5 Flattening-the-Earth-with-map-projections

Purpose of map projections
© Donald Boyes, Department of Geography and Planning, University of Toronto 1
Selecting a coordinate system
Globe vs. Map
Globe:
 Three‐dimensional (3D)
 Expensive, cumbersome, no detail, but no distortion
Map:
 Two‐dimensional (2D)
 Easier to measure distance, area, direction
 Can show more detail
 Easy to work with, portable, cheaper
 Distortion.
http://thetruesize.com
How projections work
Transformation of 3D Earth to a 2D map
What is a map projection?
First, imagine that the Earth
has been shrunk to the desired scale
Can use either
sphere or ellipsoid
Reference
Globe
Full‐sized Earth 1:100,000,000
Principal scale
Goal: Flat map with scale of 1:100,000,000
Hypothetical
Still 3D
Principal scale = Reference globe radius
Earth’s radius
1:100,000,000
6.378 cm
637813700 cm
= 0.00000001
or 1:100,000,000
Reference globe
Reference Globe (3D) Flat Map (2D)
1:100,000,000 1:100,000,000
Transfer all points from 3D globe to 2D map…
Reference Globe (3D) Flat Map (2D)
1:100,000,000 1:100,000,000
Distances are distorted
Actual distance
paper
Map distance
reference (shrunk, or distorted)
globe
To flatten globe, must stretch, tear, or distort…
(based on Melita and Kopp, 2004)
From curved surface to flat
How to lie with maps...
"Not only is it easy to lie with maps, it's
essential. To portray meaningful relationships
for a complex, three‐dimensional world on a flat
sheet of paper or video screen, a map must
distort reality"
Mark Monmonier, How to Lie with Maps, 1996
Associating points from 3D to 2D
Associating points
Equator
Draw a line from the equator to the pole…
Equator
Rotate 90°
Rotate 90°
Projection from sphere to plane
Should be equal, Should not be equal,
but are not but are
Cylindrical Equal Area
Adjust distances
Equirectangular projection
Two perpendicular directions
 We adjusted points along a meridian
 Same can be done along a parallel
 Can adjust both, and in different ways.
Graticule: indicates how projections work
Projection class (developable surfaces)
Planar
Cylindrical
Conic
(adapted from Lo and Yeung, 2006)
Projection classes
Standard line and scale factor
Where globe
Planar touches
developable surface
Cylindrical
Conic
(Melita and Kopp, 2004; Lo and Yeung, 2006)
Standard point or line
Hypothetical
Still 3D
Principal scale = Reference globe radius
1:100,000,000
Earth’s radius
6.378 cm
637813700 cm
= 0.00000001
or 1:100,000,000
Reference globe
Scale on
map
Local scale
SF=2 SF = Scale on
Principal scale
SF > 1
ref. globe
SF > 1
SF=1 Where will the local scale
be the same as the principal scale?
i.e., where is there no distortion?
1/100,000,000
SF =
1/100,000,000
SF > 1
SF = 1 at the standard line
SF > 1
What happens to the SF as you
move away from the standard line?
(Kennedy et al., 2004)
Scale factor
No distortion (3D) Scale factor varies
1/50,000,000
SF =
1/100,000,000
0.00000002
=
0.00000001
= 2.0
3D Reference Globe 2D Projected Map
1:100,000,000 1:100,000,000
(at all locations) (only along standard line)
(Kimerling et al., 2009)
Scale factor
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercator_projection
Variable scale bar
1:500,000
Representative fraction
(absolute scale)
“one inch to one mile”
Verbal scale
> 1:250,000
0 50 100 200 300 400 Km
Bar scale
Projection case
Scale factor = 1
Planar at standard lines
Cylindrical
How can we
Conic reduce distortion?
Tangent case
Scale factor = 1
Planar at standard lines
Cylindrical
Conic
Secant case
Scale factor > 1
Scale factor = 1
Scale factor < 1
Scale factor with two standard lines
Reference globe Mercator projection
Visualizing the change in scale factor (adapted from Kimerling et al., 2009)
Planar Polar
Cylindrical Tropical
Conic Temperate
Rule of thumb: match region to projection

where distortion is minimized
Projection aspect
SF > 1
SF > 1 SF > 1
SF > 1
Normal Transverse Oblique
Aspect
Polar Equatorial Oblique
(adapted from Kimerling et al., 2006)
Aspect
http://www.nrcan.gc.ca/earth‐sciences/geography/atlas‐canada/wall‐maps/16870
http://www.nrcan.gc.ca/earth‐sciences/geography/atlas‐canada/wall‐maps/16870k
http://www.nrcan.gc.ca/earth‐sciences/geography/atlas‐canada/wall‐maps/16870
http://www.nrcan.gc.ca/earth‐sciences/geography/atlas‐canada/wall‐maps/16870k
Let’s all hate Toronto
Projection central meridian
Central meridian
Central meridian: ‐100
Central meridian
Central meridian: ‐75
Poor choice of central meridian…
http://www.greenlandsc.com/en/World_America.aspx`
Poor choice of central meridian…
Central meridian set to China
Tissot’s indicatrix
Observing distortion
Reference globe Mercator projection
Visualizing the change in scale factor (adapted from Kimerling et al., 2009)
Tissot’s Indicatrix
 Draw infinitely small circles on
reference globe
 On globe, they are circles
 When projected, they are
distorted in shape and/or size
Tissot’s Indicatrix: Cylindrical Equal Area
SF < 1
SF > 1
Meridians straightened out
Area = πr2
= πab
a = 1
b
a b = 1
a x b = 1
a and b
are scale factors (SF) This is on the original
reference globe (3D)
Tissot’s Indicatrix
Area = πr2
= πab
a = 1.25
b
a b = 0.8
a x b = 1
Since a x b = 1,
2D map is equal‐area
but a ≠ b
so map is not conformal
Shapes distorted
Tissot’s Indicatrix: Mercator
SF > 1
SF > 1
Horizontal and vertical scale factors
Area = πr2
= πab
a = 1.25
b
a b = 1.25
a x b = 1.5625
Since a x b ≠ 1,
2D map is not equal‐area
but a = b
so map is conformal
Sizes distorted
Area
You can preserve area or shape, but not both
a = b or a x b = 1
Shape
Area vs. Shape
Equidistant projection
Standard
SF = 1 SF = 1 line
SF > 1
Standard
SF = 1 SF = 1 line
SF > 1
Great circles and rhumb lines
SF = 1
SF = 1
N
45°
Azimuth
London
New York
Great circle route
London
New York
Great circle route
Angles are all different
London
New York
Great circle vs. Rhumb line
Rhumb lines are longer (really!)
London
New York
Series of rhumb lines
Projection distance and direction
Straight line and shortest distance (i.e., great circle)?
B
A B
Rhumb line,
A
A not great circle
Distance, direction, and projection
B
B A B
A
A
A B
Direction and projection
B
B A B
A
A New York
A B
Azimuthal projection centered on New York
None of the above: Compromise
Grid coordinate systems and UTM
Mercator projection
SF > 1
SF > 1 SF > 1
SF > 1
Normal Transverse Oblique
Transverse Mercator
One UTM zone (6° wide)
Rotate cylinder, create new zone
UTM zones
Projected
coordinate system
(2D: UTM)
Projections and coordinate systems
Second 5
Y First
Quadrant Quadrant
4
(‐4,3) x (4,3)
3
2 How do we describe
y
Origin 1 where this is?
X
‐5 ‐4 ‐3 ‐2 ‐1 0 1 2 3 4 5
‐1
‐2
(‐4,‐3) ‐3 (4,‐3)
‐4
Third Fourth
‐5
Quadrant Quadrant
Plane rectangular coordinate system
5
Y
4
3
2
1
X
‐5 ‐4 ‐3 ‐2 ‐1 0 1 2 3 4 5
‐1
‐2
‐3
‐4
‐5
Staying positive!
UTM coordinate grid
0,0
Where origin would normally be…
500000mE, 0mN
0mE, 0mN
False easting
0mE, 10,000,000mN
Northing
Easting
0mE, 0mN
0mE, 10,000,000mN
Northing
Easting
0mE, 0mN
North vs. South hemispheres
Grid north
Geographic vs. UTM coordinate systems
http://geogratis.gc.ca/api/en/nrcan‐rncan/ess‐sst/cb864dc7‐25a1‐5136‐57f4‐c095ce1c6a6d.html
National Topographic System (NTS) map
Northing
621,000mE 4,845,000mN, Zone 17 North
Easting
UTM coordinates
CN Tower:
630,084mE, 4,833,438mN, Zone 17 North
UTM coordinates
Projections and ArcGIS
Projected Coordinate System
Menu and toolbars
Table of Data frame ArcCatalog

contents
Geographic
Mercator
Mercator
Geographic
and
Robinson “on the fly”
Projected
ArcMap and coordinate systems
Projection changes to data files
 Data can be saved to new file in new
projection
 Coordinates in the data file are recalculated
and adjusted to match the new projection
 You can’t always transform it “back” to exactly
the same coordinates due to rounding errors.
To avoid errors…
 Exchange GIS data in a 3D geographic
coordinate system, not a 2D projected
coordinate system

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Purpose of map projections

What is a map projection?

Transfer all points from 3D globe to 2D map…

Distances are distorted

From curved surface to flat

Draw a line from the equator to the pole…

Cylindrical Equal Area

Standard point or line

Variable scale bar

Scale factor with two standard lines

Visualizing the change in scale factor (adapted from Kimerling et al., 2009)

Rule of thumb: match region to projection

Normal Transverse Oblique

Poor choice of central meridian…

Poor choice of central meridian…

Visualizing the change in scale factor (adapted from Kimerling et al., 2009)

Meridians straightened out

Horizontal and vertical scale factors

Area vs. Shape

Great circle route

Great circle route

Great circle vs. Rhumb line

Series of rhumb lines

Distance, direction, and projection

Direction and projection

Azimuthal projection centered on New York

Normal Transverse Oblique

Rotate cylinder, create new zone

Projections and coordinate systems

Plane rectangular coordinate system

Where origin would normally be…

North vs. South hemispheres

Geographic vs. UTM coordinate systems

National Topographic System (NTS) map

Table of Data frame ArcCatalog

ArcMap and coordinate systems

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