ARTICLE IN PRESS

Renewable Energy 31 (2006) 2108–2121

www.elsevier.com/locate/renene

Combustion properties of slow pyrolysis bio-oil

produced from indigenous Australian species
V. Stamatov, D. Honnery, J. Soria
Laboratory for Turbulence Research in Aerospace and Combustion (LTRAC),
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Monash University, Clayton, VIC 3800, Australia
Received 12 May 2005; accepted 6 October 2005
Available online 22 November 2005

Abstract

Bio-oil derived via slow pyrolysis process of two indigenous Australian tree species, red gum
(Eucalyptus camaldulensis) from the basin of Murray, Victoria, and blue gum (Eucalyptus globulus)
wood from the region of Mount Gambier, South Australia was blended with ethanol and burned in a
circular jet spray at atmospheric pressure. Bio-oil flames were shorter, wider and brighter than diesel
fuel flames at the same conditions. Adding of flammable polar additives (e.g. ethanol) to bio-oil
improved some of the undesired properties of the fuel such as poor atomisation, low calorific value,
and high NOx emission from the flame. Nevertheless, adding of ethanol should be carried out with
caution since it leads to a reduction of the heat flux from the flame. Changing the concentration of
flammable polar additives in bio-oil can be an optimising factor in achieving the proper balance
between the best spray formation and the maximal heat flux from the flame.
r 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Bio-oil; Combustion; Pyrolysis

1. Introduction

Bio-oil is a liquid fuel produced by the pyrolysis of biomass. The composition and
properties of bio-oil depend on the biomass source and pyrolysis rate (fast or slow) used in
its production. Due to its vegetation source, bio-oil is a renewable and greenhouse gas
(GHG) neutral fuel when combusted. Considering the great international attention

Corresponding author. Tel.: +61 3 9905 3550; fax: +61 3 9905 1825.
E-mail address: venelin.stamatov@eng.monash.edu.au (V. Stamatov).

0960-1481/$ - see front matter r 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.renene.2005.10.004
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focused on global climate change, these attributes make bio-oil an attractive alternative
liquid fuel source for both power generation and transport. At a local level, increased use
of biomass resources promotes rural development and full utilisation of farmland, while
reducing the quantity of material being land filled [1].
Wide spread substitution of crude oil-based liquid fuels by a renewable GNG neutral
alternative can be beneficial in terms of reduction of the Australian reliance on imported
fuels, especially oil. However, Australian energy use is even less reliant on biomass fuels
than the world overall [2]. In the year 2002, total primary energy use was 5.14 exajoules, of
which only about 5% was from combusted biomass. Present biomass-based liquid fuel
production is very small, only a few million litres/year, compared with total land transport
liquid fuel consumption of about 26 gigalitres [3]. The biomass-based liquid fuel
production in Australia includes ethanol produced from fermentation of starch or sugar
and biodiesel produced from vegetable oils. Currently, there is no industrial scale
production of pyrolysis bio-oil in Australia, although it has been proven that bio-oil has
the potential to replace diesel and gas for on-site power generation and heating [4,5], to be
a fuel source for large-scale combustion systems such as furnaces, boilers [6] and gas
turbines [7,8], and to be an alternative to diesel in transport applications [9–11]. In
addition, widespread use of bio-oil in Australia can assist regions of low rain-fall and high
salinity to recover through the establishment of a sustainable industry producing a wide
variety of products as wood charcoal and chemical additives.
Unfortunately, the chemical and physical properties of pyrolysis bio-oil adversely affect
their combustion properties and result in difficulties in storage and handling. Bio-oil is
characterised by high viscosity, acidity and electrical conductivity, presence of water and
various oxygenated compounds, ash and other solid impurities. While low in sulphur, bio-
oil contains nitrogen. This results in increased emission of NOx from bio-oil flames
compared to NOx emission from standard diesel fuel flames [12,13]. The presence of
moisture, while acting to reduce bio-oil viscosity, can also promote the onset of micro-
explosions in the bio-oil droplets that make up the spray [14]. Despite the possibility of a
secondary atomisation of bio-oil droplets, high viscosity results in sprays made up of larger
droplets requiring longer evaporation times, which in turn leads to greater droplet
penetration. This combined with high post evaporation fuel residues can result in high
exhaust particulate loads as the droplets undergo enhanced pyrolysis in fuel rich regions.
Aging leads to further viscosity increase, a phase separation on aqueous fraction and lignin-
derived compounds (tar) and later tar carbonisation. The presence of ash and other solid
impurities can lead to filers or nozzles blocking and lubricity problems. In addition, bio-oils
are of low heating value (
25 MJ/kg), being immiscible with petroleum-based fuels.
Some of the undesired bio-oil characteristics can be improved using relatively simple
physical methods with only minor added costs [15]. Polar solvents can be added to improve
the homogeneity and to decrease the viscosity and the aging rate [16,17]. The solvent
addition can impact the bio-oil viscosity by three mechanisms: (i) physical dilution without
affecting the chemical reaction rates; (ii) reducing the reaction rate by molecular dilution
or by changing the oil micro-structure; and (iii) chemical reactions between the solvent and
the oil components that prevent further chain growth with age or heating. The chemical
reactions that can occur between the bio-oil and methanol or ethanol are esterification and
acetalisation. These reactions can lead to other desirable changes in bio-oil properties such
as reduced acidity, improved volatility and heating value, and better miscibility with diesel
fuels. An extensive review of bio-oil upgrading methods can be found in [18].
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The research presented here is focused primarily on spray combustion at atmospheric

pressure of slow pyrolysis bio-oil. We concentrated on slow pyrolysis bio-oil because it is
potentially valuable bi-product of Australian charcoal industry, currently being not
properly utilised. Parts of the bio-oil samples were diluted with analytical grade ethanol to
investigate the offset of solvent blending. Results from the experiments were used to
address two of the major issues relevant to the bio-oil combustion: poor atomisation into
droplets of bio-oils, and increased emission of NOx from bio-oils flames.

2. Bio-oil preparation and characterisation

The bio-oil used in these experiments was produced at a slow pyrolysis pilot plant [19]
from two indigenous Australian tree species, red gum (Eucalyptus camaldulensis) from the
basin of Murray, Victoria, and blue gum (Eucalyptus globulus) wood from the region of
Mount Gambier, South Australia. At the moment of testing the bio-oil samples they were
3 months old (ageing increases the density and viscosity of bio-oil relative to newer
samples). Bodnar et al. [20] reported an increase of 33.3% in viscosity and 1.28% in density
over a period of 49 days for a sample of red gum (E. camaldulensis) bio-oil.
The bio-oil was filtered, using a sintered glass filter, porosity number 3, and purified. The
purification of bio-oil is intended to minimise the amount of excess moisture, also known
as pyroligneous liquor. The excess moisture was removed by heating the bio-oil in a water
bath at approximately 70–80 1C under vacuum. Higher temperature of the water bath
results in lesser moisture contents in the purified bio-oil. Note that the process of
purification changes the chemical composition and physical properties of the bio-oil.
Bodnar et al. [20] found that the viscosity of his bio-oil increased by 26.7% at 20 1C due to
the purification treatment. After the purification batches of the bio-oil samples were
diluted with analytical grade ethanol.
Results from an elemental analysis [21] of filtered and purified bio-oil are shown in
Table 1. Note the relatively high contents of nitrogen (0.9–0.11% by weight) in the dry
samples of bio-oil compared with the typically zero content of nitrogen in standard diesel
fuels.
Typical visual appearance of a sample of red gum bio-oil (RGB) under magnification
can be seen in Fig. 1. The presence of solid particulates of different size and shape
and vacuoles of immiscible moisture in an unfiltered and unpurified bio-oil sample is
clearly evident. Large particulates can be filtered, however, the solid residues found in

Table 1
Results from an elemental analysis of filtered and purified bio-oils [21]

Component % wt., after filtration and purification % wt., dry basis

BGB RGB BGB RGB

C 56.5 63.7 71.5 69.0

H 7.3 6.9 6.4 6.5
N 0.09 0.08 0.11 0.09
O (by difference) 22.0 24.4
Moisture 21 7.7
Ash yield o0.05 o0.05
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Fig. 1. Left: Typical visual appearance of a sample of unfiltered and unpurified red gum bio-oil (RGB) under
5  magnification. Right: Solid agglomerate found in RGB sample under 10  magnification.

100
Dynamic viscosity, cp

10

0.1
20 30 40 50
Temperature, °C

100% E 100% RGB

80/20 w/w RGB/E 20/80 w/w RGB/E
D

Fig. 2. Dynamic viscosity of blends of red gum bio-oil (RGB) with ethanol (E) versus temperature. Dynamic
viscosity of standard diesel fuel #2 (D) is shown for comparison.

filtered bio-oils tend to form large-scale post-filtration agglomerates. The presence of these
post-filtration agglomerates requires special attention since it can lead to the clogging of
the nozzles.
Physico-chemical properties of bio-oil blends with ethanol (E) were measured for a
temperature range of 20–50 1C. Results are plotted in Figs. 2–5. Properties of standard
diesel fuel (#2) are shown for comparison. Surface tension of all blends has been measured
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100

Dynamic viscosity, cp
10

0.1
20 30 40 50
Temperature, °C
100% E 100% BGB
80/20 w/w BGB/E 20/80 w/w BGB/E
D

Fig. 3. Dynamic viscosity of blends of blue gum bio-oil (BGB) with ethanol (E) versus temperature. Dynamic
viscosity of standard diesel fuel #2 (D) is shown for comparison.

1250
Density, kg/m3

1000

750
20 30 40 50
Temperature, °C
100% E 100% RGB
80/20 w/w RGB/E 20/80 w/w RGB/E
D

Fig. 4. Density of blends of red gum bio-oil (RGB) with ethanol (E) versus temperature. Density of standard
diesel fuel #2 (D) is shown for comparison.

using the method of the pendant drop at constant temperature of 23 1C. Reproducibility
of the analysis has been checked with deionised water. Results are plotted in Fig. 6.
Surface tension of standard diesel fuel #2 (D) is shown for comparison. Blending of
bio-oil with ethanol leads to reduction of viscosity, density and surface tension of the
samples.
High calorific value (HCV) of the samples was also measured. HCV of RGB is 26.1 MJ/
kg, HCV of BGB is 23.1 MJ/kg. For comparison, HCV of ethanol is 29.8 MJ/kg and HCV
of standard diesel fuel #2 is 44.9 MJ/kg. Viscosity and density of the samples decrease as
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1250

Density, kg/m3

1000

750
20 30 40 50
Temperature, °C
100% E 100% BGB
80/20 w/w BGB/E 20/80 w/w BGB/E
D

Fig. 5. Density of blends of blue gum bio-oil (BGB) with ethanol (E) versus temperature. Density of standard
diesel fuel #2 (D) is shown for comparison.
Surface tension, mN/m2

25

15
0 0.5 1
B/E, w/w
RGB BGB D

Fig. 6. Surface tension of blends of blue gum (BGB) and red gum (RGB) bio-oil with ethanol (E) at temperature
of 23 1C. Surface tension of standard diesel fuel #2 (D) is shown for comparison.

temperature rises. Higher moisture content of BGB results in a lower calorific value,
viscosity, density and surface tension compared with the RGB sample.

3. Combustion experiments

3.1. Experimental methodology

A schematic diagram of the vertical spray combustion facility used for these experiments
is shown in Fig. 7. The combustion chamber surrounding the spray is a rectangular section
with dimensions 0.3  0.3  0.6 m. The nozzle used to produce the spray was located at the
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Cool gas samples to

Water-in
the gas-analyser

Water-out
Cyclone

Hot gas samples Isokinetic gas-sampling

probe
Combustion
chamber Radiometer
Digital
thermometer

Pilot Nozzle
flame High-sensitive
voltmeter

Thermocouple

3-way valve

Pressure relief
Compressed Hydrogen

Compressed Argon

valves
Ethanol

Pressure
vessels
Bio-oil or
Diesel

Fig. 7. A schematic diagram of the spray combustion facility (not to scale).

centre of the base of the chamber. The nozzle used was a stainless steel, Steinen nozzle
(type Q) providing a spray with a 301 solid cone angle.
Stainless steel high-pressure vessels were used as liquid fuel displacement pumps. One of
the vessels contained ethanol, which was used to dissolve and clean the bio-oil from the
fuel line and nozzle after tests. A hydrogen pilot flame was used to preheat the co-flow air
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and to facilitate the ignition of the fuel droplets. Normally, the pilot flame contribution to
the total heat release was negligibly low (
0.1–0.3%).
An isokinetic gas-sampling probe was used to collect gas samples from the bulk exhaust
gases. The probe comprises: (i) a stainless steel, water cooled, quenching tube; (ii) a
removable, stainless steel suction nozzle, whose function is to prevent the probe from being
blocked by large soot conglomerates; and (iii) a cyclone. The quenching tube opens
tangentially into the cyclone on the walls of which the fuel droplets are deposited by
centrifugal force. A filter was placed near the outlet of the cyclone in order to collect the
soot particulates. In order to reduce the interference of the probe with the gas flow that
would modify the flame structure, the probe was built L-shaped, with the suction nozzle
being always directed toward the burner, parallel to the centreline of the spray. The
availability of the cyclone ensures that the probe can operate in the zones of non-complete
evaporation of the fuel droplets.
Radiant heat flux was measured along the centreline of the flame using a calibrated
radiometer, having an opening that allows the radiation incidence from an angle of 71.

3.2. Results

Samples of pure bio-oil, ethanol, 80/20 and 20/80 w/w bio-oil/ethanol blends and
standard diesel fuel (#2) were burned in the combustor. The fuel mass flow rate was kept
constant at 1.98 kg/h. Differences in the shape of the flames typical of those found for bio-
oil and standard diesel fuel (#2) are clearly evident in Fig. 8. The bio-oil flame is
characterised by a lower portion whose shape is indicative of the 301 cone angle of the
nozzle used to produce the spray. While this is also evident in the diesel spray shown in the
figure, the region occupied by this portion in the diesel flame is very much smaller than
found for the bio-oil flame. The result of this difference is a much longer and smaller diesel

Fig. 8. Typical shape of bio-oil (left) and standard diesel fuel #2 (right) flames.
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flame relative to the shorter, wider bio-oil flame. While not clear in the images, as a result
of poorer atomisation into droplets the bio-oil flame contains small, localised droplet
combustion sites on the periphery of the flame. No droplet fall-out can be seen for the
diesel flames.
Heat flux of the flames was measured along the centreline. Typical results for RGB are
plotted in Fig. 9. Here the heat flux (q) was normalised using maximal measured radiative
flux (qmax ) from the flames (
63 kW/m2 for diesel fuel and pure RGB, 36 and 18 kW/m2 for
80/20 and 20/80 w/w RGB/E blends, and 8 kW/m2 for pure ethanol). Flame height was
normalised using approximate flame heights (H), which were within the range of 0.4–0.6 m.
What is evident from Fig. 9 is that diesel fuel and bio-oil flames appear to have different
axial radiative profiles for this type of scaling, with the peak emission occurring at around
h=H ¼ 0:23 for diesel and h=H ¼ 0:44 for bio-oil. The normalised heat flux profile from
pure ethanol and bio-oil/ethanol blends is close to that of diesel fuel.
Fig. 10 shows the normalised cumulative heat flux (Qcum/Qcum,max) along the centreline
of the flames of RGB blends with ethanol versus normalised flame height (h/H). Here the
cumulative heat flux (Qcum) was normalised using the maximal cumulative heat flux
(Qcum,max) of pure RGB flame. Normalised cumulative heat flux of standard diesel fuel #2
is also shown for comparison. Emission of radiant heat flux in spray flames is a function of
both the flame temperature and particulate load. Higher initial particulate load results in a
gradual reduction of flame temperature unless. Higher cumulative heat flux of RGB
indicates a higher initial particulate load in bio-oil flames, and also suggests that these
particulates may not be fully oxidised as they enter leaner downstream regions of the flame.

1
q/qmax

0.5

0
0 0.5 1
h/H
100% E 100% RGB
80/20 w/w RGB/E 20/80 w/w RGB/E
D

Fig. 9. Normalised heat flux (q/qmax) along the centreline of the flames of red gum bio-oil (RGB) blends with
ethanol (E) versus normalised flame height (h/H). Normalised heat flux of standard diesel fuel #2 (D) is shown for
comparison.
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Qcum/Qcum,max

0.5

0
0 0.5 1
h/H
100% E 100% RGB
80/20 w/w RGB/E 20/80 w/w RGB/E
D

Fig. 10. Normalised cumulative heat flux (Qcum/Qcum,max) along the centreline of the flames of red gum bio-oil
(RGB) blends with ethanol (E) versus normalised flame height (h/H). Normalised cumulative heat flux of standard
diesel fuel #2 (D) is shown for comparison.

Table 2
Typical exhaust gas compositions and emission indexes of NOx at a constant fuel mass flow rate of 1.98 kg/h

Fuel O2 (vol. %) CO2 (vol. %) CO (vol. %) NOx (ppm) EI(NOx) (g/

kg)

100% BGB 15.23 4.16 0.096 15 0.63

80/20 w/w 17.63 2.47 0.017 7 0.50
BGB/E
20/80 w/w 16.67 2.64 0.013 2 0.11
BGB/E
100% E 16.45 3.06 0 1 0.04
D 11.10 6.64 0.020 8 0.26

In exhaust gas composition measurements, special attention was brought to the issue of
increased emission of NOx from bio-oil flames compared with NOx emission from diesel
fuel flames [12,13]. Bio-oil contains nitrogen, which is the possible source of increased NOx
emission. Typical exhaust gas compositions and emission indexes of NOx of pure BGB,
pure ethanol, 80/20 w/w and 20/80 w/w BGB/E mixtures, and standard diesel fuel #2 are
shown in Table 2. The emission index is
!

wNOx xMWNOx
EIðNOx Þ ¼ , (1)
wCO þ wCO2 MWF
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where wi are the mole fraction of compound i, x is the number of moles of carbon in a mole
of fuel, and MWNOx and MWF are the molecular weights of nitrogen oxides and the fuel,
respectively. The molecular weight of BGB was calculated using a hypothetical
‘‘stoichiometric’’ formula of the bio-oil (C9H10O2) derived on the base of the elemental
analysis of the samples, Table 1.

4. Discussion: dominating mechanism of NOx formation from bio-oil flames at atmospheric

pressure

There are two possible sources for increased emission of NOx from bio-oil flames: (i) an
oxidation of molecular nitrogen in the post-flame zone (thermal or Zeldovich mechanism
of NOx formation); or (ii) oxidation of nitrogen-containing compounds in the fuel (fuel-
bound mechanism of NOx formation). Unlike the fuel-bound mechanism, emission of
thermal NOx is very sensitive to the peak flame temperatures.
Consider NO formation in the post-flame gases of premixed mixtures with air of pure
BGB, pure ethanol, 80/20 w/w and 20/80 w/w BGB/E mixtures, and diesel fuel (NO is the
primary nitrogen oxide from combustion systems). The aim of the calculations is to
compare the rates of NO formation (ppm/s) for these fuels, based on the thermal
(Zeldovich) mechanism at adiabatic conditions.
Zeldovich mechanism consists on two chain reactions [22]
O þ N2 3NO þ N;

N þ O2 3NO þ O:
Neglecting reverse reactions the rate expression is
dwNO P
¼ 2k1f wO;e wN2 ;e , (2)
dt RT ad
where k1f ¼ 1.82  1011 exp[38,370/T(K)] (m3/kmol s) is the forward rate coefficient for
the rate-limiting reaction O þ N2 3NO þ N, wNO , wO;e and wN2 ;e are the mole fractions, P
(Pa) is the pressure, R (J/kmol K) is the universal gas constant and Tad (K) is the adiabatic
flame temperature.
The equilibrium adiabatic flame temperature and equilibrium composition calculations
were carried out for f ¼ 1, an ambient temperature of 298 K and a constant pressure
of 101.3 kPa, using Olikara and Borman equilibrium routines [23]. Here f is the
equivalence ratio, which is defined as the actual fuel/oxidiser ratio divided by
the stoichiometric fuel/oxidiser ratio. The enthalpies of formation of diesel fuel
and ethanol were calculated using a polynomial regression given in [24]. The enthalpy
of formation used for diesel fuel was –181.0 kJ/mol and that for ethanol 236.3 kJ/mol
at a temperature of 298 K. The enthalpy of formation of bio-oil was calculated using
the typical heat of combustion, DHcomb, of bio-oils of 24.5 MJ/kg. The combustion
reaction is
C9 H10 O2 þ 10:5O2 ! 9CO2 þ 5H2 O:
The enthalpy of formation of bio-oil, DH 0bio-oil , is

DH 0bio-oil ¼ 9DH 0CO2 þ 5DH 0H2 O  DH comb . (3)

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Table 3
Computational results: equilibrium adiabatic flame temperatures and mole fractions, rate coefficients and NOx
formation rates

Fuel Tad (K) Mole fractions k1f (m3/kmol s) dwNO/dt (l/s) dwNO =dt
ðdwNO =dtÞdiesel

wO;e wN2 ;e

Dry BGB 2297 0.000434 0.728 10126 0.034 1.25

80/20 w/w dry BGB/E 2293 0.000418 0.725 9835 0.032 1.17
20/80 w/w dry BGB/E 2264 0.000323 0.705 7938 0.020 0.72
Dry BGB+21% moisture 2290 0.000411 0.725 9622 0.031 1.13
80/20 w/w dry BGB/E+21% moisture 2285 0.000394 0.722 9276 0.028 1.04
20/80 w/w dry BGB/E+21% moisture 2257 0.000306 0.701 7531 0.017 0.64
100% E 2236 0.000250 0.686 6420 0.012 0.44
Standard diesel fuel #2 2285 0.000373 0.734 9276 0.027 1.00

The enthalpies of formation of liquid water and gaseous carbon dioxide are 285.8 and
393.5 kJ/mol, respectively [22]. The enthalpy of formation of bio-oil is 320.5 kJ/mol.
Computational results for equilibrium adiabatic flame temperatures and mole fractions,
rate coefficients and NOx formation rates are summarised in Table 3.
Calculations of thermal NOx emission at adiabatic conditions demonstrate that the
presence of moisture (21%) leads to reduction of thermal NOx, compared with the
emissions from a dry sample, Table 3. Ethanol (20% and 80% by weight) added to bio-oil
lead to 7% and 43% reduction of thermal NOx, respectively. The major factors that affect
NOx reduction are the decreased value of the rate coefficients and decreased O-atom
concentrations, both of which are controlled by the temperature.
The normalised emission index and NOx formation rate are plotted in Fig. 11 versus
BGB/E ratio. The emission index and NOx formation rate are normalised using the values
obtained for diesel fuel
EIðNOx Þbio-oil blend ðdwNO =dtÞbio-oil blend
and .
EIðNOx Þdiesel ðdwNO =dtÞdiesel
Calculations show that BGB and BGB/E mixtures with low content of ethanol (20%) yield
approximately the same amount of thermal NOx as the standard diesel fuel. However,
experiments revealed that the NOx emission index of bio-oil and 80/20 w/w BGB/E
mixture is significantly higher than the NOx emission index of the standard diesel fuel (2.4
and 1.9 times, respectively), Table 2. It is most likely that the predominant source of
additional NOx from bio-oil flames is the fuel-bound nitrogen (0.11% for the BGB, Table
1). However, the contribution of fuel-bound nitrogen to the formation of NOx can be only
one of many contributors affecting the emission. Reaction chemistry of NOx is complex
and can be influenced by many factors including burner characteristics, fuel/air mixing,
temperature distribution, fuel composition, etc. The likelihood for a secondary
atomisation and a possible multistep pyrolysis decomposition of bio-oil in the fuel-rich
regions of the flame [25] make this investigation even more challenging.
One common approach in reducing NOx emissions is a partial removal of the nitrogen
contained in the fuels, using the process of hydrodenitrogenation (HDN). Mixing the fuels
with hydrogen gas at 2–10 MPa pressure and 570–650 K, using as the catalyst CoMo/
Al2O3 or NiMo/Al2O3 to convert the nitrogen in the fuel to ammonia, can partially remove
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Normalised emission index and NOx formation rate

3

EI(NOx)bio - oil blend

EI(NOx)diesel
2

(dχNO/dt)bio - oil blend

(dχNO/dt)diesel

0
0 50 100
Bio-oil content, % wt.

Fig. 11. Normalised NOx emission index and NOx formation rate versus BGB content.

the nitrogen from the fuel. Other approaches include using of zeolites at ambient
temperature and pressure [26], and biochemical catalysis [27]. The applicability and the
effectiveness of these approaches to remove nitrogen from bio-oil needs to be examined.
Effects of dilution of bio-oil with polar solvents on NOx emissions at elevated pressures
need to be investigated, if bio-oil is to be considered for use as a transport fuel.

5. Conclusions

Burning of slow pyrolysis bio-oil at atmospheric pressure demonstrated characteristics

that are beneficial for usage in combustion devises like furnaces, kilns and boilers. Bio-oil
flames are shorter, wider and brighter that diesel fuel flames at the same conditions.
Adding of flammable polar additives (e.g. ethanol) to bio-oil can improve some of the
undesired properties of the fuel like increased viscosity, low calorific value, poor
atomisation and high NOx emission from the flame. Nevertheless, adding of ethanol
should be carried out with caution since it leads to a reduction of the heat flux from the
flame. Changing the concentration of flammable polar additives in bio-oil can be an
optimising factor in achieving the proper balance between the best spray formation and the
maximal heat flux from the flame.

Acknowledgements

The financial support from Australian Research Council (ARC) and Monash
University, Australia to undertake this research is gratefully acknowledged.
The authors thank Dr. P. Fung and Mr. S. Ng of CSIRO Forestry and Forest Products,
Australia, for preparing the bio-oil samples for the tests.
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