also determine whether personal problems of the
employee may be discussed and to what degree of openness and whether mistakes,
criticism, bad news, or other sensitive topics can be introduced into a conversation.
Procedural rules indicate who starts a conversation; can a subordinate initiate a
meeting or must the subordinate wait for the superior to contact him or her? Procedural
rules govern how delays are treated, how long a conversation lasts, how frequently
people can meet, who terminates the meeting, how interruptions are handled, where the
meeting takes place, who establishes the mood of the meeting, and who decides what
topics can be discussed.
If you want to test the strength of a particular rule in your organization, just violate
the rule and see what happens. For example, just walk up to the office of the vice
president and without knocking, open the door, walk in, and address him by his first
name. Try communicating with people differently from what the rule dictates. You’ll
see! Peace and compatibility reign in an organization when superiors and subordinates
say to one another, “I see that you see me behaving consistent with the rules.” When
violations occur, turbulence and unrest prevail. That‘s the power of communication in
an organization.
What effect does the system have on communication? Communication,
The idea of work work systems
To answer this question, we need to talk about what people do in organizations. For the
most part, we call what they do by the name of “Work.” Work is the term we use when and HRD
we talk about making or doing something, or, more specifically, when we talk about
applying energy to or expending effort to achieve or complete a particular task. Work
is the physical or mental effort put into doing or making something. 207
As soon as more than one person is needed to make or do something – to work, we
find the beginnings of “organization.” We often think of organizing as the act of
arranging a things parts so they work together. To get organized means, in popular
language, to put people and things into a working order or a “System.”
You may discover, by studying a work system model that the system has a
powerful influence on the individual worker, but the worker also exercises influence on
the system. You should also recognize that individuals within work systems must have
the support of HRD professionals and their skills in order to develop in a consistent and
productive way.

A work system
A “system” is broadly conceived of as a set of elements or parts interconnected and
interdependent so as to form an operating whole. A work organization consists of a
number of individuals who put physical and mental effort into accomplishing
something. It becomes a system when it contains all of the basic parts to form a
functioning whole. A “work system” consists of all the key elements that make up what
is necessary for several people to devote energy to making or doing something.
Basically, when one person finds it necessary to recruit others to help accomplish
work, the organizer must define the work to be completed, how the worker fits into the
system and relates to other elements, the overall mission and policies that guide the
work, and the management practices to be used to keep the work moving forward.

Elements of a work system

From the act of organizing, we can derive five essential elements of a work system: the
worker, the work itself or the technology, the structure of the organization or the way
in which individuals and roles relate, the guidelines of the organization or the
statements, agreements, plans, rules, and policies that constitute the arrangements by
which work ought to be done and goals accomplished, and the management practices
used to maintain the collectivity and move it toward goal accomplishment. Figure 1
portrays the work system in terms of a four-leaf clover (Pace, 2002, pp. 28-34). The
goals for this section are to define and briefly characterize the five elements of a work
system; describe communication and its role in work systems; and to justify
organizational communication as the natural and most fundamental theoretical
foundation for Human Resource Development.

A cloverleaf model of a work system

The cloverleaf model implies that the work system is like a garden that must be
cultivated and nourished so that it grows and develops in order to reflect the life, energy,
and animation of its human members. In fact, it may be assumed that the other elements
of the work system are designed in some way to foster, control, encourage, and/or inhibit
EJTD
37,2

208

Figure 1.
Cloverleaf model of the
elements of a work system

the manner in which workers function to achieve the goals of the work system. This
model of a work system places the worker in the central position and represents the
desirable relationship between workers and other elements of the system.

The worker
The first element of a work system is the worker. The worker resides in the center of
the system and makes all of the other elements function. Without the worker, the
system lacks action. The work system is created, maintained, expanded, and developed
through the efforts of the individuals of which it is comprised; how those efforts are
applied to the system depend in great part on the other elements of the work system.
In traditional treatments of workers and organizational behavior, the primary goal
is to identify those factors associated with individuals that differentiate them from one
another (Hellriegel et al., 1986), although in the workplace, we may have strong
tendencies to see people as all the same and interchangeable. That is, human beings
resemble one another in many ways, but each one is also quite unique. For example,
our internal biological mechanisms are quite similar, as is our general appearance. On
the other hand, we are differentiated from one another by sets of behavioral traits and
characteristics. The differences tend to evolve into “individual preferences” that affect
the way workers interact with one another both verbally, by the way they talk, and
nonverbally, by the way they act.
As we have noted above, communication is the fundamental, primary, and central
process in the functioning of people and organizations. Each of the aspects of
individual preferences tends to affect the way in which individuals create displays and, Communication,
especially, interpret the displays of others. work systems
and HRD
Individual preferences
Personality. Personality is one of the major differentiating factors in human beings.
Personality is a term that refers to the tendencies and traits that underlie, determine, or
influence how individuals think, feel, and behave. In that sense, personality theory may 209
be considered a special theory of communicative consistency and stability that
attempts to explain why individuals communicate the way they do.
One’s personality in the workplace tends to be reflected in four basic characteristics:
beliefs about locus of control or the extent to which individuals feel that what happens
to them is a result of their own actions or of actions beyond their control, tendencies
toward sociability (introvert/extrovert), beliefs about power and status differences,
their own and others (authoritarian and dogmatic traits), and self-esteem or a person’s
opinions of his or her own behavior, abilities, appearance, and worth.
These characteristics fail to have much significance in organizations, except when
they affect the way in which people communicate with one another. Individuals
communicate differently when they feel things are out of their control, feel they have
little power or status, tend to prefer dogmatic behaviors, and lack self-esteem.
Personality characteristics are clearly reflected in a person’s style of interacting with
others, a fundamental communication issue.
Attitudes. Attitude is a second differentiating factor among individuals. Attitudes
are relatively stable and lasting sets of beliefs, feelings, and behavioral intentions
directed towards specific persons, groups, ideas, objects, or events. Attitudes represent
a complex interplay between a person’s cognitions, emotions, and predispositions to
behave. A positive attitude means that you are disposed toward, feel good about, and
have optimistic beliefs about something. A negative attitude means that you are
disposed against, feel badly about, and have pessimistic beliefs about something.
One’s communicative approach or style is clearly affected by a person’s attitude.
Differences in displays and, especially, interpretations of what others do can be
alarmingly distorted when influenced by pessimistic beliefs on the part of either or
both parties to a communication event. The language patterns and physical actions of
a positive person may be fully uplifting and supportive whereas a pessimistic person
tends to display totally negative messages. However, a positive person may interpret
negative displays differently from a pessimistic one.
Perceptions. Perceptions, or the way a person abstracts details and combines them
into coherent meaning about a situation, are a third differentiating factor. Perception
represents the process by which individuals focus on some aspects of their world and
ignore other aspects of it and make sense of what is happening to them. Perception
involves searching for, getting, and processing information about the people, objects,
and events around individuals and organizing that information to make sense out of
them.
Communication is often affected seriously by individuals who create interpretations
of what others say and do when they selectively focus, for example, on only
detrimental aspects of a situation or see only the superficial dimensions of another
person. Perceptions may be the most crucial characteristic of individuals when it comes
to understanding and making sense out of an event. What people see may not be what
EJTD actually exists. The evidence in that regard is almost seriously overwhelming in terms
37,2 of how perceptions have an impact on how people communicate.
Attributions. Attributions or the process of perceiving the causes of their own
behavior and that of others, are closely related to perceptions. Attributions may be the
central activity in an individual’s interpretation of what others say and do. The basic
reason why people make attributions is to explain why people behave as they appear to
210 do. Attributions attempt to explain what causes behavior, what is responsible for
behavior, and to what the behavior is to be attributed. Attributions play a critical role
in understanding people’s reactions to one another and to themselves (Seligman and
Schulman, 1986). Attributions have a powerful influence on what we think others mean
when they say or do something. Some displays cannot be accurately interpreted due to
the interpreter’s faulty attributions. On the other hand, your attributions directly affect
the kinds of displays you create.
Causes of behavior tend to focus on internal sources (the person’s nature, attitudes,
personality) or external sources (unreasonable workloads, being provoked, chance
occurrences). It has been argued that people tend to underestimate the impact of
situational or external causes of behavior and overestimate the impact of personal
traits, emotions, motives or internal causes of behavior when seeking to understand
why people behave the way they do. All of these issues often have a powerful effect on
communication in an organization.

The work itself

Work that people do is comprised of formal and informal tasks completed in order to
achieve specific goals assigned to them by the organization. Griffin (1982, pp. 5-7)
explains that “job design variables [effort, quantity, and quality of output] are
positively correlated with work effectiveness.” Because the jobs workers perform are
part of the technical system of the organization, the Work Itself – both its tasks and
technology – are critically important to the way people understand themselves and
others in the organization, and the way they communicate.

Job design
The primary goal of workers is to create the product or provide the service that is the
output of the work system. In an equipment manufacturing plant, for example, the
workers may produce molds, weld parts, or move equipment. In retailing, workers
meet customers and sell merchandise, or fry hamburgers and make milkshakes. In
government offices, workers meet constituents, process applications, and distribute
decisions. In knowledge industries, workers process information.
Universal dimensions. Organizational jobs are characterized by three universal
dimensions: content, requirements, and context (Gibson et al., 1991).
Job content is described in terms of what the worker does in relation to materials,
people, and other tasks; in terms of the methods and techniques the worker uses; in
terms of the machines, tools, and equipment the worker uses; and, in terms of the
materials, goods, information, and services the worker produces.
Job requirements refer to prerequisite knowledge, skills, and attitudes thought to be
appropriate for a person to be able to perform the work, including education,
experience, licenses, and personal attributes required to perform the job in a particular
setting.
 Job context refers to the physical demands and conditions of the job location, the Communication,
kind of accountability and responsibility associated with the job, the amount of work systems
supervision required, and the general environment in which the job is performed.
Job characteristics. Most jobs also have three characteristics: range, depth, and and HRD
relationships.
Job range refers to the number of different tasks a worker performs to complete a
job. The greater number of tasks a worker performs, usually, the longer it takes to do a 211
job.
Job depth refers to the amount of discretion a person has to determine specific job
activities and outcomes. Highly specialized jobs are those having few tasks to
accomplish and precisely defined means by which to accomplish them.
Job relationships involve the number of interpersonal contacts required or made
possible in the performance of a particular job. Workers with similar backgrounds,
skills, and interests have a basis for more interpersonal contacts than do heterogeneous
workers, and often arrive at satisfying social relationships with less stress and with
greater fulfillment.
The work itself is often a critical impediment to communication in the organization,
especially when the work restricts contacts with others.

Improving the work itself

Improvements in the way in which work is done may be achieved in two ways:
Determining the best way to do a task and the amount of time necessary for completing
the task. Time and motion study attempts to increase work efficiency in this way.
Varying the characteristics of work by increasing work range by giving more variety,
task identity, and feedback, or work depth by increasing autonomy or adjusting
relationships by providing structures and opportunities that allow for interacting with
others (Hackman and Oldham, 1980, pp. 77-80).
Most of these types of changes actually have a positive effect on communication
among colleagues. However, whenever a person experiences an increase in the number
of message displays and contacts, that person must also decrease the quality of the
contacts and display- interpretations, which degrades the quality of communication.
As Downs (1967, pp. 130-1) has noted, “it is usually impossible for a large organization
to maintain the same quality of messages whenever the total volume of messages per
period rises significantly.” The consequence is that a person must either receive fewer
message displays, take longer to interpret them, or raise the person’s saturation point,
which means that each message-display-overloaded person has less time to perform
non-communication activities.
Adjustments in job range have been made using job rotation and job enlargement
methods by moving a worker from one job to another and by increasing the number of
tasks for which an individual worker is responsible.
Adjustments in job depth have been achieved through job enrichment, the practice
of giving workers more discretion over the activities and outcomes involved in a job.
Adjustments in both job range and job depth have been accomplished by combining
elements of tasks into a more complete whole, by assigning whole pieces or modules of
work to individual workers, by giving workers more discretion in the selection of
methods of work, permitting some self-paced procedures, and by giving workers more
information about the actual results of their work.
EJTD One difficulty in using task changes as the basis for job improvements involves the
37,2 predispositions and perceptions of workers. That is, workers with a perceived need for
increased social belonging, for example, tend to perceive the need for more
interpersonal contact or communication quite differently from workers who perceive
less need for social contacts. Individual differences in growth needs may also affect a
worker’s perceptions of the need for work variety. Variety may be less important for
212 workers who have weak growth needs. Hence, increases in variety may not increase
performance. However, with proper human resource development, each of these
changes can have a positive impact on communication, and an increase in the quality
of communication will have a reciprocal positive impact on the organization. The
centrality of communication in this whole process is apparent. Communication among
team members becomes critical in making and effecting these changes.

Technology
Although we have alluded to the idea of technology as part of the discussion of job
design, we have not as yet provided a direct definition. Technology has many different
definitions, but it is generally understood among organization theorists to refer to the
way in which work is done. Said another way, technology represents the actions that
an individual performs upon an object or process, with or without the aid of tools or
mechanical devices, in order to make some change in the object or process (Perrow,
1967, p. 195).
Technologies are involved at different levels in the performance of work. The way
in which individual workers perform a task has a technology associated with it. A
group or work team may have a different technology or way of doing work. The overall
flow of materials and the actions performed on each item or part of a product comprise
a technology. The way in which clients are handled in a social service agency
represents a different technology, and potentially different ways of creating and
interpreting messages or information. The implementation of each technology involves
high level, even sophisticated communicative displays and interpretations.

Management practices and processes

The primary goal of managers is to get the work done through other people. This
involves initiating actions and making decisions about how other people, usually their
subordinates, use resources needed to do their work. Some managers supervise
operative workers while others supervise other managers. Supervision requires not
only traditional levels of communication, but often sensitive and sophisticated displays
and high levels of understanding. Management operates in a vacuum unless accurate
and quality interpretations of the manager’s displays take place.
Management practices. The work of a manager has been described in a variety of
ways, but two fairly basic approaches seem to describe management practices in most
of their complexities. First, some consensus has been achieved around the idea that
managers engage in approximately five main functions: planning, organizing, staffing,
directing, and controlling (MacKenzie, 1969).
Second, some sound evidence suggests that managers perform about ten generic
roles divided into three basic groups: Interpersonal Roles (Figurehead, Leader,
Liaison), Informational Roles (Monitor, Disseminator, Spokesperson), and Decision
Roles (Entrepreneur, Disturbance Handler, Resource Allocator, and Negotiator)
(Mintzberg, 1973), nearly all of which could accurately be called essential Communication,
communication roles. work systems
Management processes. Managers are the key forces in several organizational
processes that place them in the center of much of what happens in a work system. and HRD
Included among the central management processes are problem solving and
decision-making, creativity and innovation, and influence, power and conflict
management; other management activities include team building and establishing 213
work groups, performance evaluation and control; providing access to information and
disseminating information, culture management, socialization and career planning,
human resource development, and organization change are also part of the overall
management system. Underlying these processes are theoretical notions that find their
expression in bodies of literature on learning, motivation, group behavior, leadership
styles, politics, personality, stress, and attitudes and persuasion. This literature
represents the sub-set of topics encompassed by a general theory of communication.
An understanding of management processes comes from an application of general
principles of communication associated with getting work done through others.
Nothing is more basic to managerial success than effective communication.

Organization structure
Organization structure refers to the relationships among the tasks and the members of
the organization (Tosi et al., 1990, p. 39). Organization structure appears to be defined
by two key variables: complexity and centralization (Robbins, 1989, p. 398; Robey,
1991).
Complexity. Complexity is a function of three factors: the degrees to which
differences exist between units (horizontal differentiation) as a result of the education,
training, and specializations that exist in the organization. Universities have a large
number of specialties and, hence, tend to be horizontally differentiated; and the number
of levels of authority between workers and top executives (vertical differentiation).
Whether an organization structure is taller or flatter depends on the span of control or
number of subordinates a manager can supervise effectively. A workforce of 4,096
employees, for example, would require 1,365 managers using a span of control of four
and only 585 managers with a span of control of eight (Robbins, 1987, pp. 59-60).
The sheer size of an organization may dictate having a narrower span of control,
although the type of job and the ability of organization members to make independent
decisions may allow for a wider span of control; the degree to which the location of an
organization’s facilities and personnel are dispersed geographically (spatial
differentiation). An organization with branch offices in twenty different locations
will tend to be more complex than an organization in which its entire operation is in
one place. In fact, Krempl and Pace (2001, pp. 17-56) argue that “the primary goal of
any T and D organization is to manage the flow of knowledge within the corporation,”
a major communication function, regardless of the size of the company.
Centralization. Centralization refers to the degree to which decision making is
concentrated at a single point in the organization. Decentralization, in contrast, refers
to the extent to which decision making authority is dispersed throughout the
organization.
The formal authority given to workers and managers to make decisions about their
work activities is a measure of centralization. Policies that limit decision-making tend
EJTD to move organizations toward centralization. Situations in which workers are
37,2 prohibited from participating in decisions about their work represent centralization. If
some form of discretion is provided at low levels in the organization, but the decisions
are closely monitored, the organization is still functioning with high degrees of
centralization. The use of autonomous work groups is an effort to decentralize decision
making in organizations.
214 Ansoff and McDonnell (1990) assert that structure is the “arrangement of tasks,
roles, authority, and responsibility through which a firm does its work” (p. 354). They
suggest that the “purpose of structure is to support the firm’s responsiveness to four or
five critical issues: functional or operating responsiveness, divisional or competitive
responsiveness, project or innovative responsiveness, international or strategic
responsiveness, and multi-structural or differential responsiveness.
“The relative importance of the different types of responsiveness of a firm can be
determined, on the one hand, by the stylistic preferences of management and, on the
other, by the turbulence characteristic of the firm’s environment” (p. 354). The strategic
responsiveness is, in part, a function of the last major dimension of the work system,
the organization’s operating guidelines.
The workers’ interpretation of the work they are assigned to do, the style of
managers and executives and other workers, and the way in which the structure
imposes on the life of workers evolves into a “communicative climate” that often
determines how workers do their work. How workers “understand” the system of
which they are part and its effect on them may be critical determinants of how
effectively the organization functions. HRD professionals are often directly involved in
monitoring and evolving a positive communication climate in the organization.

Organizational guidelines
Organizational guidelines, in the context of work systems as we are using the phrase,
refer to the vast array of statements that manage, control, and formalize actions and
decisions of organization members.
Formalization. Formalization refers to the degree to which jobs and tasks are
standardized. It occurs when job duties are governed by rules and regulations, whether
stated directly or simply understood by workers. Perceptions of workers concerning
the extent to which job procedures and activities are specified and enforced give a fair
measure of formalization in an organization. If a job is highly formalized, the worker
has little discretion over where, when, and how the job is to be done.
Professionalization also produces standardized or formal behavior through the
socialization of workers before they even enter employment. Formalization is achieved
through the selection process, by specifying role expectations, by training in job
procedures and skills, and through the process of having workers perform rituals, such
as wearing appropriate dress to work and addressing superiors in deferential ways in
order to demonstrate that they have formalized the ideology of the organization (Miles
and Snow, 1978). All of this is achieved through the extensive communicative
processes of an organization.
Stoner (1978) distinguishes among policies, procedures, rules, objectives, strategies,
purposes, goals, and missions of organizations, and he places each in the context of
planning and decision making, which is consistent with our view of critical dimensions
of the work system. Our preference is to consider all of these statements under the
single heading of “organizational guidelines” to encompass all of the statements that Communication,
show the way, govern, and direct decisions in an organization. Using this framework, work systems
we may consider organizational guidelines to encompass such statements as goals,
ends, missions, purposes, standards, deadlines, targets, and quotas, as well as policies, and HRD
strategies, procedures, rules, and regulations – all of which are sterile displays until
understood and internalized by workers in their various capacities.
Articulating organization guidelines involves a tremendous amount of serious 215
communication among individuals at all levels in the organization. Getting acceptance
of and agreement to abide by the guidelines depends almost entirely on how positively
those involved interpret the intent and methods of implementing the guidelines.
Communication is, again, the central theory that undergirds the entire process.

Brief summary
The Work System is comprised of five elements that are interrelated and
interdependent in operation, but that can be discussed in discrete units: The
Worker, the Work and Its Technology, Management Practices and Processes,
Organization Structure, and Organizational Guidelines. Work Systems are created,
maintained, and developed by the human beings who constitute the living, breathing,
essential communicating work units in the system. In addition, the vitality of the entire
system is a function of the energy of the individual workers and their communicative
competencies.

Implications for human resource development

A great many training programs that attempt to deal with communication issues,
inadvertently approach the task in an erroneous way, treating, primarily, the creation
of displays. Unfortunately, by ignoring the critical dimension of interpreting and
understanding what has been created, such programs fail to have the intended effect on
the work system.
Communication theory gives insight into critical organizational behaviors, such as
how instructions are carried out, how complaints develop, and how workers interact to
accomplish goals. When a work system is viewed as people engaged in communicative
transactions, we begin to understand that communication is, in fact, the whole of the
organization. Communication is the organization.
From this perspective, HRD professionals should understand that communication
does far more than simply carry out organizational plans. It is central to the creation,
maintenance, and development of the human resources of the organization and to the
very existence and success of the work system.
A communication perspective allows HRD professionals to ask truly basic
questions, such as, What constitutes the structure of any particular work system and
how is it created, executed, and changed? How is the plethora of “guidelines” designed,
implemented, sustained, and violated? How effective are they? Why and how do
workers respond to managerial message-displays? How do message-interpretations
affect the way employees complete their work assignments? How does the culture of a
work system evolve, and what impact does it have on the way workers understand and
carry out what they are to do? How does the quality of communication affect worker
satisfaction?
EJTD The climate of a work system is, primarily, a function of communicative
37,2 transactions among what we have called communication units. What workers say and
do, and how their displays are interpreted is the substance of the climate that
permeates the work system. Looking at the climate phenomenon from a
communication perspective provides a deeper understanding of the effects of climate
on workers and their productivity.
216 Decisions about how to approach the responsibilities and goals of the HRD program
are enriched by understanding the nature and role of communication in a work system.
“Human Resource Development is defined by its philosophy of “development.” HRD
professionals seek to strengthen both the individual and the work system to achieve
both short-range and long-range goals. This strengthening is understood and
influenced by communicative processes. Korte (2012), for example, asserts, in his
discussion of the social foundations of HRD, that we ought to place greater importance
on the interpretations and meanings of people in the organization (p. 23). A
communicative perspective is fully consistent with such an emphasis and could
contribute considerably to understanding the effects of the social and work systems on
worker behaviors, which are, in themselves, displays that management must be adept
at interpreting for the sake of maximizing the work systems they have been entrusted
to manage and improve.
In conclusion, we would argue that one or more courses in communication theory
and organizational communication are critical to include in any curriculum that
prepares practitioners for careers in human resource development.

Some HRD research considerations

The communicative aspects of work systems and human resource development are
sometimes so obvious that they are not given serious consideration. However, a
considerable amount of research has been done on some features, such as the “flow” of
information using network analysis and personal contact records, the “fidelity” of
messages using a procedure called “ECCO” [episodic communication channels in
organizations] and thematic analysis, and the “climate” of communication in an
organization using questionnaires, inventories, critical incidents, rules violation
analysis, and interviews.
Since communication difficulties may be both the cause and the effect of differences
in organizational functioning, research questions may often need to be phrased
precisely. Researchers must be constantly alert to the changing role of communication
as both a symptom and a cause of effective and ineffective organizational functioning.
For example, if employees get distorted messages (cause), they may be less effective in
their work (effect). On the other hand, if employees feel anxious and mistreated (cause),
they may very well distort messages as they interact with organization members
(effect). Also, if the communication climate of the organization seems to threaten the
personal agenda of employee (cause), employees may be fearful and defensive in
relations with other organization members (effect). If communicative responses seem
reserved and tentative, they may be a symptom of resistance to change. If
communication is terse and emotional, it may be a symptom of lack of empowerment.
On the other hand, efforts to implement change may result in fearful and defensive
communicative responses, and feelings of lack of power may result in reserved and
tentative communication.
 Thus, research on the vagaries of communication in work systems may need to Communication,
focus on identifying the causes of more easily identified symptoms. For example, work systems
organization members may be able to recognize such effects of poor communication as
low morale, poor work quality, conflicts that polarize people and groups, and and HRD
misunderstandings that alienate people, but they may not be able to recognize the
causes or explain why the symptoms arose. Communication may be at the root of an
organizational dysfunction or it may be only a symptom of a more basic cause. Thus, 217
researchers must be constantly alert to the changing role of communication as both a
symptom and a cause of effective and ineffective work system functioning.
From another perspective, rather than a factor in a cause and effect pattern of
interaction within the work system, communication may be viewed as the activity that
creates the work system. Through the communicative interactions of organization
members, a set of relationships evolve, and it is this interactive context that we call an
organization. Since the communicative acts of organization members depend on one
another – that is, individuals interpret what other people say and do and create the
meanings as they interact. As a result individuals decide what happened in the
interaction and decide what significance it has for them and others. In the process,
organization members share their perceptions through communicative interaction and
have them validated by those with whom they interact. What turns out to be sensible
or real depends on shared agreement among organization members.
This process allows the work system and its members to cope with the ambiguity
and uncertainty they experience in a world of indeterminate and equivocal
relationships. As in “action research,” work system members talk in order to
discover what they are saying and act to discover what they’re doing. In this view
communicating provides the raw materials for discovering the source of problems. Do
and say something and see what happens. Research, in this view, may focus on the
sense-making process and how it affects managing and decision-making. Research on
a work system should provide for understanding that goes beyond the technical issues
making the study of communication a fascinating object of study because it focuses on
the essence of the human object. The study of “every-day” talk in a work system
reveals how sense is made of the system and the networks of shared understanding
that exists.

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About the author

Dr R. Wayne Pace has held several appointments as Visiting Professor at Southern Cross
University, University of Adelaide, and Swinburne University of Technology, all in Australia,
and the University of Twente in The Netherlands. R. Wayne Pace can be contacted at:
wpace@infowest.com

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