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4.1 INTRODUCTION

The construction of a reinforced concrete (RC) structure requires several sequential

steps. Several professionals, such as architects, electrical and mechanical engineers,
geotechnical engineers, and builders, are involved in the execution of these steps.
Hence, during the process, the structural engineer may have to interact with them in
order to provide an efficient design. Many of the design steps are iterative in nature.
While designing any structure, the designer should consider several criteria, which
include safety, stability, serviceability, economy, durability, sustainability,
constructionability, ductility, and aesthetics (see Section 4.4). The engineer is usually
guided in his/her efforts by the codes or practices, which provide a set of rules or
standards based on which the designs are to be made. In India, the code IS 456, published
by the Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS), is to be used for the design of RC structures.
Other related codes on materials, mix design, detailing, and so forth are also referred
to. Several design philosophies have been developed in the past including the working
stress method (WSM), ultimate load method, limit states method, and performance-
based design method. In general, the codes also allow designs based on experimental
methods. A brief introduction to these aspects is given in this chapter, which will be
useful while designing structures and their component elements.

4.2 STEPS INVOLVED IN CONSTRUCTION

The construction of any structure involves many steps. Although the structural designer
is not responsible for each of these steps, he/she should be involved in most ot them.
This is to ensure that the resulting structure satisfies the considerations discussed in
Section 4.4 and the structure does not have any adverse impact on the environment.

The following list provides the necessary steps involved in the construction of a
structure:

1. A prospective owner identifies a location and arranges for necessary finance for
construction. He/She also chooses the architect or project manager, who in turn
chooses the various consultants (structural, geotechnical, survey, etc.).
2. A land surveyor surveys the land and draws the contours.

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3. An architect or engineer (project manager) studies the applicable by-laws and draws
a plan of the structure in such a way that it meets the town planning, fire protection,
health, and safety requirements.
4. The competent authority approves the plan.
5. The geotechnical engineer investigates the site conditions, level of water table,
nature of soil (whether expansive or not), and so forth, and gives a soil report.
6. The form, shape, and size of the structure is determined by the architect with the
help of the structural engineer (based on preliminary design), such that the
resulting structure is stable, economical, and efficiently resists the external loads.
7. Suitable materials of construction (steel, concrete, wood, brick, plastics, etc.) are
selected after considering the required performance, cost, supply, availability of
labour, and transportation to site. While choosing the materials, consideration
should be given to the design and detailing procedures and control procedures for
shop fabrication and field construction.
8. The structural engineer estimates the probable loads (dead, imposed, wind, snow,
earthquake, etc.) that will be acting on the structure, in consultation with the current
codes of practices.
9. The structural engineer arrives at the structural system after comparing various
possible systems. In a building, heating and air conditioning requirements or other
functional requirements may dictate the use or a structural system that is not the
most efficient from a purely structural viewpoint, but which is the best in the overall
consideration of the total building. While choosing the structural forms, layouts, and
details, the following points should be considered:
(a) The structure has low sensitivity to hazardous conditions.

(b) The structure, as a whole, survives with only local damage, even after any one
individual element suffers serious damage by the hazard.
(c) The structure gives ample warning before any collapse (should have various load
paths and redistribution of loads).
10. A suitable structural analysis, mostly with the aid of computers, is done to determine the
internal forces acting on various elements of the structural system based on the various loads
and their combinations.

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 11. Considering the critical loading conditions, the sizes or various elements are
determined following the provisions contained in the codes. The design should be made in
such a way that the following points are considered:
(a) The structure shall remain fit with adequate reliability and be able to sustain all actions
(loads) and other influences experienced during the construction and use.
(b) The structure should have adequate durability and serviceability under normal
maintenance.
(c) The structure should not be seriously damaged or collapse under accidental events such as
explosions, impact, or due to consequences or human error.
12. The detailed structural drawings are then prepared once again following
provisions contained in the codes and approved by the structural engineer.
13. The architect or project manager develops detailed architectural drawings and
specifications.
14. The estimator arrives at the quantities involved and the initial cost of
construction.
15. Based on these quantities, a tender for the building is floated. l6. Comparing the cost
quoted by different contractors, the
general contractor for the structure is chosen.
17. The contractor, based on the structural drawings, prepares the fabrication and erection
drawings and bill of quantity of materials (BOQ). The structural engineer again approves
these drawings.
The contractor constructs the building based on the specifications given by the
architect or project manager. While constructing, the contractor consults the architect,
project manager, or structural engineer for any changes due to the site conditions.
The structural engineer must also convey to the fabricator and erector his/her
concept of the structure and specific methods of execution (if any).

18. The structural engineer with the help of quality control inspectors inspects the work
of the fabricator and erector to ensure that the structure has been fabricated or erected
in accordance with his/her designs and specifications. Similarly, the architect and
project manager also inspect the construction periodically to check whether it is built
as per specifications.

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19. In some important buildings, ‘as-built’ drawings are prepared as a permanent
record of the building.
20. After the structure is constructed, it is handed over to the owner, who, by
appointing suitable consultants and contractors, maintains the building until its
intended life.

From these steps, it may be clear that accurate calculations alone may not produce safe,
serviceable, and durable structures. Suitable materials, quality control, adequate
detailing, good supervision, and maintenance are also equally important.
These 21 steps briefly summarize the various activities involved in the construction
of a structure. While executing the various steps, the structural engineer has to interact
with the architect or project manager and also with others (electrical engineers,
mechanical engineers, civil engineers, geotechnical engineers, surveyors, urban planners,
estimators etc.) and incorporate their requirements, if any, into the design (e.g., load
due to mechanical and electrical systems). It has to be noted that steps 8 to 14, which
are done mainly in the design office, are not straightforward operations but are
iterative as shown in Figs 4.1 and 4.2. This book mainly covers only step 11—the
design of structural elements to safely carry the expected loads and to ensure that the
elements and the structure perform satisfactorily. Some guidelines and discussions are
included about steps 8—10 and 12.
Compared to analysis (where all the parameters are known), design is a creative
process. It involves the selection of span, assessment of loads, choice of material,
choice of cross section, choice of jointing method and system, and so forth. Hence,
there is no unique solution to a design problem. The designer has to make several
decisions, which will affect the final construction and its cost. Hence, the designer has
to use his/her engineering judgment and experience in order to reduce the cost and
arrive at an efficient solution to the problem.

4.3 ROLES AND RESPONSIBILITIES OF DESIGNERS

The objective of design should be the achievement of an acceptable probability that

the structure will perform satisfactorily too the intended purpose during the design life.
With the appropriate degree of safety, the structure should sustain all the loads and

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deformations during construction and its designed life and also have adequate
resistance to accidental loads and fire.

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