Int J Adv Manuf Technol (2016) 87:647–656
DOI 10.1007/s00170-016-8466-y
ORIGINAL ARTICLE
A study on the residual stress during selective laser melting (SLM)
of metallic powder
Yang Liu 1 & Yongqiang Yang 1 & Di Wang 1
Received: 26 August 2015 / Accepted: 1 February 2016 / Published online: 27 February 2016
# Springer-Verlag London 2016
Abstract The complex thermal history of the parts
manufactured by selective laser melting (SLM) leads to
complex residual stress, having a significant impact on
the quality of SLM part. The origin of residual stress
was investigated in terms of temperature gradient mecha-
nism. Then, stresses along the height and horizontal direc-
tions were measured by X-ray diffraction, and effects of
processing parameters on the stress distribution were stud-
ied. Results showed that residual stress distribution and
evolution along the height direction are affected by the
subsequent thermal cycling (STC) significantly. In the hor-
izontal direction, higher energy input and longer track
length induce larger residual stress. The stress parallel to
the scanning direction is much larger than that perpendicular
to the scanning direction, and the peak values of residual stress
always occurs at the onset of scanning tracks. Based on this
study, corresponding measures can be taken to reduce the
residual stress or avoid stress concentration, thereby im-
proving the process stability of SLM.
Keywords Selective laser melting . Residual stress .
Subsequent thermal cycling . X-ray diffraction . Temperature
gradient . Warps
* Yongqiang Yang
meyqyang@scut.edu.cn
1
School of Mechanical and Automotive Engineering, South China
University of Technology, Guangzhou, China 510640
1 Introduction
Selective laser melting (SLM) is an emerging manufacturing
technique, which is capable of manufacturing parts with prop-
erties of metallurgical bonds, relatively high densities, high
dimensional accuracies, and favorable mechanical properties.
Successive layers of metallic powder are melted and solidified
on top of each other, thereby generating complex three-
dimensional parts [1]. Despite its numerous advantages,
SLM still has many shortcomings in its processing compared
to the conventional manufacturing technologies [2]. Due
to the locally concentrated energy input, the temperature
gradient mechanism and consequent plastification lead
to residual stress and deformation [3]. On one hand,
the dimensional and shape accuracies and mechanical strength
of the parts are affected. On the other hand, residual stress
contributes to crack formation and disconnection of parts from
the base plate [4].
Some researchers studied residual stress by experimental
approaches, which included the crack compliance method
(CCM) [4, 5], hole drilling [6, 7], neutron diffraction [8, 9],
and X-ray diffraction [10, 11] methods. However, the CCM fails
to measure the stress on the surface of the part. In contrast to this,
the neutron diffraction and X-ray diffraction methods fail to
measure the stresses within the parts, whereas the hole drilling
method requires large dimensional sizes and smooth surfaces to
be effective. Other researchers established theoretical models to
predict the residual stress and deformation [4, 12, 13], or built a
finite element model to study the stress field [7, 14–16], using
experimental values to verify their models. Moreover, qualita-
tive and semi-quantitative analyses were carried out by measur-
ing deformation rather than stress on structures, such as cantile-
ver or bridge-shaped specimens [17, 18]. The previous studies
were successful in revealing the stress characteristics along the
height direction to a certain extent.
648
Fig. 1 Schematic diagram of SLM fabricating equipment
During SLM, successive layers of metallic powder are
melted and solidified on top of each other, generating a com-
plex three-dimensional part. When a new layer of powder is
irradiated with the laser beam, part of the heat is absorbed and
the rest of it conducts through to the underlying layers, thereby
affecting the temperature and distribution of stress. This ther-
mal process is called subsequent thermal cycling (STC).
Moreover, the shrinkage of the newly added layers during
the cooling process gives rise to additional tensile stress in
the underlying layers [19]. This state is related to the accumu-
lation of heat and stress during the SLM process [20, 21].
In the present study, the origin of residual stress in terms of
temperature gradient mechanism was firstly studied. Then, the
distribution of stress along height direction and horizontal
direction was measured by means of X-ray diffraction, and
the effects of energy input and scanning track length on stress
distribution were investigated. Lastly, optimized support
structures were used to inhibit warps and cracks, caused by
the residual stress.
2 Experimental conditions and methods
2.1 Equipment and materials
The experiments were carried out using a SLM machine
DiMetal-100 developed by South China University of
Table 1 Main technical parameters of the DiMetal-100
Item Value
Wavelength 1090 nm
Max laser power 200 W
Beam coefficient M2 ≤1.1
Focus beam size 70 μm
Int J Adv Manuf Technol (2016) 87:647–656
Technology. The machine used a ytterbium fiber laser with a
maximum power of 200 W with a continuous wavelength of
1090 nm. Based on the direction of a dual-axis mirror posi-
tioning system and a galvanometer optical scanner, the laser
beam could move along the X- and Y-axes. The focus of the
laser spot was about 70 μm through a F-theta lens with a focal
length of 163 mm. Figure 1 shows the schematic diagram of
the principle of operation of the DiMetal-100 equipment, and
its main technical parameters are presented in Table 1. The
metal powder used in this study was gas-atomized 316L stain-
less steel spherical powder [1, 22], as shown in Fig. 2. The
particle size distributions were d10 = 22.5 μm, d50 = 39.02 μm,
and d80 = 56.04 μm; the average particle size was 42.83 μm,
and the relative density was 4.02 g/cm3. The mechanical prop-
erties included a tensile strength of 485 MPa, yield strength of
170 MPa, elongation of 30 %, Young’s modulus of 196 GPa,
and Poisson’s ratio of 0.294. The chemical composition of the
powdered material is shown in Table 2.
2.2 Production of samples by SLM
As shown in Fig. 3a, the test samples for height direction were
marked as samples 1, 2, and 3. Each sample had a fixed width
and thickness of 30 mm × 1 mm, and heights were 12, 16, and
20 mm, respectively. The processing parameters are shown in
Table 3. To avoid any influence of wire cutting on the stress
field of samples, bases were manufactured and subsequently
subjected to a stress relief heat treatment consisting of two
hours at 450 °C and furnace cooling. Then, samples were
manufactured on the bases, and the part along with the base
was cut from the base plate as a whole. The measuring points
were arranged along the height direction of samples (Y direc-
tion). The points on sample 1 were marked as A1, B1, and C1;
points on sample 2 were marked as A2, B2, C2, and D2; and
points on sample 3 were marked as A3, B3, C3, D3, and E3.
To investigate the stress distribution in SLM parts, the sam-
ples were manufactured as shown in Fig. 3b. The measuring
points were labeled as m_n, where m represents the sample
number, and m = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6; n represents the measuring
point, and n = A, B, C, D, E, F, G. The samples 1, 2, and
3 were used to study the influence of scanning track
length on the residual stress field. Samples 3, 4, and 5
were manufactured with different scanning speeds, which
Item Value
Focus length 163 mm
Building envelop 100 × 100 × 120 mm
Scanning speed 30-2000 mm/s
Layer thickness 20-50 μm
Int J Adv Manuf Technol (2016) 87:647–656 649

Fig. 2 SEM image of 500 mesh 316L stainless steel powder

were used to study the influence of energy input (ψ = P/v)

on the residual stress field. Sample 6 was divided into
three segments, and then each short segment was scanned,
which was used to study the influence of sector-wise scan-
ning strategy on the stress field. The interval between
adjacent measuring points was 6 mm, and the distance
between the point and the edge was 3 mm.

2.3 Measure methods Fig. 3 CAD models for experiments of residual stress distribution. a
Along height direction. b Along horizontal direction

The test samples were studied using a Quanta 200 scanning

electron microscope (SEM). X-ray diffraction (XRD) patterns
were obtained and residual stresses were measured on a D8-
ADVANCE X-ray diffractometer (Bruker AXS GmbH,
Germany). The XRD patterns of the samples were obtained
under the following conditions: 2θ range from 10 to 90°, scan-
ning speed 1°/min with increments of 0.02°, and Cu-Kα radi-
ation. The residual stresses were measured three times and the
average of the three readings was recorded. Prior to the mea-
surements, all the samples were electrolytically polished in
saturated sodium chloride solution (NaCl) for 1 min to remove
any oxides on the surfaces. The surface roughnesses complied
with the requirements of the Chinese National Standard GB/T
7704–2008 [23].
3 Effects of the temperature gradient on SLM
process
3.1 Effect on the residual stress
In SLM, a high-power laser locally melts successive layers of
powder, after which the heat conducts to the surrounding
material and generates an extremely large temperature gradi-
ent of over 108 K/s [24, 25], which causes high residual stress
within the SLM parts [4]. Figure 5a shows the temperature
distribution in the height direction. Tm and Tp represent the
melting point and plastic point of material, respectively,
whereas, Tn represents the ambient temperature. It can be di-
vided into three regions according to their thermal states:
melted zone (region І), heat-affected zone (region II), and
non-affected zone (region III) [24, 26].
The SLM process can be subdivided into heating and
cooling processes. During heating, the laser beam irradiates
at a specific point, then the temperature of region II falls be-
tween the range of Tn and Tp, the material expands but is
restricted by region III. This consequently induces tensile
stress in region III and compressive stress in region II. Since
the temperature of region І exceeds Tp, it is converted into a
complete plastic state and therefore no residual stress is pro-
duced, as illustrated at stage 1 in Fig. 4b.
During cooling, the laser beam moves away from the spe-
cific point and the temperature immediately decreases. When
Table 3 Process parameters for manufacturing of testing samples

Table 2 Chemical compositions (wt %) of 316L stainless steel Items Power/W Speed/ Hatch/mm Thickness/ Scanning strategy
(mm/s) mm
Element C Cr Ni Mo Si Mn O Fe
Value 200 400 0.08 0.04 X-Y inter layer
Mass fraction (%) 0.03 17.53 12.06 2.16 0.86 0.38 0.13 Bal stagger
650
Fig. 4 Temperature and residual
stress distribution in height
direction during SLM. a
Temperature. b Residual stress
the temperature of region І is lower than Tp, the material
changes from the former complete plastic state into an incom-
plete plastic state and the volume shrinkage is restricted by
region II. Thus, tensile stress is produced in region І and com-
pressive stress in region II increases, as shown at stage 2 in
Fig. 4b.
As the temperature drops continuously, region І shrinks
further, but is still restricted by region II. This causes tensile
stress in region І and compressive stress in region II to further
increase, and compressive stress is extended to region III, as
illustrated at stage 3 in Fig. 4b.
3.2 Effect on the microstructure
Figure 5a shows a macro crack with a maximum length of
about 500 μm on the unpolished side surface, whereas
Fig. 5b shows a micro crack with a maximum length about
30 μm on the polished side surface. This is because under the
action of a moving high energy laser, the melting and solidi-
fication processes are completed in a considerably short peri-
od of time, which induce a high temperature gradient and a
high stress, as a result of which, cracks tend to be formed in
order to release the thermal stress [22].
The microstructure of SLM 316L part is shown in Fig. 6.
Figure 6a shows that the sizes of most of the grains are less
than 1 μm, which can be attributed to the complete melting
and high heating and cooling rates during the SLM process.
Fig. 5 Cracks on the SLM part. a
Macro cracks. b Micro cracks
Int J Adv Manuf Technol (2016) 87:647–656
When a high energy laser irradiates the molten pool, the tem-
perature gradient between the bottom of the molten pool and
the surface provides a driving force for the growth of the grain.
However, the solidification rate can reach values as high as
108 K/s when the laser beam moves out of the molten pool
[24, 25]; thus, the crystal development of austenite is signifi-
cantly restricted due to insufficient time for the grain growth
[24, 27].
In SLM, a subsequent layer is deposited on the underlying
layer, the temperature in the underlying layers has already
decreased to a lower level, which leads to a non-
synchronous heating and cooling process between the ad-
jacent layers. This so called thermal boundary effect
makes a discrepant of microstructures in the adjacent
layers. However, heat in the subsequent layer conducts
through to the underlying layers, which changes the
cooling and solidification processes as well as the micro-
structural evolution, as shown in Fig. 6b–d.
4 Results and discussion
4.1 Residual stress distribution along the height direction
The residual stress along the height direction is shown in
Fig. 7. It shows that residual stresses within SLM 316L
parts are of lower magnitude and the range is between
Int J Adv Manuf Technol (2016) 87:647–656 651

Fig. 6 Microstructures of the

SLM 316L part

−90 and 120 MPa. Stresses in the underlying layers are
compressive, the maximum σ x are −41, −54, and
−64 MPa, and the maximum σ y are −33, −68, and
−88 MPa, respectively, which occur in the centers of
parts. Peak values of tensile stresses are found in the top
layers with maximum σ x of 44, 31, and 54 MPa and
maximum σy of 73, 61, and 114 MPa. This is because
the underlying layers near the base plate, the temperatures
of which decrease initially and then the shrinkage of the
newly added layers causes the underlying layers to be
compressed, thereby producing compressive stresses in
the underlying layers [28]. With the increasing number

Fig. 7 Residual stresses along

height direction in the three
samples
652
Fig. 8 Comparisons of residual stresses between the three samples
of layers, heat accumulates in the formed layers, which
reduces the temperature gradient in the part. Hence, the
compressive stress shows a trend that decreases from the
bottom to the top, which then converts into tensile stress
in the top layers.
The comparisons of residual stresses of the three
samples are shown in Fig. 8. It can be seen that when
a new layer is added on the previously scanned layers,
compressive stress within the underlying layers in-
creases and tensile stress within the top layers converts
into compressive stress. This variation can be explained
by considering sample 2 as an example. During the
manufacturing of D2, the regions A2 and B2 are heated
to a higher temperature, but do not exceed the plastic
point (Tp), whereas the region C2 is heated to a tem-
perature exceeding the Tp due to STC. Hence, the ten-
sile stress in region C2 is released. Expansions of re-
gions A2 and B2 are only restricted by the underlying
layers (including the base plate), so compressive stresses
within regions A2 and B2 increase. During the cooling
period, the shrinkage of region D2 is restricted by the
underlying layers (including regions A2, B2, and C2).
Hence, compressive stresses within regions A2 and B2
increase continuously, compressive stress is produced in
region C2, and tensile stress in region D2.
Fig. 9 Residual stresses versus
different energy inputs
Int J Adv Manuf Technol (2016) 87:647–656
4.2 Residual stress distribution along the horizontal
direction
4.2.1 Effect of the energy input
The lengths of sample 3, 4, and 5 were 18 mm, and the
fixed processing parameters were laser power 200 W, lay-
er thickness 0.035 mm, hatching space 0.08 mm, and the
scanning strategy Z-type X-direction (Fig. 3b). The scan-
ning speeds were 400, 200, and 800 mm/s, respectively,
and the total number of layers was 50. Here, stress in the
X direction was referred to as σx, and stress in the Z
direction as σz.
Curves in Fig. 9 show the residual stresses under dif-
ferent energy inputs. Consistent with the previous study,
residual stresses on the top surfaces are tensile. This is
because the shrinkage of top layers is restricted by the
underlying layers. According to the formula: ψ = P/v, the
energy input of sample 4 is twice that of sample 3 and
four times that of sample 5. Correspondingly, the sample
4 shows the greatest residual stress, and it is followed by
sample 3 and sample 5 possesses the least stress. This
indicates that the more the energy input, the greater the
residual stress produced. This factor can be attributed to
larger energy inputs leading to a larger melting pool and a
accompanying larger volume shrinkage of molten pool
after solidification, which in turn leads to larger residual
stress within the parts.
A comparison of the curves in Fig. 9a, b, highlights
that σx is far greater than σz. Taking the sample 3 as an
example, the range of σx is between 110 and 145 MPa,
whereas the range of σz is between 30 and 55 MPa. This
is because in high-speed scanning by laser beam, the
heat-affected zone (HAZ) and the molten pool form an
elongated shape along the direction of X axis (along the
scanning direction) [10]. The temperature gradient along
the X direction is far greater than that along the Z direc-
tion (perpendicular to scanning direction). In SLM pro-
cess, a larger temperature gradient leads to larger residual
stress.
Int J Adv Manuf Technol (2016) 87:647–656
Fig. 10 Residual stresses versus
different scanning track lengths
4.2.2 Effect of the scanning track length
Samples 1, 2, and 3 were used to investigate the influence of
scanning track length. The lengths were 44, 32, and 18 mm,
respectively, as shown in Fig. 3b. The laser power was 200 W,
scanning speed was 400 mm/s, layer thickness was 0.035 mm,
hatching space was 0.08 mm, the scanning strategy was Z-
type X-direction, and the total number of layers was 50.
Curves in Fig. 10 show the distribution of residual
stress for different scanning track lengths. The longer
the scanning track, the larger the residual stress. This
trend is consistent with the finite element analysis (FEA) con-
ducted by Matsumoto et al. [29]. An explanation for this is that
when the laser irradiates the powder bed and forms melting
tracks, the tracks mainly shrink along the scanning direction.
When the scanning tracks are excessively long, the shrink-
age compensation is insufficient, which induces a larger
residual stress. In addition, the range of σx is between
80 and 200 MPa, and the range of σz is between 30
and 90 MPa (except point 1_A). Hence, σx is much larger
than σz.
The peak values of σx and σz occur at the onset of scanning
tracks, and then decrease along the scanning direction; how-
ever, the trends are different. In the first half of the scanning
track, the decrease in σx is minimal, and then in the second
half the decrease is dramatic. On the contrary, σz decreases
Fig. 11 Residual stresses versus
different scanning strategies
653
rapidly at the onset of tracks, and subsequently oscillates to a
small degree. This is because the molten pool is surrounded by
non-melted powder at the onset of tracks, which possesses
lower thermal conductivity than that of the corresponding sol-
id material [30]. Heat in the molten pool is not easily trans-
mitted to the surrounding materials. Hence, a larger tempera-
ture gradient is produced in scanning tracks, which induces
greater residual stress at the onset of tracks. As the laser beam
moves forwards, the heat in the scanning tracks is diverted,
and then the temperature gradient decreases and tends to grad-
ually bring about dynamic balance, and consequently the re-
sidual stress decreases.
4.2.3 Effect of sector scanning strategy
The above analysis illustrates that residual stresses mainly
occur along the scanning direction, and are the main causes
of warp in SLM parts. Finite element analyses [29, 31]
showed that the degree of warping in SLM parts is propor-
tional to the scanning tracks, hence implying that the residual
stresses in SLM parts can be significantly reduced if only the
length of the scanning track is shortened. As shown in Fig. 11,
the length of sample 6 is equal to sample 1, but it was divided
into three segments. Each segment was scanned by scanning
strategy of Z-type X-direction. The results show that sector
scanning can reduce residual stresses in SLM parts effectively;
654
Fig. 12 Schematic diagram of
warp
the average decrease of σx reaches 22 %, whereas the average
decrease of σz reaches 17 %. However, it is evident that sector
scanning has a greater impact on σx. At the measuring points
of 1_A, 1_B, 1_C, 1_D, and 1_E, the σx decreases by more
than 50 MPa. This is because a short track length leads to a
minimal cooling time between adjacent tracks [19], thereby
resulting in a smaller temperature gradient, along the X
direction.
4.3 Measures for preventing warps and cracks
Residual stress contributes to the crack formation or discon-
nection of parts from the base plate, therefore taking measures
to reduce the residual stress in SLM part is necessary.
Annealing treatment is a conventional and long established
method to reduce stress in metallic parts, which are normally
used in welding, casting, forging, etc. Zhang et al. [28] used
annealing treatment to reduce the residual stresses in Ti6Al4V
alloys manufactured by laser engineering net shaping (LENS).
The results showed that the average stress could be reduced by
72 %. Although annealing treatment can effectively reduce
residual stress after manufacturing, it cannot prevent
warping and cracking caused by thermal stress during the
SLM process. It is therefore necessary to try out other
methods to resolve these issues.
When a new layer is produced, the expansions of the heated
top layers are restricted by the surrounding material, thereby
Fig. 13 Parameters of the support structure
Int J Adv Manuf Technol (2016) 87:647–656
producing elastic compressive strains. When yield strength of
the material is reached, the top layers become plastically com-
pressed. During the cooling and shrinking period, the plasti-
cally compressed upper layers become shorter than the bottom
layers with the development of a bending angle (θ), towards
the laser beam [19], as shown in Fig. 12. In this case, stable
support structures not only prevent the deformation of part
caused by the material’s shrinkage, but also maintain the
manufacturing stability during the SLM process [20, 32]. As
shown in Fig. 13, the main parameters of support structure are
tooth base interval, tooth base length, tooth top length, tooth
height, and hatching. The larger the tooth base interval +
length, top length or the smaller the hatching, the larger the
strength between support structure and part, the lesser is the
probability of warping [33, 34].
Three parts with same high aspect ratio (the length is
60 mm, the section dimensions are 6 × 6 mm) were presented
in Table 4. Part І was added uniform support structure, in
which the hatching was 2 mm, tooth base interval + length
was 2 mm, and tooth top length was 0.3 mm. In part II, the
hatching was 1 mm at the two ends, and 2 mm in the central
region, the tooth base interval + length was 2 mm, and tooth
top length was 0.3 mm. Part III was added uniform support
structure, in which the hatching was 2 mm, tooth base inter-
val + length was 2 mm, and tooth top length was 1 mm. The
processing parameters were laser power of 150 W, scanning
speed of 400 mm/s, layer thickness of 35 μm, scanning space
of 80 μm, scanning strategy was X-Y inter-layer stagger. The
results were shown in Fig. 14, the part І warped at two ends,
whereas parts II and III were manufactured successfully. This
is because support structures with smaller hatching and larger
top length not only constrain warping at both ends of the parts,
but can also conduct heat from the top layers to the base plate,
thereby reducing the temperature gradient in the SLM parts.
5 Conclusions
In this paper, the residual stress during SLM process was
investigated. The effects of temperature gradient on the resid-
ual stress and microstructure characteristics were studied
Int J Adv Manuf Technol (2016) 87:647–656 655

Table 4 Three types of support structure

No. Support parameters

Aspect
ite Interval Tooth Tooth top
ratio Hatching
m + length height length

Part
10 2 mm 1 mm
I

Part
10 2 mm 1 mm
II

Part
10 2 mm 1 mm
III

Laser power: 150 W, scanning speed: 400 mm/s

Process
Layer thickness: 35 µm, scanning space: 80 µm
parameters
Scanning strategy: X-Y inter-layer stagger

theoretically. Stresses along height and horizontal directions
were measured by X-ray diffraction, the influences of subse-
quent thermal cycling, energy input and scanning track length
were investigated, and several conclusions can be drawn,
which are as follows:
(1) Compressive stress occurs at the bottom and tensile
stress at the top of SLM part, but with addition of new
layers on the previously scanned layers, the tensile stress
converts into compressive, and the compressive stress is
enhanced due to subsequent thermal cycling.
(2) Residual stress parallel to the scanning direction is
much larger than that perpendicular to the scanning
direction. Lower energy input and shorter line length
induce smaller residual stress in SLM parts.
Therefore, sector scanning strategy, which reduces

Fig. 14 SLM manufactured parts

with large aspect ratio
656
the scanning track length, can reduce residual stress
efficiently.
(3) The peak values of residual stress always occur at the
onset of scanning track, which indicates that the both ends
of part are easy to warp and crack. Therefore, stronger
support structures are needed at both ends of SLM part,
to prevent warps and cracks, during the SLM process.
Acknowledgments The authors gratefully appreciate the National
Natural Science Foundation of China (NSFC, No. 51275179, 51405160),
and Special Fund Project for Technology Innovation of Foshan City
(No. 2013AH100042).
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