On-Site Road Construction and Maintenance Module

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Institution Name ባህርዳርፖሊቴክኒክኮሌጅ BAHIRDARPOLYTECHNICCOLLEGE

BTC/262-04
Title: On-Site Road Construction and Maintenance Management Level IV Module 03 Issue No. B0 Page No.
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SECTOR: ECONOMMIC INFRASTRUCTURE

SUB-SECTOR: ROAD CONSTRUCTION
TVET PROGRAM TITLE: On-Site Road Construction and Maintenance
Management Level IV
UNIT OF COMPETENCY: Apply Principles Steel and Concrete Structure
MODULE TITLE: Applying Principles Steel and Concrete Structure

MODULE CODE: CON RSC4 15 0910 PROGRAM: REGULAR AND EXTENSION
LEARNING GUID # 1
BAHIRDAR
COMPLIED BY ABRHAM.G
2014E.C
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Lo 1 =Ensure appropriate planning and preparation is carried out for tasks
Introduction
INTRODUCTION TO STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING

GENERAL INTRODUCTION
Structure definition
within the context of the built environment, the term ‘structure’ refers to anything that is
constructed or built from different interrelated parts with a fixed location on the ground.
This includes buildings, but the term structure can also be used to refer to anybody of connected
parts that is designed to bear loads, even if it is not intended to be occupied by people. Engineers
sometimes refer to these as 'non-building' structures. Common examples include:
 Bridges.
 Canals
 Cooling towers and chimneys.
 Dams.
 Railways.
 Roads.
 Retaining walls.
 Tunnels.
Structural engineers design, assess and inspect structures to ensure that they are efficient and
stable. Structural engineers work on a very wide range of structures, including; buildings,
bridges, oil rigs and so on.
Civil engineers design, construct, maintain and improve the physical environment, including;
bridges, tunnels, roads, railways, canals, dams, coastal defenses, and so on. The term ‘civil’
engineer is a broader one than ‘structural’ engineer that can include infrastructure such as
pipelines, transportation, environmental engineering, and maritime engineering and so on. It was
originally coined to distinguish it from military engineering. Structural engineering was initially
considered a sub-discipline of civil engineering, however it has developed into an important and
complex specialism and is now be considered an specific engineering discipline in its own right.
According to William R Spillers 'Introduction to Structures', structural analysis ‘…is for the most
part concerned with finding the structural response (the lateral deflection of a building under
wind load, the reaction of a bridge to a moving train,…) given external loads. In all but the most
trivial cases, real structures, that are structures without the simplifications commonly associated
with analysis, turn out to be impossibly complex. And what is finally analyzed – the structural
model – may appear at first glance to be quite different than the real structure’. Bridge is a
structure providing passage over an obstacle without closing the way beneath. The required
passage may be for a road, a railway, pedestrians, a canal or a pipeline. The obstacle to be
crossed may be a river, a road, railway or a valley.
Structural design is a systematic and iterative process that involves:
1. Identification of intended use and occupancy of a structure – by owner
2. Development of architectural plans and layout – by architect
3. Identification of structural framework – by engineer
4. Estimation of structural loads depending on use and occupancy
5. Analysis of the structure to determine member and connection design forces
6. Design of structural members and connections
7. Verification of design
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8. Fabrication & Erection – by steel fabricator and contractor

9. Inspection and Approval – by state building official
Ideally, the owner and the architect, the architect and the engineer, and the engineer and the
Fabricator/contractor will collaborate and interact on a regular basis to conceive, develop,
design, and build the structure in an efficient manner. The primary responsibilities of all
these players are as follows:
 Owner - primary responsibility is deciding the use and occupancy, and approving the
architectural plans of the building.
 Architect - primary responsibility is ensuring that the architectural plan of the building
interior is appropriate for the intended use and the overall building is aesthetically pleasing.
 Engineer – primary responsibility is ensuring the safety and serviceability of the structure,
i.e., designing the building to carry the loads safely and.
 Fabricator – primary responsibility is ensuring that the designed members and connections
are fabricated economically in the shop or field as required.
 Contractor/Erector - primary responsibility is ensuring that the members and connections are
economically assembled in the field to build the structure.
 State Building Official – primary responsibility is ensuring that the built structure satisfies the
appropriate building codes accepted by the Govt.
STRUCTURAL DESIGN
Structural design is the logical investigation of the stability, strength and rigidity of
structures. The basic objective in structural analysis and design is to produce a structure
capable of resisting all applied loads without failure during its intended life. The primary
purpose of a structure is to transmit or support loads. If the structure is improperly designed
or fabricated, or if the actual applied loads exceed the design specifications, the device will
probably fail to perform its intended function, with possible serious consequences. A well-
engineered structure greatly minimizes the possibility of costly failures
 Conceptually, from an engineering standpoint, the parameters that can be varied (somewhat)
are: (1) the material of construction, and (2) the structural framing plan.
 The choices for material include: (a) steel, (b) reinforced concrete, and (c) steel-concrete
composite construction.
 The choices for structural framing plan include moment resisting frames, braced frames, dual
frames, shear wall frames, and so on. The engineer can also innovate a new structural framing
plan for a particular structure if required.
 All viable material + framing plan alternatives must be considered and designed to compare
the individual material + fabrication / erection costs to identify the most efficient and
economical design for the structure.
 For each material + framing plan alternative considered, designing the structure consists of
designing the individual structural components, i.e., the members and the connections, of the
framing plan.
 This course CE405 focuses on the design of individual structural components. The material
of construction will limited be steel, and the structural framing plans will be limited to braced
frames and moment resisting frames.
Structural design process

A structural design project may be divided into three phases, i.e. planning, design and
construction.
Planning: This phase involves consideration of the various requirements and factors affecting
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the general layout and dimensions of the structure and results in

the choice of one or perhaps several alternative types of structure, which offer the best
general solution. The primary consideration is the function of the structure. Secondary
considerations such as aesthetics, sociology, law, economics and the environment may also
be taken into account. In addition there are structural and constructional requirements and
limitations, which may affect the type of structure to be designed.
Design: This phase involves a detailed consideration of the alternative solutions defined in
the planning phase and results in the determination of the most suitable proportions,
dimensions and details of the structural elements and connections for constructing each
alternative structural arrangement being considered.
Philosophy of designing
The structural design of any structure first involves establishing the loading and other design
conditions, which must be supported by the structure and therefore must be considered in its
design. This is followed by the analysis and computation of internal gross forces, (i.e. thrust,
shear, bending moments and twisting moments), as well as stress intensities, strain,
deflection and reactions produced by loads, changes in temperature, shrinkage, creep and
other design conditions. Finally comes the proportioning and selection of materials for the
members and connections to respond adequately to the effects produced by the design
conditions.
 In general there are two types of structural component
Superstructure or decking this includes slab, girder, truss, etc. This bears the load passing over
it and transmits the forces caused by the same to the substructures.
1) Bridge deck
2) Structural members
3) Parapets (bridge railings), handrails, sidewalk, lighting and some drainage features.
The deck is the roadway portion of a bridge, including shoulders. Most bridge decks are
constructed as reinforced concrete slabs, but timber decks are occasionally used in rural areas
and open-grid steel decks are used in some movable bridge designs (Bascule Bridge). As
polymers and fiber technologies improve, Fiber Reinforced Polymer (FRP) decks may be used.
Bridge decks are required to conform to the grade of the approach roadway so that there is no
bump or dip as a vehicle crosses onto or off of the bridge.
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A bridge deck is usually supported by structural members
Substructure
The substructure is the component of a bridge which includes all the elements which support the
superstructure.
The purpose of the substructure is to transfer the loads from the superstructure to the foundation
soil or rock. Typically the substructure includes all elements below the bearings. The loads are
then distributed to the earth. Substructure units function as both axially-loaded and bending
members. These units resist both vertical and horizontal loads applied from the superstructure
and roadway embankment. Substructures are divided into two basic categories:
 Abutment
 Piers and bents
Abutments provide support for the ends of the superstructure and retain the roadway approach
embankment
The main structural component super and sub structured we can be fix and connection
system
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Cables and Pulleys

A cable can support only a tension or “pulling” force, and this force always acts in the direction
of the cable. Hence, for any angle θ, shown in Fig. b, the cable is subjected to a constant tension
T throughout its length
Forces Acting On concrete Structures designing

This article is about different types of forces acting on concrete structures. We’re going to discuss 4 kinds of forces
acting on concrete structures by demonstrating with some photos and graphics. We’re also going to look at the
qualities of concrete and metal, how they react to these forces and the measures used to prevent these forces from
breaking a building. Keep reading to find out.
The 4 kinds of forces that affect the structure of a building are Compression, Tension, Shear and Torsion.
These forces can occur throughout a building and are normal, a good building will be able to transfer a reasonable
amount of these forces into the ground and we are going to learn about each of the forces and how we can design a
building to deal with these forces appropriately.
1. Compression
This is when an element in a building is overloaded with weight which causes the element to be crushed or deform
like I am doing with this strip of paper in the photo below. It would probably be more accurate with a sponge…
here’s a sponge actually. When I press down on it, it compresses or condenses into a smaller and more firm sponge
If I over press it, or in building terms, if I over bear it’s compression capacity, the result is a crushing or a buckling
of the member, depending on what material is being used.
One of the best materials used to resist compression is concrete. Concrete is made up of sand, cement, water and
aggregate which when mixed, poured and hardened; become glued together.
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2. Tension
This is a force that occurs when an object is being pulled apart. I could show you that I’m pulling a strip of paper
apart with my hands, but how does it actually occur in a building? This usually happens in the horizontal beams,
where a beam is supported at either end, and then the center of the beam supports a weight.
There are 2 forces acting on the center of the beam. Compression and tension. With a weight pressing down in
the center of the beam, this causes compression in the upper side and tension on the lower side. Meaning the upper
side of the beam is being pressed together while the lower side is being pulled apart.
It’s good of l Steel. Steel does very well in tension. But here’s something to think about. With 2 forces acting on the
center of the beam, what material will be the best to use to resist both compression and tension here?
3. Shear
Another one of the forces acting on building structures is ‘shear’.
So what is a shear and how does it damage the building? If you notice how I have my hands on the paper here, if the
top end and the bottom end of the paper were in a fixed position like a bolted column for example;
Here I am demonstrating with my hands how pushing or pulling forces move in the opposite direction to try and
cause the member to break and the 2 sides slide past each other at the midpoint between the forces.
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4. Torsion
This is when a member of a building twists due to bending forces. Torsion happens in a building when a force is
applied to it externally. In a raw form, you can imagine this as maybe a bus crashing into a part of a building,
collapsing it, causing the other parts to twist and turn.
Or maybe a natural disaster like an earthquake causing the building to lose its stability and shift in a way that twists
its internal structure.
Even if a building is designed with incorrect specifications and it begins to deform due to the overloading of its
components, watch the video below of a helicopter helping to overload the steel columns that are supporting a water
reservoir tank:
A quick summary of the post above, 4 forces that break a building:
1. Compression – The crushing one.

2. Tension – The pull apart one.
3. Shear – The one where it breaks and slides over one another at the break point.
4. Torsion – When really loud helicopters flying overhead go unnoticed by intelligent zombies, even when it’s
pushing against a steel structure to bend it until the tank falls on them. THEN they notice.
Construction: This phase involves mobilization of personnel; procurement of materials and

equipment, including their transportation to the site, and actual on-site erection. During this
phase, some redesign may be required if unforeseen difficulties occur, such as unavailability of
specified materials or foundation problems.
Design Codes and Specifications

Buildings must be designed and constructed according to the provisions of a building code,
which is a legal document containing requirements related to such things as structural safety, fire
safety, plumbing, ventilation, and accessibility to the physically disabled. A building code has the
force of law and is administered by a governmental entity such as a city, a county, or for some
large metropolitan areas, a consolidated government. Building codes do not give design
procedures, but specify the design requirements and constraints that must be satisfied. Of
particular importance to the structural engineer is the prescription of minimum live loads for
buildings. While the engineer is encouraged to investigate the actual loading conditions and
attempt to determine realistic values, the structure must be able to support these specified
minimum loads.
Although some large cities write their own building codes, many municipalities will adopt a
“model” building code and modify it to suit their particular needs. Model codes are written by
various nonprofit organizations in a form that is easily adopted by a governmental unit. Among
the more popular are the BOCA National Building Code, the Uniform Building Code, the
Standard Building Code, and International Building Code (IBC 2012). A related document,
similar in form to a building code, is ASCE 7-10, Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and
other Structures. This standard is intended to provide load requirements in a format suitable for
adoption by a building code.
United States does not have a national code governing structural concrete;
ACI Code (American Concrete Institute);
ACI commentary provides background material rational for code provisions;
Highway Bridges are designed according to “AASHTO” which stands for American
Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials;
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AREA stands for American Railway Engineers Association; This is manual of

railway engineering.
Loads
Load that act on structures can be divided into three general categories:
Dead Loads
Dead loads are those that are constant in magnitude and fixed in location throughout the lifetime
of the structure such as: floor fill, finish floor, and plastered ceiling for buildings and wearing
surface, sidewalks, and curbing for bridges.
Live Loads
Live loads are those that are either fully or partially in place or not present at all, may also
change in location; the minimum live loads for which the floors and roof of a building should be
designed are usually specified in building code that governs at the site of construction (see Table
1 - “Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and Other Structure.”)
Environmental Loads
Environmental Loads consist of wind, earthquake, and snow loads. such as wind, earthquake,
and snow loads.
LO2 Ensure appropriate initiation for tasks is carried out

Types of structural concrete & concrete Material
Different types of concrete structure grades and their uses
Concrete is a composite material composed of coarse aggregate bonded together with fluid
cement which hardens over time. Most concretes used are lime-based concretes such as Portland
cement concrete or concretes made with other hydraulic cements, such as cement fondue.
However, road surfaces are also a type of concrete, asphalt concrete, where the cement material
is bitumen, and polymer concretes are sometimes used where the cementing material is a
polymer.
Whether you are looking for the right domestic or commercial concrete mix for your
construction job, or are just curious about the different grades of concrete and would like to
know more, read on to get an understanding of these different types of concrete and their uses
Understanding Grades of Concrete
Grades of concrete are defined by the strength and composition of the concrete, and the
minimum strength the concrete should have following 28 days of initial construction. The grade
of concrete is understood in measurements of MPa, where M stands for mix and the MPa denotes
the overall strength.
Concrete mixes are defined in ascending numbers of 5, starting at 10, and show the compressive
strength of the concrete after 28 days. For instance, C10 has the strength of 10 new tons, C15 has
the strength of 15 new tons, C20 has 20 new tons strength and so on.
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Different mixes (M) come in various mix proportions of the various ingredients of cement, sand
and coarse aggregates. For instance, M20 comes in the respective ratio of 1:1:5:3. You can see
other examples below in the table.
Concrete Grade Mix Ratio (cement : sand : aggregates) Compressive MPa (N/mm2) psi
Strength
Grades of Concrete
M5 1 : 5 : 10 5 MPa 725 psi
M7.5 1:4:8 7.5 MPa 1087 psi
M10 1:3:6 10 MPa 1450 psi
M15 1:2:4 15 MPa 2175 psi
M20 1 : 1.5 : 3 20 MPa 2900 psi
Standard Grade of Concrete
M25 1:1:2 25 MPa 3625 psi
M30 Design Mix 30 MPa 4350 psi
High Strength Concrete Grades
Choosing the right concrete grade for the construction job:
So what can these grades be used for and which is best for the job at hand? Below is a list of a
few of the initial concrete grades and what they are best used for.
C10
Used for: Patio slabs, pathways and non-structural work
Type: Domestic & commercial use
C15
Used for: Pavement curbs and floor building
Type: Domestic & Commercial
C20
Used for: Domestic floors and foundations (where the weight of structure will be lighter). Also
good for workshop bases, garages, and drive ways and internal floor slabs.
Type: Domestic
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C25
Used for: Construction in all areas. Multi-purpose concrete mix, usually used for foundations
Type: Domestic & Commercial
C30
Used for: Pathways and roadways (this is the lowest grade concrete mix that can be used for this
purpose). More durable than the grades that have come before, and thus is much more weather-
resistant and can take heavy road traffic.
Type: Commercial
C35
Used for: Commercial structures. This heavy concrete mix is usually used for creating external
walls and slabs, as well as for structural piling.
Type: Commercial
C40
Used for: Commercial construction sites, creating foundations and beams for structural support
and roads. The most durable in this list, C40 can withstand chemical corrosion also, so is
frequently used on farms where slurry could corrode structures, or in septic tanks.
Type: Commercial
Types of steel bars used in construction
S.No. Types of Reinforcement Sub-type Relevant Indian

standard
1 Mild steel plain bar Cold worked mild steel bars Hot IS 432-1996 (part –I) Is
rolled mild steel bars 1139-1966 ( part-II)
2 High yield strength deformed bar ( Tor steel) Cold worked deformed bars Grade IS 1786 – 1979 IS 1139
Fe 415Grade 500Hot rolled – 1996 (part – II)
deformed bars
3 Hard drawn steel wire fabric Wire mesh IS 1566 – 1967
4 Rolled steel members Angles, T- sections joists, channels, IS 226 – 1975

etc.
5 Thermo-mechanically treated bars Latest in use deformed bars

(TMT)Corrosion resistant steel (CRS) bars
Let us describe different types of steel bars used in construction one by one.
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Mild steel reinforcement
Mild steel bars also are known as Fe 250 because the yield strength of this steel is 250 N/mm2.
The stress-strain curve for mild steel is given in the figure. It shows a clear, definite yield point.
Mild steel bars are ductile, they are not preferred over high yield strength deformed bars because
it has less strength and weak bond.
The modulus of elasticity of mild steel is taken as equal to 2 x 105 N/mm2. In columns, they are
used as lateral ties and at places where nominal reinforcement is required. Mild steel plain bars
are denoted by symbol .
Fig: Typical stress strain curves for various types of steel
High yield deformed bars
These are also known as HYSD bars. It has a higher percentage of carbon as compared to mild
steel. Their strength is higher than that of mild steel, but the yield point is not clearly defined.
These bars are available as two types:
a. Hot rolled high yield strength bars

b. Cold worked high yield strength bars
The (b) form of steel is also known as CTD bars or Tor steel and are available in two grades.
Deformed bars are represented by symbol #.
i. Fe 415 or Tor 40
ii. Fe 500 or Tor 50
 Deformed bar
 Plain bar
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A twisted deformed bar has nearly 50% higher yield stress than plain bars. There is corrugation
on the surface of the twisted deformed bar. It increases the bond between concrete and steel.
These bars do not show a definite yield point. So, the yield point is taken as 0.2 % proof stress,
which is determined from the stress-strain curve as follows:
Draw a line parallel to the initial stress – strain curve, near to a strain value of 0.2 %.
Where this line cuts the stress-strain curve, this point is taken as the yield stress or 0.2 percent
proof stress.
TMT (Thermo mechanically treated) steel bars
Among the consistent of RCC, steel is that the costliest, so the focus has been more on steel to
create it better and better. This steel has more strength but has the same properties as HYSD.
Mostly this types of steel bars used in the construction of the different structures.
These bars are manufactured by passing hot rolled steel bars through cold water. The outer
surface of the bar becomes harder while the inner core is still softer, by doing this.
CRS (Corrosion Resistant Steel) Bars
The latest development in steel bars in the production of CRS or corrosion-resistant steel bar.
The amount of carbon content in the CRS bars is 0.18% as compared to 0.2 % of HYSD bars.
The percentage of corrosion resisting elements (i. e. chromium) is high as 1.5%.
Steel wire fabric
Wire fabric is a fabric that is made by welding or weaving steel wire in the form of a mesh which
is also known as steel wire mesh. This mesh is used as reinforcement in slabs, pavements, roads,
and shells, etc.
Structural steel
For very heavy loaded elements such as foundations & columns rolled sections like rolled steel
joists, angles or channels are embedded in concrete & used as reinforcement.
Characteristic strength of types of steel bars used in construction
The characteristic strength of steel is equal to the minimum yield stress, as per IS 456:2000. The
table below gives the values of characteristic strength for various grades of steel and their
minimum % elongation.
Types of steel Grade Yield stress/0.2% proof % Elongation

stress or characteristic
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strength (N/mm2) ( minimum)
Mild steel Fe 250 250 23%
High strength deformed Fe 415 ( Tor 40) Fe 500 415 500 550 14.5% 12% 8%
steel (HYSD) ( Tor 50) Fe 550 (Tor
55)
TMT or CRS bars Fe 500 500 12%
Steel wire fabric – 480 7.5 over a gauge length

of 8 diameter
Characteristic strength and minimum percentage elongation for various types of steel
1. Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC)
Ordinary Portland cement is the most widely used type of cement, which is suitable for all
general concrete construction. It is the most commonly produced and used type of cement around
the world, with annual global production of around 3.8 million cubic meters per year. This
cement is suitable for all kinds of concrete construction.
2. Portland Pozzolana Cement (PPC)
Portland pozzolana cement is prepared by grinding pozzolanic clinker with Portland cement. It is
also produced by adding pozzolana with the addition of gypsum or calcium sulfate or by
intimately and uniformly blending Portland cement and fine pozzolana.
This cement has a high resistance to various chemical attacks on concrete compared with
ordinary portland cement, and thus, it is widely used. It is used in marine structures, sewage
works, sewage works, and for laying concrete underwater, such as bridges, piers, dams, and mass
concrete works, etc.
3. Rapid Hardening Cement
Rapid hardening cement attains high strength in the early days; it is used in concrete where
formworks are removed at an early stage and are similar to ordinary portland cement (OPC).
This cement has increased lime content and contains higher c3s content and finer grinding,
which gives higher strength development than OPC at an early stage.
The strength of rapid hardening cement at the three days is similar to 7 days strength of OPC
with the same water-cement ratio. Thus, the advantage of this cement is that formwork can be
removed earlier, which increases the rate of construction and decreases the cost of construction
by saving formwork cost.
Rapid hardening cement is used in prefabricated concrete construction, road works, etc.
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4. Quick setting cement
The difference between the quick setting cement and rapid hardening cement is that quick-setting
cement sets earlier. At the same time, the rate of gain of strength is similar to Ordinary Portland
Cement, while quick hardening cement gains strength quickly. Formworks in both cases can be
removed earlier.
Quick setting cement is used where works is to be completed in very short period and for
concreting in static or running water.
5. Low Heat Cement
Low heat cement is produced by maintaining the percentage of tricalcium aluminate below 6%
by increasing the proportion of C2S. A small quantity of tricalcium aluminate makes the
concrete to produce low heat of hydration. Low heat cement suitable for mass concrete
construction like gravity dams, as the low heat of hydration, prevents the cracking of concrete
due to heat.
This cement has increased power against sulphates and is less reactive and initial setting time is
greater than OPC.
6. Sulfates Resisting Cement
Sulfate resisting cement is used to reduce the risk of sulfate attack on concrete and thus is used in
the construction of foundations where the soil has high sulfate content. This cement has reduced
the contents of C3A and C4AF.
Sulfate resisting cement is used in construction exposed to severe sulfate action by water and soil
in places like canals linings, culverts, retaining walls, siphons, etc.
7. Blast Furnace Slag Cement
Blast furnace slag cement is obtained by grinding the clinkers with about 60% slag and
resembles more or less in properties of Portland cement. It can be used for works where
economic considerations are predominant.
8. High Alumina Cement
High alumina cement is obtained by melting a mixture of bauxite and lime and grinding with the
clinker. It is rapid hardening cement with initial and final setting time of about 3.5 and 5 hours,
respectively.
The compressive strength of this cement is very high and more workable than ordinary portland
cement and is used in works where concrete is subjected to high temperatures, frost, and acidic
action.
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9. White Cement
It is prepared from raw materials free from Iron oxide and is a type of ordinary portland cement,
which is white. It is costlier and is used for architectural purposes such as precast curtain wall
and facing panels, terrazzo surface, etc. and for interior and exterior decorative work like
external renderings of buildings, facing slabs, floorings, ornamental concrete products, paths of
gardens, swimming pools, etc.
10. Colored cement
It is produced by mixing 5- 10% mineral pigments with ordinary cement. They are widely used
for decorative works on floors.
11. Air Entraining Cement
Air entraining cement is produced by adding indigenous air-entraining agents such as resins,
glues, sodium salts of sulfates, etc. during the grinding of clinker.
This type of cement is especially suited to improve the workability with a smaller water-cement
ratio and to improve frost resistance of concrete.
12. Expansive Cement
Expansive cement expands slightly with time and does not shrink during and after the time of
hardening. This cement is mainly used for grouting anchor bolts and pre stressed concrete ducts.
13. Hydrographic cement
Hydrographic cement is prepared by mixing water-repelling chemicals and has high workability

and strength. It has the property of repelling water and is unaffected during monsoon or rains.
Hydrophobic cement is mainly used for the construction of water structures such as dams, water
tanks, spillways, water retaining structures, etc.
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Concrete Mixers
There are two main categories of mixer: batch mixers and continuous mixers. The first type of
mixer produces concrete one batch at a time, while the second type produces concrete at a
constant rate. The first type needs to be emptied completely after each mixing cycle, cleaned (if
possible), and reloaded with the materials for the next batch of concrete. In the second type, the
constituents are continuously entered at one end as the fresh concrete exits the other end. The
various designs of each type of mixer will now be discussed.
 Batch Mixers
Two main types of batch mixer can be distinguished by the orientation of the axis of rotation:
horizontal or inclined (drum mixers) or vertical (pan mixers). The drum mixers have a drum,
with fixed blades, rotating around its axis, while the pan mixers may have either the blades or the
pan rotating around the axis.
 Drum Mixers
All the drum mixers have a container with a cross section similar. The blades are attached to the
inside of the movable drum. Their main purpose is to lift the materials as the drum rotates. In
each rotation, the lifted material drops back into the mixer at the bottom of the drum and the
cycle starts again. Parameters that can be controlled are the rotation speed of the drum and, in
certain mixers, the angle of inclination of the rotation axis. There are three main types of drum
mixers:
• Non-tilting drum;
• reversing drum;
• tilting drum.
 The non-tilting drum mixer implies that the orientation of the drum is fixed. The materials are added
at one end and discharged
 The reversing drum is similar to the non-tilting mixer except that the same opening is used to add the
constituents and to discharge concrete. The drum rotates in one direction for mixing and in the
opposite direction for discharging the concrete. There are two types of blades attached to the inner
walls of the drum. One set drags the concrete upwards and toward the center of the mixer when the
drum rotates in one direction; the second set of blades pushes the concrete toward the opening
when the drum rotates in the other direction.
 The truck mixers belong to the reversing category of drum mixers. The driver of the truck can control
the speed of rotation with a clutch in the cabin. The speed depends on whether the concrete has
been well mixed prior to being placed in the truck or whether the truck has to do most of the mixing.
Pan Mixers
All pan mixers work on basically the same principle a cylindrical pan (fixed or rotating) contains
the concrete to be mixed, while one or two sets of blades rotate inside the pan to mix the
materials and a blade scrapes the wall of the pan. The shapes of the blades and the axes of
rotation vary.
 Mixing Method
In describing the mixing process, the mixer hardware is only one of several components. The
mixing process also includes the loading method, the discharge method, the mixing time, and the
mixing energy.
 Loading, Mixing, and Discharging The loading method includes the order of loading the
constituents into the mixer and also the duration of the loading period. The duration of this
period depends on how long the constituents are mixed dry before the addition of water and
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how fast the constituents are loaded. The loading period is extended from the time when the
first constituent is introduced in the mixer to when all the constituents are in the mixer.
Mixing Energy
The energy needed to mix a concrete batch is determined by the product of the power consumed during a
mixing cycle and the duration of the cycle. It is often considered, inappropriately, a good indicator of the
effectiveness of the mixer [9, 10]. The reason that it is not a good indicator is because of the high dependence of
the power consumed on the type of mixture, the batch size and the loading method [11]. For example, a mixer
that has a powerful motor could be used to mix less workable or higher viscosity concretes.
Mixer Efficiency
As it has been pointed out, the variables affecting the mixing method are numerous, not always controlled,
and not a reliable indicator of the quality of the concrete produced. There is, therefore, a need for a methodology
to determine the quality of the concrete produced as an intrinsic measure of the efficiency of the mixer. The concept
of “mixer efficiency” is used to qualify how well a mixer can produce a uniform concrete from its
constituents. RILEM [8] defines that a mixer is efficient “if it distributes all the constituents uniformly in the
container without favoring one or the other”.
LO 3: Oversee the execution of task

Monitoring Construction task performance to achieve the
Information Sheet-1
required outcomes
Setting Out
The Works are to be correctly set out to ensure that the location, gradients and levels are strictly
adhered to. Care must be taken at all times to preserve legal survey marks, Bench marks and
level pegs required for checking purposes. Should any such marks be disturbed they will be
reinstated by the Transport representative and appropriate cost recovery charges made.
Task monitoring requirements
Monitoring: Include
 ongoing risk assessment
 engineering survey
 sampling and testing
 observation and recording
 general supervision
Task requirements should include:
 monitoring requirements
 personnel/workers performance requirements
 resource and material requirements including plant and equipment
 operational techniques that are required to complete the tasks correctly to the required
standards
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Operational techniques will vary greatly from task to task and site to site due to the varying
specifications and site requirements. Flexibility in the application of techniques is essential to
ensuring you are achieving the best possible results. By selecting and assigning the most
Appropriate plant, equipment and personnel/workers to completing the tasks you will have better
end result.
When evaluating which people should be working where, look at the strengths, skills,
competencies and abilities of each person and assign them to tasks they are able to complete.
Sometimes it is necessary to assign a person to a task they are not yet competent in completing,
so that they can develop the skills required.
If you need to do this, ensure you have a competent person assisting them to ensure the task is
completed adequately.
Assigning plant and equipment to tasks is a straightforward process of ensuring best fit between
the task and the available equipment, plant or machinery. Knowing the capabilities of each item
of plant or equipment that is being used on the site will allow you to select the most appropriate
item to use in the civil works construction tasks.
Required outcomes May include:
 task specifications requirements
 task drawings requirements
 coordination requirements
 activity scheduling requirements
 unit cost requirements
 overall task cost requirements
 waste management requirements
Task specifications
This information is how the activity is to be completed, based on your client’s requirements. It
can be conveyed in site or task drawings, plans and documents. Project specifications may give
an acceptable range of data, but they may also be highly specific in what must be achieved.
When interpreting and sharing this information with members of your team, ensure you are just
as clear and detailed about what must be achieved and how the requirements are to be met.
Activity scheduling
Every plan will consist of many small parts that must be achieved in a set order to gain the end
result. Activity scheduling is an art form that a supervisor should develop.
Material delivery scheduling
Just-in-time deliveries are the most commonly used method of material delivery on a civil
construction worksite. This is a system of material ordering and delivery that has very little
waiting time. The advantage to just-in-time deliveries is less material wastage and loss and
smaller storage areas required. The disadvantage of a just-in-time system is the chance that a
material is not able to be delivered when you need it.
Good communications are required with suppliers to minimize the likelihood of supply
problems. Material quality and delivery procedures will be determined by the site requirements.
It is important to apply site procedures at all times.
Sub-contractor support requirements
Often sub-contractors can be used to supply deficiencies within the available people, plant,
equipment and machinery. If you are using sub-contractors you must have the support structures
in place to ensure efficient use of the subcontractor.
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These support structures could include contracts, supervisory staff, materials or other requests
made by the sub-contractor.
Waste disposal requirements
Each civil construction project will create waste materials. Sometimes this waste material can be
reused onsite. Other times it will need to be disposed of. In your plan you must know the waste
materials that will be created and what you will do with them.
Drafting and administering job plans
Drafting and administering job plans is a process of documenting the plan in a manner that is
accessible to anyone who may need to use it and distributing the plan to those people who need
to be aware of what is required of them. Job plans are living documents. They need to have the
flexibility to change if required. While plans should not be changed on a whim (sudden idea).
They do need to be able to adjust to unforeseen circumstances such as breakdowns. Having a
backup plan is a good idea. Work planning techniques are highly individual. What works for one
person or one team, may not work for another.
It is a task that must be practiced with a willingness to adjust processes until you are able to find
a combination of factors that suit you’re planning style and the needs of your work team.
2.1. Adjusting work practice or job plan safe execution of work and achievement of
required outcomes
“This lets everyone at work adjust to working without the employee in the office. It also allows
the employee time to begin pursuing an alternative job right away.” termination decision is
consistent with the company's practices and policies,”
Initiating the Planning Process

Project planning begins with the formation of a local project planning committee or group.
Whenever possible, tribes and organizations should use a team approach to plan new projects
which involves staff, community members, community or organizational leadership, and a grant
writer or consultant if necessary. The committee members play an important role in keeping the
project planning process on track while also ensuring everyone has the opportunity to participate.
The committee can organize meet in conduct surveys, gather and analyze information, and meet
with other agencies and organizations. This team will develop the project plan and use it to write
the different parts of the application. Generally, you want to spend approximately 80% of your
time planning your project and 20% of your time writing and packaging the grant application.
Once your team is in place, the planning process generally begins with an assessment of
community problems and issues involving various methods to gather community input.
Based on information gathered, project developers can identify problems and issues or interests
common to all members of the community to begin the process of setting community priorities.
Perhaps one of the most daunting aspects of project planning is ensuring community
involvement, because it requires the knowledge and skills necessary to set up and conduct or
facilitate effective planning sessions, large meetings, and presentations. Public meetings are
essential to the development of a project with broad grassroots support.
Meetings should be held regularly throughout the planning process. Properly facilitated
meetings provide a great way to gather traditional, cultural, and local knowledge. They also
serve as a means to receive input on goals, objectives, and activities in order to determine ways
to best prioritize them
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Develop an Objective Work Plan

An Objective Work Plan (OWP) is to describing how (through what activities), when (within
what time frames) and by whom (assignment of responsibility) the project will be implemented
—as well as the expected outcomes or benefits.
Items included in an OWP are:
• Project Title and Goal
• The problem addressed
• The Results expected and criteria for evaluating success in achieving them
• The Benefits expected and criteria for evaluating success in achieving them
• The Project Objectives (an OWP form is needed for each objective)
 Activities
 Begin and End Dates
 Positions Responsible for the activity accomplishment
Execution Plan job shut down procedures, and operational procedures.
Specific responsibilities shall include:
a. Provide necessary facilities, equipment, and money
b. Provide adequate personnel and resources to conduct activities safely
c. Support the efforts of onsite management
d. Provide appropriate disciplinary action when unsafe acts or practices occur
e. Conduct monthly compliance safety audits Ø For the purposes of this project, the following
individuals shall carry out the off-site managerial responsibilities:
• Danny Hester: Corporate Project Sponsor, CEO
• Rodney James: Division VP
2. Management and Operations (onsite)
Onsite management responsibilities and duties include those activities necessary for the
successful execution and direction of the project, site health and safety, client liaison and
public relations. These responsibilities are supplemental to those identified in the
Accident Prevention Program Standards 02-01 and 02-05.
This section identifies the safety responsibilities of onsite personnel.
Competent person designations as required by the Occupational Safety and Health
Administration (OSHA), shall be kept on site and updated as personnel changes dictate.
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LO 4: Report on the execution of tasks

Information Sheet-1 Completing and submitting reports as required
Reporting requirements)
Reporting requirements will impact how you conduct tasks and activities. Knowing these
requirements allows you to plan for time to complete the reports or for time to collect and collate
the information required to go into the reports.
Monitoring and reporting progress
A fair copy of the Contractor’s programmer should be posted up in the site office and actual
progress marked on the programmer to monitor progress of work. If necessary, a monthly
progress report should be made. The report should be tailor-made (specially made for a particular
purpose ) according to the individual situation of the Contract.
As a general guideline, the report may include:
A. Commencement date, original completion date, , revised completion date, time elapsed in
days and in percentage of the contract period, a realistic estimated completion date based
on the actual progress made and the expected time to complete outstanding works;
B. Original contract sum, predicted final contract sum, estimated percentage of work
physically completed, amount and percentage of certified value of works, expenditure to
date, yearly forecast expenditure and a predicted/actual cash flow chart;
C. Day works, variations and drawings issued;
D. Description of progress with a progress table and progress chart;
E. Claim record;
F. Safety matters and accident matters;
G. Record of significant meetings;
H. Record of hand over of works; and
I. Environmental issues.
Recommending changes to improve the safety, efficiency and effectiveness of

the execution of tasks
In our continuing efforts to serve our partner clients, we have recently hired a Continuous Improvement
Manager, Scott Meyer. Among other responsibilities, Scott is being charged with keeping us on the path
to continuous improvement using the 3 E’s of efficiency, effectiveness and execution.
Efficiency
Efficiency is more of a process than a goal. It is a moving target that changes with technology, each new
client and to some degree, with every new employee. Rather than asking “Are we being as efficient as
possible?” perhaps we should be asking “What are three ways we could be more efficient?” Some equate
speed to efficiency but that’s not necessarily the case. It’s not a matter of getting from A-Z quickly, its a
matter of the best way to get from A to B, then B to C and so on, without waste. If you can avoid wasting
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time, money and other resources while accomplishing a task, you are on track. Of course, it should go
without saying that efficiency without quality is not efficient at all.
Effectiveness
Effectiveness is how well a project was completed. In other words, was it successful? The difference
between efficiency and effectiveness is that efficiency is more resource-based. Effectiveness is more
results based.
Execution
Execution is the carrying out of a plan. It is one thing to create a plan and the steps it takes to reach a goal
but if the plan is not executed properly, it will not succeed. Execution, in other words, is not the plan, it is
the implementation of a plan.
The Challenges of Continuous Improvement

The challenges of continuous improvement are not unlike those of other business practices. They are
often just words and not a philosophy. Efforts can backslide if they aren’t proactively pushed forward.
One concrete way companies can help establish continuous improvement is through 5s.
With 5s, companies create a visual system designed to increase productivity, enhance safety and improve
quality. Aspects of the 5s system include:
1. Sorting – This involves making sure unnecessary tools are removed.
2. Simplifying – Make sure everything has its place.
3. Systematic Cleaning – Work areas are inspected and cleaned to determine if corrective actions need to
be taken.
4. Standardizing – This ensures the 5s system is maintained consistently throughout the shop floor.
5. Sustaining – Sustaining is a backstop to reverting to old practices. It maintains gains and moves there.
forward from
Reference
 Highway engineering by S.K.KHANNA, C.E.G. JUSTO and VEERARAGAVAN. text book.
 Principles and practice of highway engineering by L.R KADIYALI, and N.LAL text book.
 Ministry of road transport and highways (MORTH).Fifth revision.
 Indian road congress (IRC).

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Document No.

Institution Name ባህርዳርፖሊቴክኒክኮሌጅ BAHIRDARPOLYTECHNICCOLLEGE

SECTOR: ECONOMMIC INFRASTRUCTURE

MODULE TITLE: Applying Principles Steel and Concrete Structure

Lo 1 =Ensure appropriate planning and preparation is carried out for tasks

INTRODUCTION TO STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING

8. Fabrication & Erection – by steel fabricator and contractor

Structural design process

the general layout and dimensions of the structure and results in

 In general there are two types of structural component

A bridge deck is usually supported by structural members

Cables and Pulleys

Forces Acting On concrete Structures designing

A quick summary of the post above, 4 forces that break a building:

1. Compression – The crushing one.

Construction: This phase involves mobilization of personnel; procurement of materials and

Design Codes and Specifications

AREA stands for American Railway Engineers Association; This is manual of

LO2 Ensure appropriate initiation for tasks is carried out

Understanding Grades of Concrete

Choosing the right concrete grade for the construction job:

Used for: Patio slabs, pathways and non-structural work

Type: Domestic & commercial use

Used for: Pavement curbs and floor building

Type: Domestic & Commercial

Type: Domestic & Commercial

Types of steel bars used in construction

S.No. Types of Reinforcement Sub-type Relevant Indian

3 Hard drawn steel wire fabric Wire mesh IS 1566 – 1967

4 Rolled steel members Angles, T- sections joists, channels, IS 226 – 1975

5 Thermo-mechanically treated bars Latest in use deformed bars

Mild steel reinforcement

Fig: Typical stress strain curves for various types of steel

High yield deformed bars

These bars are available as two types:

a. Hot rolled high yield strength bars

TMT (Thermo mechanically treated) steel bars

CRS (Corrosion Resistant Steel) Bars

Steel wire fabric

Characteristic strength of types of steel bars used in construction

Types of steel Grade Yield stress/0.2% proof % Elongation

strength (N/mm2) ( minimum)

Mild steel Fe 250 250 23%

TMT or CRS bars Fe 500 500 12%

Steel wire fabric – 480 7.5 over a gauge length

Characteristic strength and minimum percentage elongation for various types of steel

1. Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC)

2. Portland Pozzolana Cement (PPC)

3. Rapid Hardening Cement

4. Quick setting cement

5. Low Heat Cement

6. Sulfates Resisting Cement

7. Blast Furnace Slag Cement

8. High Alumina Cement

10. Colored cement

11. Air Entraining Cement

12. Expansive Cement

13. Hydrographic cement

Hydrographic cement is prepared by mixing water-repelling chemicals and has high workability

LO 3: Oversee the execution of task

Initiating the Planning Process

Develop an Objective Work Plan