Crushing principles and equipment

By Evgueni Porokhovoi. 2019

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Introduction

• Rock is broken or crushed when a force is applied

with sufficient energy to disrupt internal bonds or
planes of weakness which exists within the rock.
• Crushing rock is an energy-intensive action.
• The crushed stone operator’s ability to influence
and control his product lies within the application
and control of this energy.

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 IN THE QUARRY…

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Blasting work

• Quarry blasting process is the first application of energy to

rock producing a valuable product.
• Blasting is an important and effective form of crushing.
• A well-executed blast transforms a solid rock formation
into fragments small enough to be accepted by a
processing plant.
• The energy applied, per unit volume of rock blasted, affect
the particle size of rock in the resulting muck pile.
• Half of the rock blasted is frequently smaller than 0,5 m.

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Blasting work

Drilling work Loading of the hole bottom with

primary cartridges

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Blasting work

Loading of main explosive column New blasting technics „Taponex“ or

with ANFO emmulsion „Air Deck“

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Blasting work

Connecting of holes by After blast : typical muck pile

NONEL initiation system

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Secondary breaking

• A complicated particular geological conditions, low energy

applied or poorly executed blast results in many oversize
pieces of stone which will require extensive secondary
breakage before processing.
• Two main types of secondary breakage are currently used
in quarries : breakage by secondary perforation (small
diameter) and secondary blasting of boulders, and
breakage using the pneumatic hammer mounted on the
excavator.
• It exist also the technique of “drop ball” but it is less
frequently used .

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 Secondary breaking

Large karstic void in quarry front Oversize blocks in the quarry

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 Secondary breaking

Reduction of the oversize blocks by Hydraulic hammer mounted on

hydraulic hammer the back-hoe

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Secondary breaking

Reduction of the oversize blocks by Drop-ball technic

secondary perforation and blasting

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 Mining Operations

Mining process in the

quarry starts with drilling
work. Generally, drilling
diameter vary from 85 to
200 mm Loading equipment can be
different : hydraulic excavators,
back-hoe, wheel loaders

In function of quarry production and

distance of transportation the choice of
right quarry truck is fundamental

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Mining Operations

Typical quarry operations : drilling, loading of blasted pile, transportation

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Cost structure quarry and crushing

In this example the typical cost structure of quarry operation and crushing
is shown. In given example : not much secondary breaking, loading with
hydraulic excavator with high bucket volume, transportation 2 km by 50 t
trucks, crushing in three stages.

As general rule, the crushing represent ~25 % of total cost.

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 CRUSHING PRINCIPLES

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 Mechanical reduction methods

Breaking rock with sufficient

mechanical energy.

Mechanical reduction method :

1. Tensile
2. Compression
3. Impaction
4. Shearing
5. Attrition

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Crushing : Required Energy

• The quantity of energy applied to a unit of stone related

directly to the size reduction accomplished.
• This is true for mechanical crushing as well as for blasting.
• The amount of power required in any given crushing device is
basically a function of three factors :

- Amount of size-reduction taking place

- Material‘s resistance to being crushed
- The production capacity of the system

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Reduction Ratio

The Simplified Reduction Ratio (N) is the ratio

between largest linear dimension of the material
before crushing (D) to the largest linear dimension
after crushing (d), simply expressed as :

Dmax
N=
dmax

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 Rule of Thumb

The K80 Reduction Ratio (R) shows the

ratio between rock blocks coming from
quarry (feeding crusher) and desired final
product, both at K80 = 80 % (by weight)
passing particles : Rule of Thumb

For example :

• Feed material : blasted rock with 80 %

smaller than 400 mm (i.e. F80 = 400 mm)
• Final product, required for Raw Mill with
80 % smaller than 16 mm (i.e. P80 = 16)

F80 400 mm
R= = = 25
P80 16 mm

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Reduction Ratio

Average Reduction Ratio‘s „Rules of Thumb“

Crusher type Reduction Ratio

Primary Gyratory 3-4
Primary Jaw 2.5-3.5
Primary Impactor 7-10
Secondary/Tertiary Cone 3-4
Secondary/Tertiary Impactor 6-8
Tertiary Vertical Shaft 4

General rule : if Primary Jaw crusher with R1 = 3.5 used together

with Secondary Impact crusher with R2 = 8, the final Reduction
Ratio R = R1 x R2 = 28

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 CRUSHABILITY TESTS

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Crushability tests

• To characterize the Crushability of rock pieces F.C. Bond in

the 1950‘s developed the Impact Work Index (Wi).
• Wi defines the theoretical power consumption of
comminution in relation to the crusher product gradation.
The Wi is presented in kWh/t.

The notion of setting : CSS (Close Side Setting) define the

particle size at the crusher outlet. Can be adjusted.

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Crushability tests

• The higher the Wi is, the coarser the product gradation is.
• For example, if granite and limestone have a Wi of 16 kWh/t and
10 kWh/t respectively, then the setting of the crusher (CSS) for
granite must be smaller than for limestone in order to produce
the same size gradation.
• Because a smaller setting means a lower capacity, the crusher
gives a lower capacity for granite than for limestone.

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Crushability tests

The test device consists of two 17 kg hammers

which strike the sample simultaneously and
perpendicular to the sample side surfaces. This
allows the impact force to transverse the sample
between the two parallel surfaces. The dropping
height of the hammers is increased until the
sample breaks.

Crushability Wi (kWh/t)

Very easy Wi < 10

Easy 10 < Wi < 14

Average 14 < Wi < 18

Difficult 18 < Wi < 22

Very difficult 22 < Wi

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 Los Angeles tests

Test objective : evaluation of resistance of rock

pieces to abrasion. Mostly used for aggregate
testing

Test principle : Fraction of 10-14 mm, sample of

5000 g (A), dried at 110° . Turn 500 revolutions at
32 rev/min in the Los Angeles drum machine ,
together with balls charge (11 balls x 430 g each).
Sieve at 1,6 mm screen, all particles retained at
1,6 mm i.e. 4000 g (B)
Crushability Los Angeles

Very difficult LA < 7 A-B 5000- 4000

LA = x 100 = x 100 = 20
Difficult 7 < LA < 14 A 5000
Average 14 < LA < 25

Easy 25 < LA < 40

Very easy 40 < LA

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 Hazemag laboratory tests

Compact laboratory machine for

compressive strength testing
General shape of
samples for
laboratory testing
Hazemag laboratory
impactor to define the
Example of final graph crushing ratio
showing the Crushing
Ratio

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Other rock characteristic

Main rock samples characteristics are always tested by

potential suppliers of crushing equipment :
• Specific weight : direct measurement of pieces of rock by volume unit. Volume is
generally defined by volume of water replaced by rock, plunged in water.
Measurement unit : t/m3 or g/cm3
• Humidity : measurement of absolute lost on weight between sample with natural
humidity and sample dried at 110°C. Measurement unit : %
• Hardness : defined by Moose scale, relative value from 1 (talc) to 10 (diamond)
• Compressive strength : measurement of vertical pressure applied to the sample of
regular form (cube or cylinder with two parallel surface, normally the height is equal
to the width or diameter). Measurement unit : MPa or kg/cm2
• Water absorption : measurement of maximum humidity (by the method, described
above) after plunging some initial samples in the water for 24 hours. Measurement
unit : %
• Chemical analysis (main oxides) in %. The most important oxide is SiO2 (free silica),
defining the abrasiveness of rock

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 CRUSHING EQUIPMENT

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In the past…

Jaw crusher with bucket conveyor Jaw crusher old fashion

and screening system

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In the past…

Jaw crusher Krupp. Rüdersdorf

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Jaw crusher

Jaw crusher with single

toggle (only one moving part)

Jaw crusher with double

toggle (both moving parts)

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Jaw crusher

Jaw crusher Sandvik series CJ

Relatively simple and not

Jaw crusher Metso Nordberg C160 very expensive installation

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 Cone crusher

More detailed view of

gyratory crusher
Perpendicular profile of cone type Geits
crusher with crushing cone oriented
against the cone body (crusher type
Geits or gyratory)

Perpendicular profile of cone

crusher with crushing cone
oriented in parallel of the cone
body (crusher type Symons) More detailed view of cone crusher
type Symons

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Cone and gyratory crusher

View of cone
crusher
installation Primary gyratory crusher : heavier
Sandvik : energy structure, more complicated civil
efficient, more work
consistent product

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Roll crusher

For medium-hard rock with high silica content and high

moisture. Installation less expensive.

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Sizer

1. Stress into 2. Breaking 3. Breaking

material by tension by rotor shop

For medium-hard rock with high silica content and high moisture.

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Impactors

Crushing using high speed rotation and impact effect. High energy
demanding process.

1. Simple mono-rotor hammer crusher 3. Mono-rotor impactor

2. Combined bi-rotor hammer crusher 4. Combined bi-rotor impactor

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Hammer crusher

1. Hammer rotor
2. Inlet roller
3. Hammers (reversible)
4. Outlet basket
5. Rails for sliding basket
6. Breaker plate adjustment
7. Spare hammers
8. Top part
9. Hydraulic cylinder for opening top
part
10. Main drive station
11. Membrane coupling
12. Drive station, inlet roller

Hammer crusher FLS EV

Hammer rotor
Outlet basket

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Impact crusher

Impact walls 1 and 2

Rotor with 6 blow bars

Impactor rotor with 6

Grinding path
blow bars (reversible)

Hydraulic control of
impact walls position

Impactor PB 200/220 from ThyssenKrupp

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Impact crusher

Modern solution permitting

(according to the rock properties
and process of grinding) : only
one single stage with reduction
ratio 10-20. The crusher itself is
generally the cheapest solution
on the market.
Higher operational cost due to
the high wear.

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 Impact crusher

Typical technical drawing of complete impact crusher installation

Quarry truck
Metallic hopper
Apron feeder
Roller screen (wobbler)
Belt conveyor for fines
Crusher body

Belt conveyor

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Different types of crushers

Data by ThyssenKrupp

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 Mobile crusher

• The mobile crushing is one of most „economical“ model of crushing

operations in case of :

• Relatively limited production

• Longue and permanently increasing distance between mining front and processing
plant
• To limit the investment cost (mechanical, civil work…)
• Difficult and expensive raw material transportation conditions,
• But, if the crushed material is transported by conveyor belt on big distances, it
representing also high investment cost for conveyor belt (~ 3-5 kUSD per linear
meter)
• Environmental pressure

• On the modern market we found all types of crushers (different

technology) realized on the portable (mobile) conception. The most
used are the model mounted on the tracks, rarely mounted on the
wheel chassis

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 Different types of mobile crushers

Metso jaw locotrack LT106; 300 tph Metso secondary cone HP300; 250 tph

Sandvik impact mobile with screen 500 tph Komatsu jaw BR580JG average 500 tph

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Apron feeder

Feeding equipment : from hopper to crusher

Typical view of apron feeder

1 000 tph (ThyssenKrupp)

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Grizzly

Heavy linear feeding and partial

screening system of quarry material :
Grizzly (ThyssenKrupp) with double
out-of-balance drive, 2 000 tph of
capacity, screening size 250 mm
(by-pass of fine material).

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Wobbler

Roller screen (wobbler) : between

apron feeder and crusher, serving
to eliminate fine particles to avoid
them to be sent to the crusher (by-
pass). Practical for clayey (sticky)
material

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Screen

Vibrating screening after crusher

serve to eliminate a final product
from crushing circuit (passing)
and to re-send back to crusher
oversized product (reject).
Mostly used for aggregate
production as classifier for
different final products but can
be used also for cement raw
material.

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Choice of crusher

The choice of crushing equipment required to process

raw material (and also the number of crushing stages :
primary, secondary, tertiary…) depend on the different
factors :
• Characteristics of the raw materials
• Required capacity of the crusher (plant capacity)
• Expected feed size from the quarry
• Required final product size
• Capital and running cost
• Fixed, semi-mobile or mobile system strategic choise

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Abrasiveness and hardness

Low High

Double Toggle Jaw crusher

Single Toggle Jaw crusher

Gyratory (cone) crusher

Single or Double Roll crusher

Single Rotor Impact crusher
Hammer crusher

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Moisture

Low High

Single or Double Roll crusher or Sizer

Gyratory (cone) crusher

Double or Single
Toggle Jaw crusher

Hammer crusher

Impact crusher

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Production capacity
Low High

Gyratory (cone) crusher

Impact crusher

Single & Double Rotor Hammer crusher

Single or Double Roll crusher

Single Toggle Jaw The real production capacity

crusher depends directly of the final
product size. For examples the
Double Toggle same impact crusher producing
Jaw crusher 1000 tph at – 80 mm will
produce 600 tph at – 55 mm

1000 t.p.h.
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Capital cost

Low High

Gyratory (cone) crusher

Hammer crusher (double rotor)

Roll crusher

Impact crusher

Double Toggle
Jaw crusher The absolute capital cost is
defined by size / capacity of
Single Toggle the crushing equipment
Jaw crusher

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