BIOLOGY TENTH EDITION

Global Edition

Campbell • Reece • Urry • Cain • Wasserman • Minorsky • Jackson

5
Biological Macromolecules and Lipids

Topic 1 Biological Molecules

(Carbohydrate)
Lecture Presentation by
Nicole Tunbridge and
Kathleen Fitzpatrick

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Learning Outcomes

1. Explain how a cell can make a variety of large

molecules from a small set of molecules.
2. Distinguish monosaccharides, disaccharides and
polysaccharides.
3. Describe the formation & breaking of glycosidic bond.
4. Compare and contrast storage polysaccharides with
structural polysaccharides.

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The Molecules of Life

• All living things are made up of four classes

of large biological molecules: carbohydrates, lipids,
proteins, and nucleic acids
• Macromolecules are large molecules and are
complex
• Large biological molecules have unique properties
that arise from the orderly arrangement of their
atoms
• Molecular structure and function are inseparable

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Concept 5.1: Macromolecules are polymers, built from
monomers
• A polymer is a long molecule consisting of many
similar building blocks
• The repeating units that serve as building blocks are
called monomers
• Three of the four classes of life’s organic molecules
are polymers
• Carbohydrates
• Proteins
• Nucleic acids

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The Synthesis and Breakdown of Polymers

• Enzymes are specialized macromolecules that

speed up chemical reactions such as those that
make or break down polymers
• A dehydration reaction (condensation) occurs
when two monomers bond together through the loss
of a water molecule
• Polymers are disassembled to monomers by
hydrolysis, a reaction that is essentially the reverse
of the dehydration reaction

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Animation: Polymers

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Figure 5.2
(a) Dehydration reaction: synthesizing a polymer

1 2 3
Short polymer Unlinked monomer
Dehydration removes a water
molecule, forming a new bond. H2O

1 2 3 4

Longer polymer

(b) Hydrolysis: breaking down a polymer

1 2 3 4

Hydrolysis adds a water H2O

molecule, breaking a bond.

1 2 3
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 A B

dehydration hydrolysis
synthesis
Which picture
represents…
Is water
removed or
added?
Are polymers or
monomers
formed?
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Concept 5.2: Carbohydrates serve as fuel and building
material

• Carbohydrates include sugars and the polymers of

sugars
• The simplest carbohydrates are monosaccharides,
or simple sugars
• Carbohydrate macromolecules are polysaccharides,
polymers composed of many sugar building blocks

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Sugars

• Monosaccharides have molecular formulas that are

usually multiples of CH2O
• Glucose (C6H12O6) is the most common
monosaccharide
• Monosaccharides are classified by
• The location of the carbonyl group (as aldose
or ketose)
• The number of carbons in the carbon skeleton

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Figure 5.3a

Aldose (Aldehyde Sugar) Ketose (Ketone Sugar)

Trioses: 3-carbon sugars (C3H6O3)

Glyceraldehyde Dihydroxyacetone

Initial breakdown products of glucose (cellular respiration)

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Figure 5.3b

Aldose (Aldehyde Sugar) Ketose (Ketone Sugar)

Pentoses: 5-carbon sugars (C5H10O5)

Ribose Ribulose

A component of RNA An intermediate in

photosynthesis

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Figure 5.3c

Aldose (Aldehyde Sugar) Ketose (Ketone Sugar)

Hexoses: 6-carbon sugars (C6H12O6)

Glucose Galactose Fructose

Energy sources

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 What type of molecules are these?

Trioses (C3H6O3) Pentoses (C5H10O5) Hexoses (C6H12O6)

Glyceraldehyde

Ribose
Glucose Galactose

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How are these molecules different from aldoses?

Trioses (C3H6O3) Pentoses (C5H10O5) Hexoses (C6H12O6)

Dihydroxyacetone

Ribulose
Fructose

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 • Though often drawn as linear skeletons, in aqueous
solutions many sugars form rings
• Monosaccharides serve as a major fuel for cells and
as raw material for building molecules

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Only sugars in solution which exist in linear form are
able to reduce other molecules because of free aldehyde
group.
Circle the free aldehyde groups in pix.

(b) Abbreviated
ring structure
(a) Linear and ring forms

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 Animation: Disaccharides

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 Animation: Disaccharides

1. What is the name of the reaction shown?

2. What are the components of:
a) Sucrose
b) Lactose
c) Maltose

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 • A disaccharide is formed when a dehydration
reaction joins two monosaccharides
• This covalent bond is called a glycosidic linkage

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Figure 5.5

(a) Dehydration reaction in the synthesis of maltose

1−4
glycosidic
linkage

H2O
Glucose Glucose Maltose

(b) Dehydration reaction in the synthesis of sucrose

1−2
glycosidic
linkage

H2O
Glucose Fructose Sucrose

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 Why is sucrose non-reducing?

Clue: Only sugars in solution

which exist in linear form are
able to reduce other molecules
because of free aldehyde or keto
group

Where is the free aldehyde

group in sucrose pix?

23
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 Animation: Polysaccharides

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Polysaccharides

• Polysaccharides, the polymers of sugars, have

storage and structural roles
• The architecture and function of a polysaccharide
are determined by its sugar monomers and the
positions of its glycosidic linkages

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Storage Polysaccharides
• Starch, a storage polysaccharide of plants, consists
entirely of glucose monomers
• Plants store surplus starch as granules within
chloroplasts and other plastids
• The simplest form of starch is amylose
Storage structures
(plastids)
containing starch
granules in a potato Amylose (unbranched)
tuber cell

Amylopectin Glucose
(somewhat monomer
branched)
50 µm
(a) Starch

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 • Glycogen is a storage polysaccharide in animals
• Glycogen is stored mainly in liver and muscle cells
• Hydrolysis of glycogen in these cells releases
glucose when the demand for sugar increases
Glycogen
granules in
muscle
tissue Glycogen (branched)

1 µm
(b) Glycogen

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Structural Polysaccharides

• The polysaccharide cellulose is a major component

of the tough wall of plant cells
• Like starch, cellulose is a polymer of glucose, but the
glycosidic linkages differ
• The difference is based on two ring forms for
glucose: alpha () and beta ()

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Figure 5.6c

What shape does cellulose have?

Why this shape?

Cellulose molecule
Cellulose microfibrils
(unbranched)
in a plant cell wall

Microfibril Hydrogen bonds

0.5 µm
(c) Cellulose

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Figure 5.7a

What’s the difference between  and  glucose ring structures?

𝛂 Glucose 𝛃 Glucose

(a) 𝛂 and 𝛃 glucose ring structures

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Figure 5.7b

(b) Starch: 1–4 linkage of 𝛂 glucose monomer

(c) Cellulose: 1–4 linkage of 𝛃 glucose monomers

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 • Starch ( configuration) is largely helical
• Cellulose molecules ( configuration) are straight and
unbranched
• Some hydroxyl groups on the monomers of cellulose
can hydrogen bond with hydroxyls of parallel cellulose
molecules
• Parallel cellulose molecules held together this way are
grouped into microfibrils, which form strong building
materials for plants

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 • Enzymes that digest starch by hydrolyzing  linkages
can’t hydrolyze  linkages in cellulose
• The cellulose in human food passes through the
digestive tract as “insoluble fiber”
• Some microbes use enzymes to digest cellulose
• Many herbivores, from cows to termites, have
symbiotic relationships with these microbes

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 • Chitin, another structural polysaccharide, is found in
the exoskeleton of arthropods
• Chitin also provides structural support for the cell
walls of many fungi

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Figure 5.8
►
The structure
of the chitin
monomer

►
Chitin, embedded in proteins,
forms the exoskeleton of
arthropods.

► Chitin is used to
make a strong
and flexible
surgical
thread.

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What basic shape do these polymers share?
Chloroplast Starch Mitochondria Glycogen granules

0.5 µm

1 µm

Amylose Glycogen

Amylopectin

(a) Starch: a plant polysaccharide (b) Glycogen: an animal polysaccharide

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 Carbohydrates

1. What type of linkage do starch & glycogen share in

common?
2. Which is more branched?
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