K KHAN Science

All rights reserved with Provincial Institute for Teacher Education (PITE), Peshawar.
Approved by: Directorate of Curriculum and Teacher Education Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Abbottabad Vide
Letter No. 3965-67/Vol-1/SS-MD/CPD-NOC/2019 dated: 17-09-2020
Teaching of Science Primary Developed by:
1. Mr. Sohail Khan, Instructor PITE, Peshawar

2. Mst. Memoona Safdar, Instructor PITE, Peshawar.
Developed under Supervision of:

Dr. Tariq Mehmood, Director, Provincial Institute for Teacher Education (PITE)
Reviewed by:
1. Dr. Shafqat Hussain, Subject Specialist. DCTE, Abbottabad

2. Mr. Zia Ud Din, Sr. Instructor PITE Peshawar
3. Mst. Kousar Instructor RITE (F), Abbottabad
4. Mst. Memoona Safdar, Instructor PITE, Peshawar
Reviewed under Supervision of:

Mr. Gohar Ali Khan, Director, Curriculum & Teacher Education (DCTE), Khyber Pakhtunkhwa,
Abbottabad.
Induction Program for Teachers 2019
Contents
Preface .............................................................................................................................................................................. 4
Session 1: .......................................................................................................................................................................... 6
HANDOUTS ........................................................................................................................................................................ 9
Handout 1.1: The Process of Scientific Method .......................................................................................................... 9
Handout 1.2(a): Observation of Environment and Science....................................................................................... 10
Handout 1.2(b): Differences between Plant and Animal Cells .................................................................................. 11
Handout 1.2(c): Natural process of water cycle in atmosphere ............................................................................... 12
Handout 1.2(d): Natural process of photosynthesis in atmosphere ......................................................................... 13
Session 2: ........................................................................................................................................................................ 14
HANDOUTS ...................................................................................................................................................................... 17
Handout 2.1: Role of Science in Our Daily Life.......................................................................................................... 17
Handout 2.2: Aims and Objectives of teaching Science ............................................................................................ 20
Session 3: ........................................................................................................................................................................ 22
HANDOUTS ...................................................................................................................................................................... 26
Handout 3.1: Lecture-Cum-Demonstration Method ................................................................................................ 26
Handout3. 2: Discovery method ............................................................................................................................... 28
Handout 3.3: Activity based Learning ....................................................................................................................... 30
Handout 3.4: Problem solving and Inquiry based learning ....................................................................................... 32
Session 4: ........................................................................................................................................................................ 33
HANDOUTS ...................................................................................................................................................................... 38
Handout 4.1: Teaching aids ....................................................................................................................................... 38
Handout 4.2: Types of teaching aids ......................................................................................................................... 41
Handout 4.3: Lesson planning and its characteristics ............................................................................................... 43
Handout 4.4: Designing and Interpretation of Tests. ............................................................................................... 48
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Preface
The Government of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Elementary and Secondary Education Department (E&SED)
successfully launched and completed Phase-1 of the Induction Programme in 2018-19 for newly recruited
teachers. Positive feedback from the stakeholders encouraged E&SED to continue the practice of offering
induction programme to newly hired teachers.
The quality education issues that were identified before IP-phase-1 and the assumption that the beginning
teachers were likely to lack significant professional competencies and content knowledge were confirmed
in pre-test. Moreover, after completion it was evident in the results of the trainee teachers that the
identified gaps were, to a greater extent, bridged. Hence, it was safely concluded that the Induction
Program proved instrumental in addressing the newly recruited teachers’ challenges in terms of their
content clarity and pedagogical skills.
In depth analyses of the data from IP-Phase-1 highlighted that trainee teachers still lacked pedagogical
underpinnings of the teaching and learning process. The learning from phase-1 were incorporated in
designing IP-Phase-2. Consequently, content and design were amended to adapt to the emerged
requirements. One of them was insertion of a 50-day face-to-face sessions of Foundational Courses
including Curriculum and Instructions, Educational Psychology, Classroom Assessment, Classroom
Management and Assessment, School Organization, Use of ICT in Education, and Teaching of subjects.
These courses are selected due to their importance and proximity to teaching and learning.
This course will help you to learn different teaching learning techniques and strategies to teach better in
your classroom. This course module has been designed for you to understand various teaching concepts to
create conducive learning environment for young children. Through reflective practice and variety of
teaching strategies, it is hoped that you will be in better position to apply these teaching skills with fidelity.
This course module consists of 4 session plans of 3 hours each. So, in total there will be 12 hours of
instruction time.
I truly appreciate the content developers whose untiring efforts resulted in a quality document, which
certainly will prove to be a stepping-stone towards the improvement in the training of teachers.
Furthermore, I would like to thank Director DCTE and his review teams for their valuable input in helping
us improve and finalize this important resource for your professional development.
This document has been made possible with the support of Department of International Development –
DFID through Technical Assistance from Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Education Sector Program (KESP) managed
by Adam Smith International (ASI).
I sincerely hope that this module will give you required skills and knowledge necessary to teach effectively.
I wish you good luck!
Dr, Tariq Mehmood

Director, PITE
Peshawar
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The development of knowledge skills and attitude towards science and promoting scientific
literacy is the main goal of science curriculum.
Objectives:
After completing the course, the following objectives will be achieved:
• Develop the knowledge of science; know about the basic fields of Science i.e. Life Science, Physical
Science, Earth and Space Sciences.
• Promote the use of learning materials, print and non-print resources and textbook developed in an
interactive style, which will provide substantial part of the student’s experiences.
• Engage and explore learner in inquiry and problem solving techniques in the approaches of Science.
• Observe scientific knowledge and its application in daily life
• Develop the Scientifics attitude, interest and curiosity towards science, technology and
environment.
• Encourage the learner to develop the skills for observing living, physical and technological
components of their environment.
• Promote science as an activity based learning that is carried out by students as a part of their
everyday life.
• Develop scientific learning that is meaningful, useful and relevant to the learners need.
• Enhance logical and rational thinking in the leaner.
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Session 1: Primary Science Time: 180 Minutes
Date
Unit
• Nature of Science
Topic and Sub Topic
1.1 Definition of science
1.2 Science as a process: scientific method
1.3 Science as a product: scientific knowledge
Objectives of the Session
By the end of the session the trainee teachers will be able to:
• Define and explain science.
• Understand science as a process.
• Understand science as a product.
Required Resources
• Writing board, marker, charts, etc.
Introduction of the Session 10 minutes

Share with the trainee teachers that today we will learn the concepts of:
• Definition of science
• Science as a process: scientific method
• Science as a product: scientific knowledge
Instructions/Activities
Activity 1: 70minutes
Definition of science and scientific method
• Initiate the discussion by asking following questions:

o What do you know about the science?
Expected response: Knowledge gained by man through observation, experimentation and
reasoning of any process occurring in daily life.
o How we use scientific method for any study?
Expected response: i) Make an observation. Let's suppose that you get two slices of bread,
put them into the toaster, and press the button. ...
ii) Ask a question. Why didn't my bread get toasted? ...
iii) Propose a hypothesis. ...
iv) Make predictions. ...
v) Test the predictions. ...
o What are the steps of the scientific method?
Expected response: Step 1: Ask a question. For the first step, help your child form a question,
hopefully one that can be answered! ...
Step 2: Do background research. ...
Step 3: Construct a hypothesis. ...
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Step 4: Test your hypothesis by doing an experiment. ...

Step 5: Analyze the data and draw a conclusion. ...
Step 6: Share your results.
• Divide the trainee teachers into five groups.
• Assign them the following tasks:
Group 1 Group 2 Group 3 Group 4 Group 5
Observation Asking Questions Hypothesis Prediction Experiments
• Tell the trainee teachers to read Handout 1.1 and make presentations.
• After 20 minutes, ask one trainee teacher from each group to come forward and present their
assigned task.
• Ask other groups for questions, if any.
• Conclude the activity by giving your own point of view by summarizing presented group work and
Handout 1.1.
Activity 2 80 minutes
Science as a product: scientific knowledge
o Define scientific knowledge.
Expected response: The information collected about facts, truths and reality through
scientific method.
o Why scientific knowledge is important?
Expected response: It helps us to solve the practical problems, to make decisions on the
basis of information, to apply scientific knowledge as technologies and to develop scientific
skills and attitudes.
o Give an example of scientific knowledge?
Expected Response: i) Occurrence of day and night due to rotation of earth on its axis.
ii) Conversion of states of matter due to evaporation and melting etc.
• Divide the trainee teachers into four groups.

Group 1 Group 2 Group 3 Group 4
Observation of Differentiation Natural process of Natural process of
Environment and between animal and water cycle in photosynthesis in
Science plant cell atmosphere nature
• Tell the groups to read Handout 1.2(a), (b), (c) and (d) respectively and make presentations.
• After 20 minutes, ask one trainee teacher from each group to come forward and present their
assigned task.
Handouts.
Assessment 20 minutes
At the end of the session ask following questions to gauge the understanding of trainee teachers:
i. What is scientific knowledge?
ii. How scientific knowledge help to see natural processes?
iii. What are various steps of method of science?
iv. How do we observe natural processes?
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v. What do you thing how is laboratory used for obtaining scientific knowledge?
vi. What is prediction?
vii. What is test?
viii. Write at least four ways which help to clean environment.
ix. Write at least three differences between animal and plant cells.
x. Write main stages of water cycle.
xi. Define photosynthesis.
Home Assignment:
• Write any two natural processes to relate scientific method to scientific product.
Teaching Learning Strategies/ tips for trainee teachers to teach effectively

Following teaching learning strategies have been used in today’s session:
• Inquiry based learning
• Group work
• Presentation
Note:
Ask the trainee teachers to bring G-Science textbooks for next sessions.
References
• https://www.sdcoastkeeper.org/blog/change-your-habits/top-ten-creative-ways-to-teach-kids-about-the-
environment
• https://www.thoughtco.com/animal-cells-vs-plant-cells-373375
• https://www.activityvillage.co.uk/the-water-cycle
• https://www.ducksters.com/science/photosynthesis.php
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HANDOUTS
Handout 1.1: The Process of Scientific Method

Steps of scientific method.
OBSERVATIONS:
Observation is the active acquisition of information from a primary source. In living beings, observation employs the
senses. In science, observation can also involve the perception and recording of data via the use of scientific
instruments. The term may also refer to any data collected during the scientific activity. Observations can be
qualitative, that is, only the absence or presence of a property is noted, or quantitative if a numerical value is
attached to the observed phenomenon by counting or measuring.
QUESTIONS:
Why do these insect populations fluctuate so dramatically? In particular, what causes the abrupt population decline
(crash) that nearly always terminates the outbreak? Why do the insects not remain abundant until the forest has
been killed and no food remains? Why are trees not killed more often than they are by these outbreaks? Predators
and diseases provide the most common answer to these questions, but Haukoja advanced an explanation that does
not require predators or diseases.
HYPOTHESIS:
A hypothesis (plural hypotheses) is a proposed explanation for a phenomenon. For a hypothesis to be a scientific
hypothesis, the scientific method requires that one can test it. Scientists generally base scientific hypotheses on
previous observations that cannot satisfactorily be explained with the available scientific theories. Even though the
words "hypothesis" and "theory" are often used synonymously, a scientific hypothesis is not the same as a scientific
theory. A working hypothesis is a provisionally accepted hypothesis proposed for further research, in a process
beginning with an educated guess or thought.
PREDICTION:
A prediction is what someone thinks will happen. A prediction is a forecast, but not only about the weather. Pre
means before and diction has to do with talking. So a prediction is a statement about the future. It's a guess,
sometimes based on facts or evidence, but not always. A scientific prediction is a statement about a future event. It
is based on a scientific theory. That means in particular it is reproducible (by everybody with the appropriate
education), consistent, and the theory it is based on is not in conflict with available data already. A scientific
prediction is falsifiable. In practice this means often it is implausifiable. A prediction is never
a fact.Established science makes useful predictions which are often extremely reliable and accurate; for example,
eclipses are routinely predicted. New theories make predictions which allow them to be disproved by reality.
EXPERIMENT:
An experiment is a procedure carried out to support, refute, or validate a hypothesis. Experiments provide insight
into cause-and-effect by demonstrating what outcome occurs when a particular factor is manipulated. Experiments
vary greatly in goal and scale, but always rely on repeatable procedure and logical analysis of the results. There also
exists natural experimental studies.
A child may carry out basic experiments to understand gravity, while teams of scientists may take years of systematic
investigation to advance their understanding of a phenomenon. Experiments and other types of hands-on activities
are very important to student learning in the science classroom. Experiments can raise test scores and help a student
become more engaged and interested in the material they are learning, especially when used over time.
Experiments can vary from personal and informal natural comparisons (e.g. tasting a range of chocolates to find a
favorite), to highly controlled (e.g. tests requiring complex apparatus overseen by many scientists that hope to
discover information about subatomic particles). Uses of experiments vary considerably between the natural and
human sciences.
Experiments typically include controls, which are designed to minimize the effects of variables other than the single
independent variable. This increases the reliability of the results, often through a comparison between control
measurements and the other measurements. Scientific controls are a part of the scientific method. Ideally, all
variables in an experiment are controlled (accounted for by the control measurements) and none are uncontrolled.
In such an experiment, if all controls work as expected, it is possible to conclude that the experiment works as
intended, and that results are due to the effect of the tested variable.
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Handout 1.2(a): Observation of Environment and Science

Children are our future. That future can be bold and beautiful or dark and dreary. You mean the difference
between a generation of environmental leaders who love and respond the environment, making choices to
live, work and play in a way that respects our natural spaces. And uninformed adults who don’t think
beyond selfish needs and desperate profit. Follow these simple tips to teach environmental lessons to the
children in your life.
1. Lead by example. Have you heard that a
picture is worth a thousand words? Well, an
action is worth millions. The same way your
kids could learn an inappropriate behavior can
be used to develop environmental awareness.
2. Take your kids outside. Learning to enjoy
nature is the first step to care about it. Also,
ask your doctor if more outdoor activities
could improve your health? Studies show it
could reduce obesity and others diseases.
3. Teach children to use the appropriate
receptacle for their waste: reduce, reduce,
reduce, reuse, reuse and recycle as much as
you can. Little things, like packing a waste-free
lunch, can make a powerful lesson for your
children, especially in these difficult times of
plastic. Some useful tips: get a favorite
character reusable lunch bag, fork and spoon that your child can reuse; encourage your little one to
drink water from the water fountain; buy more organic fruits for snacks.
4. Give them chores, like helping you classify your recyclables. As a reward, they can save money
earned by recycling to buy a cool toy.
5. Work together in a garden or compost project. If you can’t, buy one plant for them to learn to take
care of; it’s a fun way to learn how plants need sun, water and soil. Use your senses, and enjoy the
flowers. Take them to a compost garden to see the worms in action. They will learn how the worms
can decompose…say what??? Yeah, science and environment, they are an important part of the life
cycle.
6. Teach them to close the faucet while brushing and bathing. Water is precious. Keep a water cup
for brushing your teeth and a container to pour water to wash out the soap and shampoo. You can
use stickers as a reward for remembering to turn off the faucet.
7. Turn it off! When you are out of the room, your toys don’t need the lights on. You can order a free
sticker to remind you to switch them off. Better yet, make your own sticker.
8. Participate in a beach/water cleanup. Better yet, clean up (at least after you) when you go to the
beach/water land. Show them that this is the home of lots of beautiful aquatic/ocean creatures.
Tide pooling, and other beach activities can help them realize the importance of keeping the
water/ocean clean. Who likes yucky water? Not me.
9. Give away to others the toys and clothes that you don’t use. Sharing is nice. Take your kids with
you when you donate to make them aware of the people in need, while keeping more items out of
the landfill.
10. The same way you teach kids to respect others (humans), you can teach them to respect
nature. In your bedtime story, incorporate environmental books. Make a movie time more fun with
a movie that teaches about the consequences of destroying the environment. You can also
download a cool app (ebooks or games) to teach little ones about environmental conservation.
Remember kids learn by playing!
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Handout 1.2(b): Differences between Plant and Animal Cells

Animal cells and plant cells are similar in that they are both
eukaryotic cells. These cells have a true nucleus, which
houses DNA and is separated from other cellular structures by a
nuclear membrane. Both of these cell types have similar processes
for reproduction, which include mitosis and meiosis. Animal and
plant cells obtain the energy they need to grow and maintain
normal cellular function through the process of cellular respiration.
Both of these cell types also contain cell structures known
as organelles, which are specialized to perform functions necessary
for normal cellular operation. Animal and plant cells have some of the same cell components in common
including a nucleus, Golgi complex, endoplasmic
reticulum, ribosomes, mitochondria, peroxisomes, cytoskeleton, and cell (plasma) membrane. While
animal and plant cells have many common characteristics, they are also different.
Plant Cells Animal Cells

Plant cells are usually larger in size Animal cells are smaller in size
Have a rectangular, fixed shape Have a round, irregular shape
Composed of a cell wall made up of cellulose Don’t have a cell wall
Have one or more comparatively very smaller Have one, large central vacuole taking 90% of cell
vacuoles
volume
Centrioles are present in lower forms of plants Centrioles are present in all animals
Composed of chloroplast to produce their own Do not contain chloroplast
food
Do not consist of lysosome Consist of lysosome
Composed of glyoxysomes Not composed of glyoxysomes
Reserve food in the form of starch Reserved food in the form of glycogen
Spindle formation is anastral Spindle formation is amphiastral
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Handout 1.2(c): Natural process of water cycle in atmosphere

Water on Earth is constantly moving, changing state (from liquid, to gas, to solid) and being recycled. The
water cycle describes this journey. There are 4 main stages in the water cycle: evaporation, condensation,
precipitation and collection.
• Evaporation:
When the sun heats the surface of seas, lakes, rivers and streams, some of the water changes state
and becomes water vapour, mixing with the air. Warm air rises so the water vapour rises too.
• Condensation:
When the air cools down, the water vapour condenses back into water droplets. These water
droplets collect together and form clouds.
• Precipitation:
The water droplets in clouds attract other water droplets to them and they grow bigger. When they
get too big and heavy they fall to ground as rain. If the air is cold enough the droplets remain frozen
and fall as snow or hail.
• Collection:
When the water falls to Earth it collects as streams, rivers or lakes. When it falls on land in can filter
in to the Earth and become groundwater or it can flow over the land as run off to meet existing
bodies of water.
Some of the water may be taken up by plants and animals. Plants take up water from the ground through
their roots. They then ‘breathe’ the moisture out of their leaves into the air.Evaporation accounts for about
90% of the water in the air with transpiration accounting for most of the other 10%.
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Handout 1.2(d): Natural process of photosynthesis in atmosphere

What is photosynthesis?
Have you ever noticed that plants need sunlight to

live? It seems sort of strange doesn't it? How can
sunlight be a type of food? Well, sunlight is energy and
photosynthesis is the process plants use to take the
energy from sunlight and use it to convert carbon
dioxide and water into food.
Three things plants need to live
Plants need three basic things to live: water, sunlight,

and carbon dioxide. Plants breathe carbon dioxide just
like we breathe oxygen. When plants breathe carbon
dioxide in, they breathe out oxygen. Plants are the
major source of oxygen on planet Earth and help keep
us alive.
We know now that plants use sunlight as energy, they

get water from rain, and they get carbon dioxide from
breathing. The process of taking these three key
ingredients and making them into food is called
photosynthesis.
How do plants capture sunlight?
Plants capture sunlight using a compound called

chlorophyll. Chlorophyll is green, which is why so many
plants appear green. You might think at first that it's
green because it wants to absorb and use green light. However, from our study of light, we know that the color we
see is actually the color of light that is reflected. So chlorophyll actually reflects green light and absorbs blue and red
light.
More details on Photosynthesis
Inside a plant's cells are structures called chloroplasts. It's in these

structures where the chlorophyll resides.
Even though plants need sunlight and water to live, different plants
need different amounts of each. Some plants need just a little water
while others need a lot. Some plants like to be in the direct sunlight
all day, while others prefer the shade. Learning about the needs of
plants can help you learn where to plant them in your yard and how
best to water them so they will flourish.
Summary
Now we know that plants need sunlight, water, and carbon dioxide
to live. They take these three components and use chlorophyll to
help convert them into food, which they use for energy, and oxygen,
which they breathe out and we use to live. All plants use
photosynthesis, so they all need some sunlight.
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Date
Unit
• Aims/ objectives of teaching science
Topic and Sub Topic
2.1 Role of science in daily life
2.2 Objectives of teaching science at primary level
By the end of the session the trainee teachers will be able to:
• Relate the science with the daily life.
• Teach science effectively at primary level.
Required Resources
Writing board, marker, charts, etc.

• Role of science in daily life
• Objectives of teaching science at primary level
Activity 1: 80 minutes
Role of science in daily life
o What is the role of science in our daily lives?
Expected response: Science informs public policy and personal decisions on energy,
conservation, agriculture, health, transportation, communication, defense, economics, leisure,
and exploration. It's almost impossible to overstate how many aspects of modern life are
impacted by scientific knowledge.
o Give the examples of use of science in everyday life.
Expected response: Events like cooking, boiling of water, burning of candle, curdling of milk,
electricity, motorized vehicles, cell phones etc. generally make us realise the presence of science
in everyday life. From the above examples we can sense the broadness and importance of
science in everyday life.
o How is science useful?
Expected response: Scientific knowledge allows us to develop new technologies, solve practical
problems, and make informed decisions — both individually and collectively. Because its
products are so useful, the process of science is intertwined with those applications: New
scientific knowledge may lead to new applications.
• Assign task to the trainee teacher by diving them into three groups.
Group 1 Group 2 Group 3
Role of science in production Role of science in production Role of science in medicine
of food of energy formation
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• Ask them to make presentations on their assigned topics by reading Handout 2.1
• Invite randomly one member from each group to present their group work.
• Ask the trainee teachers to give feedback on each presentation.
• Conclude the activity by summarizing the roles of science in nature.
Objectives of teaching science at primary level
o Why we teach science at primary level?
Expected response: To acquire knowledge, conceptual understanding, and skills to solve
problems and make informed decisions in scientific contexts, to develop skills of scientific inquiry
to design and carry out scientific investigations and evaluate scientific evidence to draw
conclusions.
o Why is science important in primary education?
Expected response:Children are naturally curious. Science at primary school should nurture this
curiosity and allow them to ask questions and develop the skills they need to answer those
questions. Primary science helps pupils to investigate problems.
• Assign task to the trainee teacher by diving them into three groups.
The aims of Objectives of Relationship between aims and
teaching science teaching science objectives of teaching Science
• Ask them to make presentations on their assigned topics by reading Handout 2.2
• Invite randomly one member from each group to present their group work.
• Ask the trainee teachers to give feedback on each presentation.
• Conclude the activity by summarizing the Aims and objectives of teaching of science at primary level.
Ask the following questions to estimate the understanding of trainee teachers:
i. Give some inventions of science.
ii. Write three objective of teaching science.
iii. Write four each advantages of learning and teaching science at primary level.
iv. Enlist some activities/processes that occur in kitchen relating everyday science.
v. Enlist some activities / processes that occur in school laboratory.
Home Assignment:
1. Write the role of science to increase and enhance the quality of food produced in daily life.
2. Write the impact of science on human being.

Following teaching-learning strategies have been used in today’s session:
• Group work
• Discussion
• Brainstorming
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References
• https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Food_science
• https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energy_development
• https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medicine
• https://gradeup.co/aims-and-objectives-of-science-i
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HANDOUTS
Handout 2.1: Role of Science in Our Daily Life

1. FOOD SCIENCE
Food science is the basic science and applied science of food; its scope starts at overlap with agricultural
science and nutrition and leads through the scientific aspects of food safety and food processing, informing
the development of food technology. The Institute of Food Technology defines food science as "the
discipline in which the engineering, biological, and physical sciences are used to study the nature of foods,
the causes of deterioration, the principles underlying food processing, and the improvement of foods for
the consuming public". Food Science defines food science in simpler terms as "the application of basic
sciences and engineering to study the physical, chemical, and biochemical nature of foods and the
principles of food processing".
Activities of food technologists include the development of new food products, design of processes to
produce these foods, choice of packaging materials, shelf-life studies, sensory evaluation of products using
survey panels or potential consumers, as well as microbiological and chemical testing.Food scientists may
study more fundamental phenomena that are directly linked to the production of food products and its
properties.
Food science brings together multiple scientific disciplines. It incorporates concepts from fields such as
chemistry, physics, physiology, microbiology, biochemistry. Food technology incorporates concepts from
chemical engineering.
Some of the sub-disciplines of food science are described below:
• Food chemistry
• Food engineering
• Food microbiology
• Food technology
• Molecular gastronomy
• Quality control
• Sensory analysis
2. ENERGY DEVELOPMENT
Energy development is the field of activities focused on obtaining sources of energy from natural
resources. These activities include production of conventional, alternative and renewable sources of
energy, and for the recovery and reuse of energy that would otherwise be wasted. Energy conservation
and efficiency measures reduce the demand for energy development, and can have benefits to society
with improvements to environmental issues.
Societies use energy for transportation, manufacturing, illumination, heating and air conditioning, and
communication, for industrial, commercial, and domestic purposes. Energy resources may be classified as
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primary resources, where the resource can be used in substantially its original form, or as secondary
resources, where the energy source must be converted into a more conveniently usable form. Non-
renewable resources are significantly depleted by human use, whereas renewable resources are produced
by ongoing processes that can sustain indefinite human exploitation.
Thousands of people are employed in the energy industry. The conventional industry comprises the
petroleum industry, the natural gas industry, the electrical power industry, and the nuclear industry. New
energy industries include the renewable energy industry, comprising alternative and sustainable
manufacture, distribution, and sale of alternative fuels.
Energy development is the field of activities focused on obtaining sources of energy from natural
resources. These activities include production of conventional, alternative and renewable sources of
energy, and for the recovery and reuse of energy that would otherwise be wasted. Energy conservation
and efficiency measures reduce the demand for energy development, and can have benefits to society
with improvements to environmental issues.
Societies use energy for transportation, manufacturing, illumination, heating and air conditioning, and
communication, for industrial, commercial, and domestic purposes. Energy resources may be classified as
primary resources, where the resource can be used in substantially its original form, or as secondary
resources, where the energy source must be converted into a more conveniently usable form. Non-
renewable resources are significantly depleted by human use, whereas renewable resources are produced
by ongoing processes that can sustain indefinite human exploitation.
Thousands of people are employed in the energy industry. The conventional industry comprises the
petroleum industry, the natural gas industry, the electrical power industry, and the nuclear industry. New
energy industries include the renewable energy industry, comprising alternative and sustainable
manufacture, distribution, and sale of alternative fuels.
3. MEDICINE
Medicine is the science and practice of establishing the diagnosis, prognosis, treatment,
and prevention of disease. The word "medicine" is derived from Latin medicus, meaning "a physician".
Medicine encompasses a variety of health care practices evolved to maintain and restore health by
the prevention and treatment of illness. Contemporary medicine applies biomedical sciences, biomedical
research, genetics, and medical technology to diagnose, treat, and prevent injury and disease, typically
through pharmaceuticals or surgery, but also through therapies as diverse as psychotherapy, external
splints and traction, medical devices, biologics, and ionizing radiation, amongst others.
Medicine has been around for thousands of years, during most of which it was an art (an area of skill and
knowledge) frequently having connections to the religious and philosophical beliefs of local culture. For
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example, a medicine man would apply herbs and say prayers for healing, or an ancient philosopher
and physician would apply bloodletting according to the theories of humorism. In recent centuries, since
the advent of modern science, most medicine has become a combination of art and science
(both basic and applied, under the umbrella of medical science). While stitching technique for sutures is an
art learned through practice, the knowledge of what happens at the cellular and molecular level in the
tissues being stitched arises through science.
Prescientific forms of medicine are now known as traditional medicine and folk medicine, though they do
not fall within the modern definition of “medicine” which is based in medical science. Traditional medicine
and folk medicine remain commonly used with, or instead of, scientific medicine and are thus
called alternative medicine (meaning “[something] other than medicine”, from Latin alter, “other”). For
example, evidence on the effectiveness of acupuncture is "variable and inconsistent" for any condition, but
is generally safe when done by an appropriately trained practitioner. In contrast, alternative treatments
outside the bounds not just of scientific medicine, but also outside the bounds of safety and efficacy are
termed quackery.
Working together as an interdisciplinary team, many highly trained health professionals besides medical
practitioners are involved in the delivery of modern health care. Examples include: nurses, emergency
medical technicians and paramedics, laboratory scientists, pharmacists,
podiatrists, physiotherapists, respiratory-therapists, speech therapists, occupational therapists,
radiographers, dietitians, and bioengineers, medical physics, surgeons, surgeon's assistant, surgical
technologist.
The scope and sciences underpinning human medicine overlap many other fields. Dentistry, while
considered by some a separate discipline from medicine, is a medical field.
A patient admitted to the hospital is usually under the care of a specific team based on their main
presenting problem, e.g., the cardiology team, who then may interact with other specialties, e.g., surgical,
radiology, to help diagnose or treat the main problem or any subsequent complications/developments.
The main branches of medicine are:
• Basic sciences of medicine; this is what every physician is educated in, and some return to
in biomedical research.
• Medical specialties.
• Interdisciplinary fields, where different medical specialties are mixed to function in certain occasions.
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Handout 2.2: Aims and Objectives of teaching Science

The aims of Teaching Science
Following are the aims of teaching science:
• To provide the broader objectives of science that is process skill knowledge curiosity etc.
• To encourage and enable students to develop inquiring minds and curiosity about science and
nature.
• To acquire knowledge, conceptual understanding, and skills to solve problems and make informed
decisions in scientific contexts.
• To develop skills of scientific inquiry to design and carry out scientific investigations and evaluate
scientific evidence to draw conclusions
• To communicate scientific ideas, arguments, and practical experiences accurately in a variety of
ways
• To think analytically, critically and creatively to solve problems, judge arguments and make
decisions in scientific and other contexts
• To appreciate the benefits and limitations of science and its application in technological
developments
• To understand the nature of science and the interdependence of science, technology, and society
including the benefits, limitations, and implications imposed by social, economic, political,
environmental, cultural and ethical factors
• To demonstrate attitudes and develop values of honesty and respect for themselves, others, and
their shared environment.
Objectives of Teaching General Science at Primary Level
• To provide practical knowledge of the subject matter content.

• To provide the latest knowledge to develop scientific knowledge, scientific appreciation and
scientific temper among the students.
• To encourage them to learn about nature to develop love for nature and to try to conserve the
natural resources and prevent pollution.
• To develop the scientific attitude and to use it for the development works to have open
mindedness, decision making, critical thinking and skill of experimentation.
Instructional Objectives:
• A teacher has to make some definite and specific objectives of a particular lesson, unit or subunit of
the subject like science before the teaching-learning process for attending within a specified
classroom period and resources and in hand through these so specific classroom teaching-learning
objectives known as instructional objectives.
• A teacher tries to bring desired changes in the behavior of students so the term instructional
objectives are defined as a group of statements formulated by the teacher for describing what the
students are expected to do all will be able to do once the process of classroom instruction is over.
• Instructional outcomes are the teaching-learning product in the form of behavioral changes in the
students.
• To develop scientific knowledge for application of daily life events.
• To understand the basic field of science to make the life comfortable.
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• A teacher expects as a result of his or her instruction related with a particular lesson, unit or
subunit of the subject.
Instructional objectives are the descriptions of the students terminal behavior expected out of the ongoing
classroom instruction.
Relationship of instructional objectives with general Aims and Objectives:
• In comparison to the general aim and objectives of teaching science instructional objectives are
quite narrow and specific.
• Both are definite, precise, functional and tangible.
• Both are predetermined.
• They must be predictable
• They are therefore termed as teaching-learning objectives for behavioral objectives the main
purpose of these objectives is to provide statements of skills, concepts or behavior students are
expected to demonstrate after going through particular instruction.
• They are more specific and define than the general in circles but less specific and much wider than
the classroom instructional objectives.
• Their attainment is quite possible within the educational structure and means.
Aims and objectives of teaching science at primary level are both interrelated as Aims include objectives
and Objectives help to reach the Aim. Aims are theoretical and indirect, and also changeable, but
Objectives are direct and concerned with the teaching learning process and are unchangeable.
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Date
Unit
• Methods of teaching science
Topic and Sub Topic
3.1 Lecture-cum-Demonstration method
3.2 Discovery method
3.3 Activity based method
3.4 Problem solving and inquiry method
After this session and self-study the trainee teachers will be able to:
• Apply appropriate methods for teaching General Science at primary level
• Understand the effective use of lecture-cum-demonstration, discovery, activity based,
problem solving and inquiry method for teaching General Science at primary level.
Required Resources
Text books, marker, writing board, charts, etc.

Share with the trainee teachers that today we will learn the concepts oflecture-cum-demonstration
method, discovery method, activity base method, problem solving and inquiry methods
Methods for teaching of science

o How we teach science by lecture method?
Expected answer: In science it is based on teacher centered environment, all the activities
are controlled by the teacher, power and responsibility is based on teacher. He/she act as
instructor and decision maker. In this method teacher gives large amount of information in
less time.
o What is meant by demonstration method?
Expected answer: In this method teacher shows materials and explain facts, concepts and
procedures.
o What is lecture-cum-demonstration method?
Expected answer: Lecture-cum-demonstration includes the merits of the lecture as well as
demonstration method. It attempts to filter out the disadvantages of both. Demonstration
means 'to show'. In Lecture method teacher just tells but in demonstration method
teacher shows and illustrates certain fundamental phenomena.
o What are the benefits of lecture-cum-demonstration method?
Expected answer: i) present the material in a clear and logical sequence.
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ii)make the material accessible, intelligible and meaningful

iii) cover the subject matter adequately
iv) are constructive and helpful in their criticism
o Why do we use Lecture-cum-demonstration method?
Expected answer: Lecture-cum-demonstration method is helpful in teaching general
science as it is economical, provoke interest and saves time and effort.
• Divide the trainee teachers into groups of four as their home group.
• Number them as 1, 2, 3, and4 in each home group.
• Assign topics to as following:
1 2 3 4
Characteristics of Steps in Lecture-cum- Advantages of Disadvantages of

good Lecture-cum- Demonstration Lecture-cum- Lecture-cum-
Demonstration method Demonstration Demonstration
method method method
• Ask the trainee teachers to find others with the same number as them and create a new expert
group.
• Ask them to read the Handout 3.1.
• Each expert group will discuss and master given concept. Also take main points as notes.
• The trainee teachers report back to their home group after 5 minutes.
• Ask them to explain their piece of activity/puzzle with home group to create the bigger concept.
Discovery Method

o What is discovery method?
Expected answer: Discovery learning takes place in problem solving situations where the
learner draws on his own experience and prior knowledge and is a method of instruction
through which students interact with their environment by exploring and manipulating
objects, wrestling with questions and controversies, or performing experiments.
o What are the benefits of discovery method?
Expected answers: i) It encourages
motivation, active involvement, and
creativity.
ii) It can be adjusted to the learner's pace.
iii) It promotes autonomy and
independence.
iv) It ensures higher levels of retention.
o Why do we use discovery method?
Expected answer: The method is hands-on,
focuses on the process, and encourages
students to look for solutions. Instead of
just teaching students to memorize rules
or concepts, this method lets them apply
ideas to their lives, creating memorable
lessons that will help turn them into
lifelong learners.
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• Assign task to the trainee teachers by diving them into five groups.
• Ask them to read the Handout 3.2 and make a mind-map for presentation.
• Take presentations from any two groups.
• Give your feedback where necessary.
Activity based Method
• Make a chart or draw on board the KWL Table:
K W L
What I Know? What I Want to know? What I Learned?
• Ask the trainee teachers to discuss Activity based method of teaching science and enlist (in
their notebooks):
o What I Know about Activity based method?
o What I Want to know?
• Take responses from a few participants and give mini lecture on Activity based method of
teaching Science to answer what they want to learn.
• Ask the trainee teachers to fill the last column after mini lecture by using Handout 3.3.
o What I Learned?
• Invite a volunteer to share ‘What I Learned’ to conclude the activity.
Problem solving and inquiry based learning

o What is problem solving and inquiry based learning?
Expected answer: An approach to learning focusing on the process of solving a
problem and acquiring knowledge. The approach is also inquiry-based when students
are active in creating a solution for the problem.
o What is the difference between inquiry-based learning and problem solving method?
Expected answer: Inquiry based learning is about discovering an answer, problem
solving is act of defining a problem, determining its cause, identifying and
implementing a solution.
o What are the 3 types of inquiry?
Expected answer: The three types of inquiries, in solving problems are: normative inquiry,
conceptual inquiry, and factual or descriptive inquiry.
• Provide the charts and markers.
• Ask them to make presentations on problem solving and Inquiry based learning by reading
Handout 3.4
• Invite a volunteer for comparing the both methods.

• Ask the trainee teachers to give feedback on the presentation.
• Conclude the activity by summarizing inquiry-based and problem solving method by giving
your input.
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• Use the following diagram for giving input.
Ask the following questions to gauge the understanding of trainee teachers:
1. Write three objectives of Lecture-cum-Demonstration method in teaching Science.
2. Compare the Discovery and Activity based Method for teaching science at primary level.
S.# Discovery Method Activity based Method
1
2
3
3. Write three differences between problem solving and Inquiry based Learning.
4. Write three each disadvantages of Activity based learning, Inquiry based learning and
Discovery method.
Home Assignment:
Develop a lesson plan on topic of your own choice in Science to apply Inquiry based learning.
Following teaching learning strategies have been used in today’s session:
• Discussion
• Group work
• Jigsaw
• Mind-mapping
• KWL Chart
References
• http://gsamutha.blogspot.com/2013/11/lecture-cum-demonstration-method.html
• https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discovery_learning
• http://webb.deu.edu.tr/baed/giris/baed/ozel_sayi/303-310.pdf
• https://thoughtfullearning.com/inquireHSbook/pg53
• https://provost.tufts.edu/celt/files/activelearningtipsheet_march2010.pdf
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HANDOUTS
Handout 3.1: Lecture-Cum-Demonstration Method

Lecture-cum-demonstration includes the merits of the lecture as well as demonstration method. It
attempts to filter out the disadvantages of both. Demonstration means ‘to show’. In Lecture method
teacher just tells but in demonstration method teacher shows and illustrates certain fundamental
phenomena.
Characteristics of good demonstration for lecture

i) Visibility
ii) One major idea at a time
iii) Clear cut
iv) Convincing
v) Rehearsal
vi) Supplemented with other teaching aids
vii) Asking relevant questions
viii) Neat, clean and tidiness
ix) Simple and speedy
x) To write observation
xi) Teacher to act as performer
xii) Sufficient time
Steps in Lecture-cum-demonstration
1) Planning and Presentation: While planning a demonstration the following points should be kept in
mind.
a. Subject matter
b. Lesson planning
c. Rehearsal of experiment
d. Collection and arrangement of apparatus
2) Introduction of lesson: The lesson may be introduced on the following basis
a. Student’s personal experience
b. Student’s environment
c. Telling story
d. A simple and interesting experiment
3) Presentation of the subject matter
a. The teacher must study the subject matter on broad basis taking into consideration the interest and
experience of students
b. While demonstration is going on, question should also be asked which help the students to
understand the principles
c. The teacher should try to illustrate the facts and principles
d. Language used by teacher should be simple and clear.
4) Experimentation
a. Demonstration should be properly spaced and striking, clear and convincing
b. The demonstration table should have only apparatus
c. The experiment should be simple and speedy
d. All the apparatus should not be displayed at once
5) Writing board work
A big writing board behind the demonstration table is necessary in order to summarize the principles and
other matters of demonstration and also to draw necessary diagrams and sketches.
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Advantages of Lecture-cum-Demonstration Method

• Economical: This method is economical as it helps in economizing resources
• Psychological Method: Demonstration method psychological as the students are shown concrete
things.
• This method is especially useful where
• The apparatus is expensive
• The experiment involves some danger
• The apparatus is sensitive to break
• The experiment involves some difficult and complex operation
• Student participation
• Save time and effort
• Helpful to promote useful discussion
• More efficient method
• Activity method
• Useful for all types of students
• Helpful for teacher
Disadvantages of Lecture-cum-demonstration Method

• Ignore maxim of education: The maxim of education, ‘Learning by Doing’ and the principles of
psychology of learning has no place in this method.
• Visibility: Visibility is main problem for a teacher because all the students may not be able to see
the details and results of a demonstration
• Speed of experiment: Either too fast or too slow speed of demonstration sometimes may create
trouble
• Ignore individual difference: This method totally ignores the main principle of psychology.
• Hinder progress: This method somehow hinders the development of laboratory skills among the
students
• Not useful for developing scientific attitude.
Conclusion
This method can prove to be one of the best methods for teaching science to High and Higher
Secondary classes. The teacher should encourage the students to demonstrate the experiments to
the class.
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Handout3. 2: Discovery method

INTRODUCTION AND CHARACTERISTICS
The Discovery Learning Method is an active, hands-on style of learning, originated by Jerome Bruner in the
1960s. Bruner emphasized that we should be “learning by doing.” With this method, students actively
participate instead of passively receiving knowledge. Students interact with their environment by exploring
and manipulating objects, wrestling with questions and controversies or performing experiments. They are
encouraged to think, ask questions, hypothesize, speculate, cooperate and collaborate with others. They
develop confidence in problem solving and feel comfortable using knowledge they already have. Instead of
a student being an empty vessel for a teacher to fill with knowledge, the Discovery Learning Method takes
into consideration that all students have some background knowledge that they may be able to apply to
the current subject at hand.
EXAMPLE
The Discovery Learning Method is a constructivist theory, meaning it is based on the idea that students
construct their own understanding and knowledge of the world through experiencing things and reflecting
on those experiences. Willy Wonka was a constructivist and his factory constantly used the Discovery
Learning Method. That’s what made his Chocolate Factory so exciting to children and adults alike–there
was hands-on learning and trying in his factory. This hands-on approach created lifelong lessons nobody
(not even the people watching it from the comfort of their own homes) would ever forget.
APPROACH AND STEPS

The Discovery Learning Method is also unique in how it presents problems. Teachers will give students a
problem and some resources to solve it. This concept alone is very different from standard science
experiments you may remember when you were growing up. Most science teachers would give the
instructions for an experiment, perform the experiment, show the result of the experiment, and then
grade the students on their write-ups of the experiment. There’s not much discovery happening when
students see every step and the desired outcome before they even attempt it on their own. Students are
simply performing a task they watched someone else do.
The Discovery Learning Method may have a specific end result, but the focus is on the steps and the critical
thinking involved in getting there. Teachers have to observe the process, not just grade a written paper at
the end of the experience.
Educational Psychologist Jean Piaget viewed children as little philosophers and scientists building their own
theories of knowledge. The book Hands-On Science Teaching best summarizes this:
“Piaget’s research clearly mandates that the learning environment should be rich in physical experiences.
Involvement, he states, is the key to intellectual development, and for the elementary school child this
includes direct physical manipulation of objects.”
TEACHER’S ROLE
The Discovery Learning Method, if used incorrectly, can also be a barrier to learning. If teachers are having
activities just for the sake of having activities, then students will not learn concepts. Formal training in this
method is necessary for teachers and teachers also have to reflect about how their activity is helping
students master a concept. Teachers have to remember that just because something is “hands on” does
not mean that it is “minds on”. Canadian educational researchers Scardamalia and Bereiter further explain:
“The shallowest forms engage students in tasks and activities in which ideas have no over presence but are
entirely implicit. Students describe the activities they are engaged in (such as planting seeds or measuring
shadows) and show little awareness of the underlying principles that these tasks are to convey.”
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CLASSROOM IMPLEMENTATION OF DISCOVERY METHOD

To effectively use the Discovery Learning Method in a classroom, a teacher needs to not only be flexible,
but also well-prepared, organized, and have an understanding of how what is discovered in class is
educationally valuable and can lead to further investigations for the student. Teachers need to be able to
help young children, who are already curious about the world around them, learn how to ask questions
that will help them understand their surroundings.
Teachers also have to know where their student is developmentally and how that will play in a role in a
child finding success in a lesson. This may sound like a lofty goal, but most educators have to take classes in
developmental psychology that are specifically geared to the age with which they want to work.
Additionally, teachers using the Discovery Learning Method cannot wait until the end of the activity to
access a child. Instead, they interact with students to see what the student is doing, what kind of questions
are being asked, and help them apply any new skills that may be necessary to solve problems and draw
conclusions. The teacher must also recognize that there is more than one way to get to an end goal.
When the Discovery Learning Method is used, students are on task more often because they are actively
part of the learning process instead of just being spectators.
CONCLUSION
Overall, the Discovery Method is highly supported by educational psychologists. They agree with Kant,
Piaget, Vygotsky and Bruner as well as educational philosopher Dewey that learning is based on knowing
and doing. If a teacher takes into consideration that a child already has some prior knowledge, then that
teacher will be able to show students how their lives are connected to the content without having to work
to create that connection.
It takes work to successfully use the Discovery Learning Method in the classroom, and teachers have to be
careful to not have class activities just for the sake of having activities. The Discovery Learning Method is
hands-on, focuses on the process, and encourages students to look for solutions. Instead of just teaching
students to memorize rules or concepts, this method lets them apply ideas to their lives, creating
memorable lessons that will help turn them into lifelong learners.
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Handout 3.3: Activity based Learning

Active learning is not a new concept. It "derives from two basic assumptions: (1) that learning is by nature
an active endeavor and (2) that different people learn in different ways" (Meyers and Jones, 1993). When
we discuss active learning in the classroom, it is with the understanding that lecture is still important – the
foundational knowledge required for students to be able to engage in higher level thinking is essential.
However, for the sake of maintaining student interest, and facilitating meaningful, and eventually self-
directed learning, it can be very helpful to vary the teaching and learning activities you employ in the
classroom. It is likely that you are already using teaching and learning techniques that help students to
engage actively with the concepts you are teaching, and there are still more ways to expand the learning
experiences you create – some very low risk, some more complex, but all can be effective, especially if you
establish this pattern of interaction from the first day of your course.
“…learning is an active, constructive process that is contextual; new knowledge is acquired in relation to
previous knowledge; information is meaningful when it is presented in some type of framework.” (Davis,
1993)
Effective Learning Activities: There are a wide range of activities used both inside and outside the
classroom that promote active learning. While each discipline has traditional ways of teaching certain
subject matter, and activities used in seminars and large lectures may vary, the concept of "active learning"
applies in every discipline, in every class size. The types of activities you choose to use, however, might be
more applicable in some types of courses than others.
Some more complex forms of active learning include service learning, problem-based learning,
collaborative learning (team based) and simulations. These can all be very effective, especially in upper
level undergraduate and graduate courses where holistic learning is emphasized and students are
encouraged to think about solving problems in “real world” situations and learning skills relevant to their
field. However, there are many low risk, high benefit activities that you can use that require less time, and
can also be very effective, as demonstrated in the list below. Some are individual in nature, some involve
groups, and some might progress from individual activity to group activity. Be creative!
“Something as simple as asking good questions can be as effective as any other method of facilitating
active learning…”
Some Examples:
i) Dig Deeper
• Effective questioning: Something as simple as asking good questions can be as effective as any
other method of facilitating active learning if you follow some simple guidelines. Pause after asking
any question and wait for a response. Ask only one question at a time. Perhaps let students write
their response for a minute or two before sharing. Gather a few responses before leaping into the
answer – let other students respond, or build on the student response.
• Case studies: Using case studies can be a very effective way to explore complex topics, and can be
completed in one class session or a part of one, depending on the case and your goals. You can do
this in small groups and/or as a whole class. You can either develop your own cases, or often find
ready to use case studies online. Current events can also be a source of material for teaching with
this method.
ii) Break it up
• Collaborative learning: Very simply ask your students at some point during class to form small
groups for discussion and ask some or all groups to report back to the larger group.
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• Think Pair Share: At some point in the lecture, ask students a key question – have them first sit
quietly and write down some notes on their own, then pair them up to discuss the question with
another student. Lastly, have a few groups or all groups, depending on the class size, share their
thoughts with the larger group.
iii) Keep it Interesting
• Debates: Well-structured debates can raise a large number of issues for discussion, and help
students learn not only about the material, but critical thinking and presentation skills among
others.
• Games and simulations: Involve students in demonstrating a concept by using games that either
you or they create. Using a base like jeopardy or crossword puzzles can be fun and effective.
iv) Gauge where your students are
• Minute Paper: this is a classic formative evaluation process where students are asked at the end of
a class to summarize the key points in writing in one minute.
• Reflection papers: asking students to develop a reflection paper based on readings or an out of
classroom assignment can help them to understand their own learning process better.
v) Let them walk in your shoes
• Learn by teaching: Ask a student or small group of students to read and synthesize material to
teach their peers in class.
• Student-led review sessions: Have the students create the review questions. Each student should
ask at least one question related to the material he or she doesn't understand, and to try to answer
a question raised by another student.
• Student generated exam questions: Sometimes asking students to generate an exam question can
help them review material and practice for the exam, and can also be an indicator to you of points
you might need to review.
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Handout 3.4: Problem solving and Inquiry based learning

Comparison of IBL and PBL
Aspects Inquiry Based Learning(IBL) Problem Based Learning(PBL)
Philosophical aim Driven on raising questions based on Focused on the solution of ill-
real observations. structured problems.
Main Framework Inquiry Inquiry
History
Pioneers Science and Laboratory Instruction. Medical Schools.

John Dewey, Madame Curry, Robert John Dewey, Barrows, Savey& Duffy,
Karplus, Joseph Schwab, Marshal Williams, Stepien& Gallagher.
Herron, Roger Bybee.
Principal Acquiring knowledge from direct Maximizing learning with
observations by using deductive investigation, explanation, and
Principle
questions. resolution by starting from real and

meaningful problems.
What for Best learning approach for human Best outcomes and learning for
nature. problem solution.
Instructional type Minimally direct instruction. Minimally direct instruction.
Key elements Exploration, invention, application. Identifying problems, activating prior
knowledge, encoding specificity,
elaboration of knowledge.
Students prior Not important-student can produce Prior knowledge and skills application
knowledge/skills knowledge from their observation. is important.
Instructional procedure
Teacher role Leader, coach, model, facilitator. Facilitator and coach rather than
Source of driving questions. leader.
Student role Interprets, explains, hypothesizing Determining whether a problem

designing and directing own tasks, exists, creating an exact statement of
sharing authority for answers. the problem, identifying information,
data, and learning goals, creating a
working plan.
Source of driving questions.
For which field For all fields, but especially for For all fields, but especially for
elementary schools. medical, law and similar fields which
includes case studies.
For which level For all levels, but especially for early For all levels, but especially for high
educational levels. degree classes.
Specific Conceptual understanding of science Effective problem-solving skills, self-
Outcomes principals, comprehension of the directed, lifelong learning skills,
Outcomes
nature of scientific inquiry and a grasp effective collaborations.

of applications of science knowledge
to societal and personal issues,
creativity, intelligence.
From: Western Anatolia Journal of Educational Sciences (WAJES), DokuzEylul University Institute, Izmir, Turkey ISSN 1308-8971
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Date
Unit
• Teaching aids
Topic and Sub Topic
4.1 Need and importance of teaching aids
4.2 Types of teaching aids
4.3 Lesson planning and its characteristics
4.4 Designing a test and interpretation of test
After this session and self-study the trainee teachers will be able to:
• Apply teaching aids in classroom instruction of Science.
• Make the lesson plan on the basis of AV Aids
• Make test items for general Science primary to measure the ability of students.
Required Resources
Text books, marker, writing board, charts, etc.

Need and importance of teaching aids
Types of teaching aids
Lesson planning and its characteristics
Designing a test and interpretation of test
Need and importance of teaching aids
o Which materials help us in teaching Science?
Expected answer: Teaching aids. AV Aids, Resource materials etc.
o What are teaching Aids?
Expected answer: An object (such as a book, picture, or map) or device (such as a dvd or
computer) used by a teacher to enhance or enliven classroom instruction audiovisual teaching
aids
o Why do students learn easily through AV aids?
Expected answer: Audio visual aids are effective tool that “invest the past with an air of
reality.”A.V aids provide the learners with realistic experience, which capture their attention
and help in the understanding of the historical phenomena. They appeal to the mind through
the visual auditory senses.
o Why AV aids are important in teaching of science?
o Expected answer: Teaching aids are an integral component in any classroom. The many
benefits of teaching aids include helping learners improve reading comprehension skills,
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illustrating or reinforcing a skill or concept, differentiating instruction and relieving anxiety or

boredom by presenting information in a new and exciting way
• Divide the trainee teachers into three groups.
Importance of Characteristics of Classification of
teaching aids teaching aids teaching aids
• After 15 minutes, ask one trainee teacher from each group to come forward and present their assigned
task.
Handout 4.1.
Types of teaching aids
o How we manage the large classes by using teaching aids in Science?
Expected answer: Dealing with large classes constitutes a real challenge to every teacher: diversity
of students, lack of flexibility, class climate management, difficulty of setting and enforcing
classroom behavior (crowd control), minimum attention to students, limited monitoring of
students' learning and difficulty in engaging can be manage by using AV Aids.
o Name some of the teaching aids used for teaching science at primary level.
Expected answer: an object (such as a book, picture, or map) or device (such as a DVD or
computer) used by a teacher to enhance or enliven classroom instruction audiovisual teaching
aids.
o How the teaching aids are helpful in teaching Science?
Expected answer: It is clear that audio visual aids are important tools for teaching learning
process. It helps the teacher to present the lesson effectively and students learn and retain the
concepts better and for longer duration. Use of audio visual aids improves students' critical and
analytical thinking.
o What types of teaching aids are used for teaching science at primary level?
Expected answer: Audio Aids examples are Radio, Tape-recorder, Gramophone, Linguaphone,
Audio cassette player, Language laboratory.
Visual Aids examples are Chart, Black and while board, Maps, Pictures, Models, Text-books, Slide
projector, Transparency, Flash-cards, Print materials etc.
Writing board as an Charts, maps and Movies and films as Real objects and
AV Aid posters as AV Aids AV Aids Models as AV Aids
task.
Handout 4.2.
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Lesson planning and its characteristics
o How do you plan before teaching of Science at primary level?
Expected answer: Arrange AV Aids, textbooks, lesson plan etc.
o What do you mean by lesson plan?
Expected answer: lesson plan is a teacher's detailed description of the course of instruction or
'learning trajectory' for a lesson. A daily lesson plan is developed by a teacher to guide class
learning. Details may vary depending on the preference of the teacher, subject being covered, and
the needs of the students
o What are the main components/elements of lesson plan?
Expected answer: i) Objectives, ii) Subject Matter (topic, references, materials),
iii) Procedure (motivation, activity, routines, lesson proper), iv) Evaluation, v) Assignment.
o What are the advantages of lesson planning?
Expected answer: Planning helps the teacher to overcome the feeling of nervousness and
insecurity. It gives him confidence to face the class. Lesson planning gives opportunities to the
teacher to think out new ways and means of making the lesson interesting and to introduce
thought-provoking questions.
Format of Lesson Elements of Lesson Techniques of Benefits of lesson
Plan Plan lesson planning plan
• Ask the groups to display their group work at different places in class.
• Ask to nominate the presenter along with presentation for explaining the group work.
• Invite the groups for gallery walk.
• Take responses after gallery walk.
Handout 4.3.
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Designing a test and Interpretation of test
o How we measure the ability of a student in Science?
Expected answer: By using ability tests, classroom tests etc.
o What are the characteristics of a good test?
Expected answer: There are three basic elements to look for when judging the quality of a test
— reliability, validity, and standardization.
o What are the basic types of test?
Expected answer: There are four types of testing in schools today — diagnostic, formative,
benchmark, and summative.
o Why the tests are conducted in teaching-learning process?
Expected answer: They are used to determine whether students have learned what they were
expected to learn or to level or degree to which students have learned the material. They may
be used to measure learning progress and achievement and to evaluate the effectiveness of
educational programs.
Principles of test Methodology of test Advantages of tests Making test items on
construction construction knowledge, comprehension
and application
task.
Handout 4.4.
To gauge the understanding of trainee teachers, ask the following questions:
I. Write three advantages of using audio visual aids?
II. Write three each benefits of map, posters and movies.
III. Make two items each for every type of objective test in G-Science.
IV. Describe two elements of the lesson plan.
V. Write principles of good test.
VI. How we develop knowledge, comprehension and application items?
Additional Learning Material
• https://www.wikihow.com/Make-a-Lesson-Plan
Home Assignment
• Make three each objective type and three subjective type items from grade 5 G-Science book.
Following teaching learning strategies have been used during today’s session:
• Group discussion
• Presentation
• Gallery walk
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• Activity based learning
References
• http://www.bchmsg.yolasite.com/teaching-tools.php
• https://www.brainkart.com/article/Teaching-Aids_33524/
• http://docshare.tips/characteristics-of-good-teaching-aids_5847e9a9b6d87fc4a18b4603.html
• https://busyteacher.org/2842-realia-esl-classroom.html
• https://www.le.ac.uk/oerresources/ssds/presentationskills/page_57.htm
• http://linguistics.byu.edu/faculty/henrichsenl/LessonPlanning/lp_07.html
• http://www.ascd.org/publications/books/109051/chapters/Lesson-Plans-and-Unit-Plans@-The-Basis-for-
Instruction.aspx
• https://cte.smu.edu.sg/approach-teaching/integrated-design/lesson-planning
• https://www.researchgate.net/publication/265085817_Test_Construction_Techniques_and_Principles
• https://www.slideshare.net/ShaharyarShoukatShou/interpretation-of-test-scores
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HANDOUTS
Handout 4.1: Teaching aids

A teaching aid is anything used by a teacher to help teach a lesson or make it more interesting to
students. Teaching aids can come in almost any form. The term teaching aid is used to identify such
materials as being a supplement to basic teaching (for example, teaching through a lecture).
A. Importance of teaching aids
1) Motivation
Teaching aids motivate the students so that they can learn better.
2) Clarification
Through teaching aids, the teacher clarifies the subject matter more easily.
3) Discouragement of Cramming
Teaching aids can facilitate the proper understanding to the students which discourage the act of
cramming.
4) Increase the Vocabulary
Teaching aids helps to increase the vocabulary of the students more effectively.
5) Saves Time and Money
Teaching through using aids takes a shorter time than traditional teaching that depends on
lecturing and more repetition from the side of the teacher. There will be no need to re-explain the
lesson once more, as the learners have learnt the content through using all their senses and
emotion. Here, money is saved.
6) Classroom Live and active
Teaching aids make the classroom live and active.
7) Avoids Dullness
Teaching aids make the lesson interesting and the learners more interested. Learners see the set-
book text pictures and photographs speaking and acting.
8) Direct Experience
Teaching aids provide direct experience of great experts to the learners. Teaching aids assist
students in learning. These aids consist of video, audio and hands-on tools to help involve the
students and enhance the learning experience. Teachers begin using visual, audio and hands-on
aids as early as preschool. Teaching aids can be as basic as a blackboard or whiteboard. Audio and
visual equipment, such as DVD players and video projectors, are commonly used as tools for
learning with a very effective output.
B. Characteristics of Good Teaching Aids

A few characteristics of good teaching aids are as follows:
1. Teaching aids are large enough to be seen by the students for whom they are used.
2. These are meaningful and they always stand to serve a useful purpose.
3. They are upto the mark and upto date in every respect.
4. They are simple, cheap and may be improvised.
5. They are accurate and realistic.
6. Teaching aids are according to the mental level of the learners.
7. Their purpose may be informative but it is not just entertainment.
8. They help in realization of stipulated learning objects.
9. They are really very useful and can be used in many lessons and at different class levels.
10. They are useful for supplementing the teaching process but they cannot replace the teacher.
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C. Classification of teaching Aids

Teaching Aids can be broadly classified as follows:
I. On the Basis of Time-period of use of Teaching Aids
1. Conventional or Traditional Teaching Aids
2. Non-conventional and Modern Teaching Aids
Conventional: Traditionally when technology had not yet appeared in the form as it is available today-there was no
electricity, no computers or internet and even telephones. The teacher made use of chalk and blackboard as a
standard teaching aid. Another popular teaching aid was the ‘dust and mud sketching’ used rampantly by the
teacher. Even the elements of nature, actual objects and specimens presented themselves as teaching aids.
Everything was written. Books formed the traditional or conventional resource available to both the teachers and
learners.
Non-Conventional: With the gradual technological progress, modern and non-conventional teaching aids
and resources became available to both the teachers and students like Computers, Personal computers,
Laptops, Interactive Whiteboard, LCD projector, Television, Tablets, Android phones, accessories like U.S.B
cable, etc. The modern teaching aids present themselves in a variety of forms and utility. A world of
opportunities like teaching aids, games, activities and media are available to the students today. They have
made the teachers/facilitators task both enjoyable as well as challenging. The use of Non-conventional or
modern teaching aids plays an important role in the teaching learning process today.
II. On the Basis of the Sense Organs Involved
Teaching Aids re also called as Audio- Visual Aid. Traditionally used teaching aids stimulated only one sense
organ that is either the eyes or ears. However the contemporary teaching aids provide stimulation to ears
and eyes together. The emerging teaching aids involve other sense organs too.
A. Audio Aids
B. Visual Aids
C. Audio Visual Aids
D. Emergent Aids
III. On the basis of Projection Screen

Projected: Projected Aids include Power point presentations, slides, film-strips, filmstrip projector, films,
transparencies, overhead projector, TV/VCR as they can be projected on screen or even against white-
washed wall to give an enlarged image of the material. They can be used suitably for both large groups as
well as small groups. The large, bright and colourful larger than life images make them more effective than
a non-projected aid.
Non-Projected: Those aids which do not require projector electricity or projection screen. Such materials
can be simple shown, can be hung or touched e.g: Chalkboard, Whiteboard, Flannel board, Magnet board,
Charts, Posters, Pictorial Materials, and Models etc. They can hence be used with good results. They
provide first hand experiences and also make the learners actively participate. They add an interest and
involvement of the learner and ensure better results and longer retention.
IV. On the Basis of the Experience Provided by an Aid

Some teaching aids are concrete in nature. While there are other teaching aids which are more abstract.
Prof. Edgar Dale (1959) has given the Cone of Experience wherein the type of experience provided by
various teaching aids has been arranged in a pictorial form.
The primary source of contact between the individual and external world and any intellectual activity
depends on experiences coming through senses. Even mental activities such as concentration, reflection,
conception, imagination, association, recollection etc., have their basis in sensory experiences. Mind like
stomach, works on what it is fed. This feeding comes through senses. The raw material for mental activity
is provide by:
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i. Direct Experiences:
Such experiences are gained by
the pupils through excursions
and trips etc.,
ii. Representative Experiences:
This type of experiences are
less concrete but are quite
useful. These experiences are
provided by models,
specimens, film strips, radio
etc.
iii. Verbal and Symbolic
Experiences: Such experiences
are those which the pupils gain
through word-oral or written.
These experiences are very
abstract and occur at
conceptual level e.g. verbal illustrations. This type of experience cannot be properly followed at the initial
stages of child-learning so at initial stage more emphasis be laid on direct and representative experiences.
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Handout 4.2: Types of teaching aids

Some of the teaching aids are given below:
1. Writing board
White or black boards can be very useful to help
explain the sequence of ideas or routines,
particularly in the sciences. Use them to clarify your
title or to record your key points as you introduce
your presentation (this will give you a fixed list to
help you recap as you go along). Rather than
expecting the audience to follow your spoken
description of an experiment or process, write each
stage on the board, including any complex
terminology or precise references to help your
audience take accurate notes. However, once you
have written something on the board you will either have to leave it there or rub it off - both can be
distracting to your audience. Check to make sure your audience has taken down a reference before
rubbing it off - there is nothing more frustrating than
not being given enough time! Avoid leaving out of
date material from an earlier point of your
presentation on the board as this might confuse
your audience. If you do need to write 'live', check
that your audience can read your writing.
2. Chart, maps and posters

A flip chart is a large pad of paper on a stand. It is a
very useful and flexible way of recording
information during your presentation - you can even
use pre-prepared sheets for key points. Record
information as you go along, keeping one main idea
to each sheet. Flip back through the pad to help you
recap your main points. Use the turning of a page to show progression from point to point. Remember to
make your writing clear and readable and your diagrams as simple as possible.
3. Movies and films

Video (by using videotapes/DVDs) gives you a
chance to show stimulating visual information. Use
video to bring movement, pictures and sound into
your presentation. Always make sure that the clip is
directly relevant to your content. Tell your audience
what to look for. Avoid showing any more film than
you need.
Using movies in teaching is also an effective way to
reach people´s affective domain, promote reflective
attitudes, and link learning to experiences. Teaching
with movies triggers that disclose emotions allows
questions, expectations and dilemmas to arise for
both learner and teacher
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4. Micro projectors
Projected media include slides, filmstrips, opaque
and overhead projections, and motion pictures. The
use of projected media helps teachers simplify,
clarify, analyze, and synthesize relationships
between man and his environments.
The new LCD projectors/smart boards offer ways of
reaching students in different ways. They allow the

teacher to interact with students better, to use a
multimodal for m of teaching and to provide more
entertaining ways to teach and get their lesson
objectives and facts across.
5. Realia and Models

Realia, the use of real life objects (e.g. real fruits, plants, seeds etc) that students can touch, feel, and even
smell helps to effectively teach science.
Here are the reasons realia should be included in the classroom:
• Kinesthetic learning is the type of learning that students will most effectively acquire, mostly
because they will have hands-on experience.
• The use of realia brings a welcome change in
the class, a break from typical class activities
like reading and writing.
• The unexpectedness of having to suddenly
interact with real objects will keep students on
their toes; it will create excitement, and they’ll
have fun.
• Students have the chance to practice real life situations like using maps, asking for directions,
identifying parts of tongue on the basis of taste etc.
A model is a representation of an idea, object,

event, process or system. Models are human
inventions, based on an incomplete understanding
of how nature works. Non-working models made
the students to understand the topic in abstract
way and working models helps teachers to teach
effectively. Using working models, students are
inspired to think in scientific way. Mainly, in science
fairs, students can observe different types of
working models.
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Handout 4.3: Lesson planning and its characteristics

A. Formats of lesson plan
Many different formats for lesson plans exist. Some teachers prefer one lesson plan format; others prefer a
different one. That's fine. They reflect different purposes and styles.
After you become familiar with various formats and their elements, you can choose or create) one that
best fits your own teaching purposes and style.
1. ASSURE Lesson Plan
A - Analyze learners
S - State standards/objectives
S - Select teaching strategies and materials
U - Utilize technology, materials, and media
R - Require learner participation
E - Evaluate and revise
2. EEI Lesson Plan
The EEI (essential elements of instruction) lesson plan format is a unique way to approach teaching.
Title Name of lesson, date, class time, etc.

Standards List all standards bring taught
Objective State lesson objective
Purpose State the rational for the lesson
Materials List of all supplies necessary for lesson
Anticipatory Set Explain activity you'll use to interest students
Instructional input List, write, or explain teaching methods
Model Show students how to perform skill
Guided Practice Detail how students will practice skill
Check-Ins Write methods used to determine student understanding
Independent Practice Explain how students will practice without guidance
3. EATS Lesson Plan

The EATS lesson plan is based on an instructional model. EATS is an acronym for:
• Essential questions
• Activating prior knowledge
• Teaching
• Summarizing/Assessment
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4. Madeline Hunter Plan

The components of Madeline Hunter Plan are:
• Objective - the goal of the lesson, often stated in a 'Students will be able to (SWBAT) format.
• Anticipatory Set - how teachers engage students and prepare for knowledge, often referred to as
the hook
• Input - how teachers will impart information to students
• Modeling - method of demonstrating skills
• Checking - how teachers determine student understanding, such as thumbs up
• Guided Practice - time for students to work with teacher assistance
• Independent Practice - work students perform without assistance
5. 4As Lesson Plan

The 4-A lesson plan model focuses on four main concepts. Each is necessary for student success, and by
identifying how they will be used in instructional practices, teachers ensure they are front-and-center. The
four components are:
• Activate prior knowledge
• Acquire new knowledge
• Application
• Assessment
6. 5Es Lesson Plan

The 5E Model of lesson plan focuses on five stages. Each stage begins with the letter 'E'.
• Engage - Teachers plan an activity meant to engage students. The activity should connect to past
learning and knowledge and prepare for new concepts.
• Explore - In this stage, students use materials and resources to explore content. They ask questions,
try ideas out, and learn new skills.
• Explain - After learning, students are required to discuss their experience, showing their
understanding in creative ways. Teachers respond to student explanations to prompt deeper
thinking and further learning.
• Elaborate - Students take their learning a step further by elaborating on their current knowledge.
Teachers may ask students to view the idea from a different angle, or practice a skill in a different
way.
• Evaluate - Finally, students and teachers look at learning to determine new understanding of
concepts and skills.
B. Elements of lesson plan
1: Introduction
• Set a purpose. Describe the overarching reason for this lesson.
• Introduce the key concepts, topic, main idea. Get students on the right track. This step may be a
note on the board, a diagram, or a probing question of the day's lesson focus.
• Pull students into the excitement of learning. Seize students' attention with items like an amazing
fact, a funny quirk, a challenge, or other mind tickler.
• Make the learning relevant. Explain how this lesson extends past learning and leads to future
learning—that is, the significance of the concepts, skills, and focus of the lesson.
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2: Foundation
• Check on previous knowledge. Verify what students already know.
• Clarify key points. Double-check on learning from the past.
• Focus on specific standards, objectives, goals. Link the lesson to the standards, and let students
know exactly what they will know and be able to do as a result of this lesson.
• Check for correctness and add to background knowledge. Add extra information for the day's
learning and beyond—just enough to launch into the main lesson.
• Introduce key vocabulary. See it; say it; read it; write it.
3: Brain Activation
• Ask questions to clarify ideas and to add knowledge. Engage students in the learning and build
background with probing questions.
• Brainstorm main ideas. Fill students' heads with ideas, concepts, possibilities; allow them to
expand and clarify their thinking.
• Clarify and correct misconceptions. Engage students in activities that will inform you as to whether
students are confused or have incorrect ideas so corrections can be made before the
misconceptions become worse or detrimental to learning.
4: Body of New Information

• Provide teacher input. Lecture, add key points and new information, read the text or articles, and
solve problems. Present the body of the lesson. This may be a whole-class lecture, a small-group
activity with teacher supervision, or a partner activity with teacher supervision. The learning is
active (not silent reading without specific goals or mindless completion of a worksheet).
5: Clarification
• Check for understanding with sample problems, situations, questions. Have students practice with
the information just taught. Guide the learning.
6: Practice and Review

• Provide time for practice and review. Allow students time to practice under your supervision. You
and the students work together.
7: Independent Practice
• Supervise students' independent practice. Select additional strategies for small groups of students
who still do not "get it." Other students may begin to work independently, with the final goal being
that all students can work on their own. This practice prepares students for successful homework,
and it prepares them for future learning.
8: Closure
• Bring the lesson to closure. Link the lesson phases and information together. Summarize the
learning of the day, and discuss how it fits into the big vision for learning. Have students
demonstrate what they know and can do by writing a brief note to hand in as they leave; the note
may include questions, problems, or ideas on the learning. Alternatively, they may write in their
journals or explain their understanding to a partner.
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C. Techniques of lesson plan
A lesson plan provides you with a general outline of your teaching goals, learning objectives, and means to
accomplish them, and is by no means exhaustive. A productive lesson is not one in which everything goes
exactly as planned, but one in which both students and instructor learn from each other. A successful
lesson plan addresses and integrates three key components:
1. Learning Objectives (starting Planning)
2. Learning activities (Halfway planning)
3. Assessment to check for student understanding(Closure planning)
Three techniques helpful in effective lesson planning are: (given as additional learning material)
1. Creating the basic structure
2. Planning out the stages
3. Being prepared
Guidelines for making a lesson plan, is another technique to prepare an effective lesson plan:
It is important to recognize the different aspects of instruction at the different stages of the lesson. When
preparing a lesson plan, use the following checklist:
At the start, I plan to:

1. Review prior learning and student/teacher expectations______________________
2. Make the learning outcomes clear_______________________________________
3. Use a lead-in to capture students’ interest and engage them in learning_________
Halfway, I plan to:
1. Apply strategies to actively involve students in the learning process____________
2. Utilize a variety of media to illustrate concepts and processes_________________
3. Make sure that the lesson flows easily and logically_________________________
4. Confirm that students are learning material that is meaningful and new__________
5. Facilitate opportunities for practice and feedback___________________________
6. Review and build on related material____________________________________
At the end, I plan to:
Provide the proper closure students find important. To do this, I will:
1. Assess what students have learned_____________________________________
2. Summarize the lesson________________________________________________
3. Relate the lesson to real life and/or the next lesson_________________________
*This document was adapted from Preparing a Lesson Plan (1996) BCIT Learning & Teaching Centre.
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D. Benefits of lesson plan
1. Inspiration
A thorough lesson plan inspired the teacher to improve the lesson plan further. You can make it better for
the purpose of achieving the lesson plan in a better way.
2. Evaluation
A lesson plan helps the teacher to evaluate his teaching and to compare it with set objectives. This
evaluation will help you in achieving the set targets in a better way.
3. Self-confidence
These lesson plans develops self-confidence in the teacher and make them to work towards definite goal.
4. Previous Knowledge of the Students

A teacher can take a proper care by considering the level and previous knowledge of the students in your
class.
5. Organized Matter
A teacher will be able to finish a particular lesson in a limited time frame. This will help him or her to make
the students learn a better and precise manner.
6. Ask Questions
A teacher will be able to ask proper and important questions to the students in the classroom. This will
engage the students in communication and help them in retaining the lesson.
7. Guidance
A lesson plan works as a guide for the teacher in the classroom. It tells you what to teach so that they can
cover the entire lesson within a limited time frame.
8. Interest
A lesson plan creates the interest of the students in the lesson and makes them learn with curiosity in
subject matter.
9. Stimulation
A lesson plan stimulates the teacher to think in an organized way. This helps you to match the ideal
standard of teaching more quickly than ever.
10. Understand the Objectives

Through a lesson plan, a teacher is able to understand the objectives of the lesson properly and make his
students to understand them too, with ease.
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Handout 4.4: Designing and Interpretation of Tests.

A. Principles of Test Construction/Characteristics of a good Test
Test, as an instrument possesses some qualities, which are necessary, before it can be eligible as a test and
usable. A test should therefore possess the under listed characteristics, which are interdependent and are
what makes a test what it should be. They include:
• Validity- when a test fulfils its purpose(s) that is measures what it intended to measure and to the
extent desired then it is valid. The characteristics of testee can blur the time validity of a test. That
is, it can provide false results that do not represent truly what it intend to measure in a student. If a
learner has difficulty in assessing the Internet for course materials and participation it can send
wrong impression on the learner commitment to log in and ability in course work.
• Reliability- The consistency of test ability to measure accurately what it supposes to measure is its
strength in reliability. It is the ‘extent to which a particular measurement is consistent and
reproducible’.
• Objectivity- The fairness of a test to the testee, bias test does not portray objectivity and hence is
not reliable. A test that is objective has high validity and reliability.
• Discrimination- A good test must be able to make distinction between poor and good learner; it
should show the slight differences between learner attainment and achievement that will make it
possible to distinguish between poor and good learner. What are the likely criteria in order to
satisfy this conditions?
• Comprehensiveness- Test items that covers much of the content of the course, that is the subject
matter is said to be comprehensive and hence capable of fulfilling purpose.
• Ease of administration- a good test should not pose difficulties in administration.
• Practicality and scoring- Assigning quantitative value to a test result should not be difficult. Why,
what and how.
• Usability- a good test should be useable, unambiguous and clearly stated with one meaning only.
B. Test Designing/Methodology of Test Construction
Lots of principles and techniques need to be observed by test maker to ensure that quality tests are made
and are reproducible, measure what it should measure and address content objectives in clear terms.
In test construction, the following stages are very important:
A. Test planning stage may include the following consideration:
• What are objectives of the test- stated in behavioural terms, using active verbs
• What is the content specification: This may be based on syllabus, journal, notes etc
• Test Blue-print should be prepared- It is a two-dimensional table. One represents subject matter
while the other represents behaviour or mental process.
• What type of test items will be required-Essay or objective tests?
B. Test item development stage
The test planner should take note of the following:
• The test Blue-print should be strictly used.
• The test should be constructed ahead of time for review and reframing of items.
• Colleagues or other experts should review items.
• Enough test items more than required should be prepared.
C. Test item analysis
The formats for achievement tests are essay and objective items. Sample format have to be prepared and
analysed. Item analysis provides information like; diagnostic details which could be helpful in assessing
testee or in teaching and learning process and procedures.
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D. Development of marking scheme- These are answer of the test constructed and the responses the
teacher will expect from the learner and possible penalties for wrong responses.
Marking scheme is prepared to reflect the learning objectives in that all Bloom’s levels of educational
objectives are represented. All probable answers to a question, the marks obtainable, the penalty for
wrong answers and instructions for award of marks, and specific instructions on the use of illustrations,
diagram etc where necessary are the necessary information marking scheme should contain..
C. Advantages of Tests
The advantages of tests/achievement tests are as follows:
(i) Achievement tests are prepared to evaluate the extent to which the aims and objectives of education
have been achieved.
(ii) Achievement tests are used for evaluating and improving the curriculum meant for the students of
different grades.
(iii) Achievement test are designed to identify the students of different categories such as slow learners,
gifted and average students etc. as result of which the teachers or guidance workers would be able to
provide remedial instruction and enrichment programme for the students.
(iv) Achievement tests are helpful for the purpose of identifying and classifying the students in the various
groups on the basis of their achievement merits.
(v) Achievement tests are intended to give promotion to the students to the next higher classes or new
courses considering the obtained result as an yard stick for promotion of the structures.
(vi) Achievement tests are used to provide scholarships, awards or special award of merit to the students
those who perform better in the achievement tests.
(vii) Achievement tests are useful in helping students to choose suitable subjects or courses according to
their achievement levels.
(viii) Achievement tests are used to enable the parents to know strength and weaknesses in the context of
their academic achievements as a result of which the parents can be able to provide special help and
guidance to their children.
(ix) Achievement tests are used as a supplementary later means to give hints about the aptitude of the
students to the some extent as they say about present standard of the students in a subject or subjects.
(x) Achievement tests are helpful for the teachers to enable them to know strength and weaknesses of
students in different subjects and skill as a result of which the teacher can be able to prepare their
students for different competitions so far competitions of different subjects or courses are concerned.
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D. Interpretation of test Scores

Test Interpretation: Test Interpretation is the process of analyzing scores in a test and translating
qualitative data into quantitative and grading into numerical. Score interpretation is same as test
interpretation.
Scores: “A summary of the evidence contained in an examinee's responses to the items of a test that
are related to the construct or constructs being measured”.
Types of Scores are:
i) raw score
ii) scales scores
• Raw Scores: The number of points received on a test when the test has been according to direction.
Example:
o A Student got 10 out of a 20 scores in item quiz.
o Raw scores reflect an immediate interpretation as a response to the scores.
o It does not yield a meaningful interpretation because it is just raw scores.
o Thus, we have to interpret Ali’s score in a more descriptive and meaningful way
• Scaled Scores: Scaled scores are the results of transformation (usually transformed through a
consistent scale)
Example:
o A child awarded scale score of 100 is judged to have met the “National Standard” in the area of
study judged by the test.
o A child awarded scale score more than 100 is judged to have exceeded national standard and
demonstrated a higher then the expected knowledge curriculum for their age.
o A child awarded scale score less than 100 is judged to have not yet met the “National standard”
and perform below the expectation from their age.
• Methods of Interpreting Test Scores
Referencing Framework: A referencing framework is a structure you can use to compare student
performance to something external to the assessment itself. Types of referencing framework are:
o Criterion Referencing Framework
o Norm Referencing Framework
1. Criterion Referencing Framework:

Criterion Referencing Framework permits us to describe an individual’s performance without
referring to the performance of other. Infers the kind of performance a student can do in a domain,
rather than the student’s relative standing in a norm group.
Criterion: the domain of performance to which you reference a student’s assessment results.
o Most widely used interpretation because of its ease of computation and there is a ready
transmutation table printed at the inside back cover of the teacher’s class record.
o A criterion referenced interpretation of score requires a comparison of particular student
score with subjective and pre-determined performance standard (Criteria).
o Criterion referenced and standard based interpretation of test result are most meaningful
when the test has been specifically designed for this purpose
Criterion Referenced Interpretation:

① Describes student performance according to a specified domain or clearly defined learning tasks.
② Concerned with national examination and other assessment bodies.
③ Used in the assessment of vocational and academic qualifications.
④ Results are given on a pass/fail, competent/not competent, promoted/not promoted basis.
⑤ Results are conclusive and usually open to review
Example: Letter Grades (A, B, C, D, F)
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2. Norm Referencing Framework

Norm Group: The well defined group of other students.
Basically ranking the scores of student from highest score to the lowest one provides an
immediate sample of for norm referenced interpretation. However, barely ranking “raw scores” to
interpret student’s performance formally is not proper and valid. “The raw scores are converted to
derived scores.”
Derived score: A derived score is a numerical report of test performance on a scale that has well
defined characteristics and yields normative meanings.
o Norm referenced framework interpretation tell us how an individual compares with other
students who have taken the same test.
o How much student knows is determined by his standing or rank within the reference group.
This means that student’s scores is not treated individually but as the part of the group where
the student belongs.
Most common types of Norm Referenced Framework are:
o Grade Norms (5.5)
o Percentile Norms (85% higher than)
o Standard scores norms (normal curve)
o Stanines (9)
Norm referenced interpretation

① It is very easy to use.
② It is appropriate to a large group of students that is, more than 40.
③ It increases the healthy competition among the students
④ The teacher easily identifies learning criteria – the percentage of students who receive highest
grade or lowest grade.
51 | P a g e
52 | P a g e

K KHAN Science

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All rights reserved with Provincial Institute for Teacher Education (PITE), Peshawar.

Teaching of Science Primary Developed by:

1. Mr. Sohail Khan, Instructor PITE, Peshawar

Developed under Supervision of:

1. Dr. Shafqat Hussain, Subject Specialist. DCTE, Abbottabad

Reviewed under Supervision of:

I wish you good luck!

Dr, Tariq Mehmood

Session 1: Primary Science Time: 180 Minutes

Introduction of the Session 10 minutes

• Initiate the discussion by asking following questions:

Step 4: Test your hypothesis by doing an experiment. ...

• Divide the trainee teachers into four groups.

Teaching Learning Strategies/ tips for trainee teachers to teach effectively

Handout 1.1: The Process of Scientific Method

Handout 1.2(a): Observation of Environment and Science

Handout 1.2(b): Differences between Plant and Animal Cells

Plant Cells Animal Cells

Handout 1.2(c): Natural process of water cycle in atmosphere

Handout 1.2(d): Natural process of photosynthesis in atmosphere

Have you ever noticed that plants need sunlight to

Three things plants need to live

Plants need three basic things to live: water, sunlight,

We know now that plants use sunlight as energy, they

How do plants capture sunlight?

Plants capture sunlight using a compound called

More details on Photosynthesis

Inside a plant's cells are structures called chloroplasts. It's in these

Session 2: Primary Science Time: 180 Minutes

Introduction of the Session 10 minutes

Teaching Learning Strategies/ tips for trainee teachers to teach effectively

Handout 2.1: Role of Science in Our Daily Life

The main branches of medicine are:

Handout 2.2: Aims and Objectives of teaching Science

• To provide practical knowledge of the subject matter content.

Session 3: Primary Science Time: 180 Minutes

Introduction of the Session 10 minutes

• Initiate the discussion by asking following questions:

ii)make the material accessible, intelligible and meaningful

Characteristics of Steps in Lecture-cum- Advantages of Disadvantages of

• Initiate the discussion by asking following questions:

• Initiate the discussion by asking following questions:

• Invite a volunteer for comparing the both methods.

• Use the following diagram for giving input.

Handout 3.1: Lecture-Cum-Demonstration Method

Characteristics of good demonstration for lecture

Advantages of Lecture-cum-Demonstration Method

Disadvantages of Lecture-cum-demonstration Method

Handout3. 2: Discovery method

APPROACH AND STEPS

CLASSROOM IMPLEMENTATION OF DISCOVERY METHOD

Handout 3.3: Activity based Learning

Handout 3.4: Problem solving and Inquiry based learning

Pioneers Science and Laboratory Instruction. Medical Schools.

questions. resolution by starting from real and

Student role Interprets, explains, hypothesizing Determining whether a problem

nature of scientific inquiry and a grasp effective collaborations.

Session 4: Primary Science Time: 180 Minutes

Introduction of the Session 10 minutes

illustrating or reinforcing a skill or concept, differentiating instruction and relieving anxiety or

• Inquiry based learning

Handout 4.1: Teaching aids

B. Characteristics of Good Teaching Aids