Ancient History

Pre History Stone Age ◊

Indus Valley Civilisation ◊
Early Vedic Age
Vedic Age
Late Vedic Age ◊
Jainism
Buddhism ◊
First Territorial States Mahajanpads
◊
Mauryan Empire ◊
Nothern and Eastern India
Post Mauryan Age ◊
Deccan and Central India
Sangam Literature ◊
The Gupta Empire ◊
Post Gupta Era Harshvardhana ◊
Transformation to Medieval Phase ◊
Early Medieval India Gurjara Pratihara and The Palas ◊
Rashtrakutas, Senas and Cholas ◊
The Slave Dynasty
The Khilji Dynasty
Delhi Sultanate The Tughlaq Dynasty
The Sayyid Dynasty
The Lodhi Dynasty ◊
Emergence of
The Vijaynagara Empire
Provincial Kingdoms ◊
Religious Movements Sufi and Bhakti
◊
The Mughal Empire ◊
Sher Shah Suri
Restoration of Mughal Empire
The Maratha Empire ◊
The Portugese ◊
European The Dutch ◊
Penetration and
British Conquest The English ◊
The French ◊
British Rule ◊
Governor-General of Bengal ◊
Governor-General of India ◊
Revolt of 1857 ◊
Indian National Movement ◊
 THE STONE AG
Man is said to have appeared on the Earth in Africa about 5.6 million years ago. Bori in Maharashtra gives the earliest evidence
The age, when the pre-historic man began to use stones for utilitarian purpose is termed as the Stone Age. The Stone age is d

The Paleolithic age or Old stone age The Mesolithic age or Middle stone ag

The term Paleolithic was coined by Archeologist John Lubbock in 1865, which
refers to a pre-historic era distinguished by the development of first stone
tools made of quartzite. Hence Paleolithic men are also called Quartzite Men.
The Paleolithic cultures of India developed in the Pleistocene Period or the
Ice Age. The word Paleo means Old and Lithic means Stone.
This age is divided into three phases
Early or Lower Paleolithic Age
Middle Paleolithic Age
Upper Paleolithic Age

The fisrt phase covers the greater part of Ice Age. Its characteristics feature
are the use of hand axes, cleavers and choppers. They resemble those found
in Western Asia, Europe and Africa. These implements were made of
quartzite rocks.

The sites belonging to next phase are found in the Son valley and also in the
region to the South of Tungabhadra river. The chief tools were several kinds
of scrapers made of flakes. In addition, a large number of borers and blade-
like tools of this age have been discovered.
Third phase belonged to final phase of Ice Age. The climate in this age was
less humid and comparatively warm. The use of blades and burins is a
characteristics feature of this age. It marks the appearance of new flint
industries and man of the modern type.
Bhimbetka Cave Paintings: Near Bhopal, extends from lower Paleolithic to
upper Paleolithic. The art of Pre-Historic man can be seen in all its glory with
the depiction of wild animals, hunting scenes and scenes from day to day life
of that period.
Hunsgi (a number of paleolithic sites were found, these were probably
habitation-cum factory sites. Some sites were close to springs. Most tools
were made from limestone, which was locally available) and Kurnool Caves
(Traces of ash found here, this suggests that people were familiar with the
use of fire)

Towards the end of the Neolithic period began the use of metals. First metal
to be used was copper and the culture of that time is called Chalcolithic
culture.
The earliest settlements belonging to this phase are extended from the
Chhotanagpur plateau to the upper Gangetic basin. Some sites are found at
Brahmgiri near Mysore and Navada Toli on the Narmada.
Important Chalcolithic C

Ahar Culture (2800-1500 BC)

Kayatha Culture (2450-1700 BC)

Malwa Culture (1900-1400 BC)

Savalda Culture (2300-2000 BC)

Jorwe Culture (1500-900 BC)

Prabhas Culture (2000-1400 BC)

Rangpur Culture (1700-1400 BC)

THE COPPER PHASE

The area stretched from North-West to East and upto Tamil Nadu. But nearly
half of the copper hoards are concentrated in the Ganga-Yamuna doab.
It continued upto 1500 BC. Major sites are Gungeria (MP, 424 copper tools
and weapons and 102 thin sheets of silver objects).
OCP: A new pottery type was discovered during excavations at Badaun and
Bijnor in UP in 1950. The colour of pottery ranges from orange to red.

STROMATOLITES
The best evidence yet for the oldest life on Earth has been found in odd-
shaped, rock-like mounds excavated in Australia. These mounds are actually
fossils created by microbes around 3.4 billion years ago.
These strange geological strucutres are of different sizes. Some are smaller
than a fingernail and some are taller than man.
 THE STONE AGE
on years ago. Bori in Maharashtra gives the earliest evidence of man in India, about 1.4 million years ago.
an purpose is termed as the Stone Age. The Stone age is divided into three broad divisions -

The Mesolithic age or Middle stone age The Neolithic age or New stone age

It was a transitional phase between Paleolithic and Neolithic. The term

Mesolithic is conventionally applied in India to denote the cultural changes
represented by Microlith industries not associated with pottery and generally
antedating the earliest farming based village cultures. The microliths were first
discovered by Carlyle in 1867 from Vindhyan Rock Shelters.

The Mesolithic people lived on hunting, fishing and food gathering. At a later
stage, they also domesticated animals. This phase is technologically
characterised by microliths or small pointed and sharp tools. Such tools are
extremely small about 3 cm in length.
They were made of chalcedony and other silicate varities like jasper.

Important Chalcolithic Cultures

The people made distinctive black and red ware decorated with white designs.
They grew rice, jowar, bajra, kulthi, ragi, green peas, lentil and green and
black gram.
People lived in stone-built houses.
The people made a sturdy red slipped ware painted with designs in chocolate
colour, a red painted buff ware and a combed ware bearing incised pattern.

The Malwa ware is rather coarse in fabric, but has a thick buff surface over
which designs are made either in red or black.
Wheat and barley were grown.

Jorwe ware is painted black on red but has a matt surface treated with a
wash. Some of the most well-known pottery forms are dishes on-stand,
sprouted vases, stemmed cups, bowls, big storage jars, sprouted basins etc.
Same crops as Ahar were grown at Inamgaon

Both are derived from Harappan, but have a glossy surface due to which they
are also called Lustrous red ware

Pottery: The period was marked by two types of pottery

Ochre-Coloured Pottery (2000-1500 BC)
Black and Red Pottery (about 1000 BC)

BRW: It followed the OCP. Excavations of Ajantrikheda in UP in the 1960

brought to light a distinct pottery. It is sandwiched between the OCP and
PGW.
Black colour inside and near the rim on the outside, and red colour over the
rest of the body are the main characteristic feature.
BRW has also been found in Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh and West Bengal.
bout 1.4 million years ago.
oad divisions -

The Neolithic age or New stone age

Mehrgarh: The site is located in a fertile plain, near the Bolan pass, which is
one of the most important routes into Iran. Mehrgarh was probably one of the
places where women and men learnt to grow barley and wheat, and rear
sheep and goats for the first time in this area.
Mehrgarh was the first to witness the transition from the Neolithic to the
Chalcolithic phase.

In Burzahom (place of birth), North-West in the valley of Kashmir, people lived

on a lake side in pits. They seem to had acquainted with agriculture. They
also used coarse grey pottery.
Characteristics feature of dog burial along side human graines.
In Daojali Hading, site on hills near the Brahmputra valley, close to routes
leading to China and Myanmar. Here stone tools, including mortars and
pestles, have been found. Other finds include jadeite, a stone that may have
been brought from China.
At sites south of Godavari river such as Nagarjunkonda, Brahmagiri, Maslei,
Piveenal, Hallm and Sanganalallu people usually settled on the tops of granite
hills or on plateaus near the river bank. They used stone axes and blades.
They possessed cattle, sheep and goats.
Pottery first appeared in this phase and only hand made pottery is found in
the early stage. Later, the Neolithicpeople used foot wheels to turn up pots.
These people can be characterisized as:
Beginning of the practice of agriculture, Domesication of animals, Use of
polished stone tools and manufacture of pottery.

Ahar, Balathal, Gilund were the important cities of this culture.

Chambal and its tributaries (spread in an area of not more than 2 hectares)

Narmada and its tributaries Navdatoli, Eran and Nagada. It was the largest
Chalcolithic culture.
Dhulia district in Maharashtra is an important site.

More than 200 settlements from Maharashtra. Prakash, Daimabad and

Inamgaon are well-known sites.

Ghelo and Kalubhar rivers in Gujarat

IRON AGE
Iron age is usually associated associated with the Paitned Grey Ware
PGW: It refers to the ceramics which have been fired grey and then painted
with black designs. The grey colour it is believed, is obtained by firing thin clay
pots to as high a temperature as 800 degree C.
Indus Valley Civilisation: This Civilisation is was one of the four
earliest civilisations of Mesopotamia (River Tigris and River Euphrates),
Egypt (River Nile) and China (River Hwang Ho). It was a Bronze Age
Civilisation.

Name of the Harappan Site Year of Excavation/ Excavator

Harappa 1921
Daya Ram Sahni

Mohenjodaro 1922
R D Bannerji

Sutkagendor 1927
R L Stein

Chanhundaro 1931
N Gopal Majumdar, Mackey

Amri 1935
N G Majumdar

Kalibangan 1953
A Ghosh

Kot Diji 1953

Fazal Ahmed

Rangpur 1953
MS Vats, BB Lal and SR Rao

Ropar 1953
Y D Sharma

Lothal 1953
S R Rao

Alamgirpur 1958
Y D Sharma

Surkotada 1964
J P Joshi
Banawali 1974
R S Bisht

Balakot 1976
George F Dales

Allahdino 1976
W A Fairservice

Kunal 1986
J S Khatri and M Acharya

Dholavira 1985-90
R S Bisht

Rakhigarhi 1963
Prof Surajbhan
Geographical Extent: Extended from Jammu in North to the Narmada estuary in the South and from Markan coast of
Baluchistan in the West to Meerut in the North-East.

Region

Montgomery Distt of Punjab (Pakistan) on left bank of

Ravi river

Larkan Distt, Sindh on the right bank of Indus

Baluchistan, Dask river

left bank of Indus, Sindh

bank of Indus, Sindh

left bank of Ghaggar, Rajasthan

left bank of Indus

Left bank of Mahar river, Gujarat

Punjab, bank of Sutlej

Gujarat, on the confluence of Sabarmati and Bhogava

river near Gulf of Cambay

Meerut (bank of Hindon river)

Kutch (Bhuj)
Hissar

Arabian Sea

Sindh (Pakistan)

Hissar

Rann of Kutch

Drishdavati (Hissar Distt Haryana) on Ghaggar river

Jammu in North to the Narmada estuary in the South and from Markan coast of
orth-East.

Features

City followed Grid Planning

Two rows of Six granaries
Dancing Nataraja
only place having evidences of coffin burial
Grid Planning, large granary, great bath and a collage
Human skeletons showing invasions and massacre
Town was flooded more than seven times
Evidence of horse
Trade point between Harappa and Babylon
Citadel was fortified, Evidence of Horse
No Citadel
Famous for bead makers shop
Evidence of copper or bronze tools of carts with seated drivers
Three different cultural layers- Indus, Jhukar and Jhangar

Evidence of Antelope

Kalibangan stands for Black bangles

Shows both Pre-Harappan and Harappan phase
Evidence of Furrowed land, seven fire altars and camel bones
many houses had their own well
Evidence of burials in rectangular and circular grave.
Wheel made painted pottery
Trace of a defensive wall and well aligned streets
Knowledge of metallurgy, artistic toys etc.
Five figurines of Mother Goddes discovered.

Rice was cultivated

Evidence of burying a dog below the human burial

Five fold cultures - Harappan, PGW, NBP, Kushana-Gupta and
Medieval.
Only site with an artificial brick dockyard
Remains of rice husk
Evidence of Horse from a terracotta figurine
Houses with entrances on the main street a unique feature as the
houses of all other Harappan cities had side entries.
A ship designed in seal

The impression of cloth on a trough is discovered

Usually considered to be eastern boundary of the Indus culture
Bones of Horse, bead making shops
show both pre-Harappan and Harappan phase
Good quantity of Barley found here
Pottery
The mounds rise to the height of about 9.7 m and are spread 2.8 sq
hectare of area. Beads manufactures and shales industry.

A distribution centre, jwellery hoard

Evidence of Pit dwelling and jwellery hoard

Seven cultural stages

Remains of the horse
Largest site
Three part of city are Citadel, middle town and lenten town
Unique water management
Two distinct cultures i.e. early Harappan and mature Harappan
One of the largest Harappan site proincial capital
 Vedic Age
Early Vedic Age (1500-1000 BC)
The main source of information for the study of the early Vedic age
people is the Rigveda
Geographical extent: Aryans were confined to the area which came to
be known as the Saptasindhu (land of the seven rivers) comprising
the modern day Eastern Afghanistan, Punjab (both India and Pakistan)
and parts of Western Uttar pradesh.
Polity: (Tribal polity) Rigvedic society being a semi nomadic tribal
society with pastoral economy. Kula (family) was the basis of both
social and political organisation. The popular mode of Government is
Monarchy.
Sabha: Exclusive body and only elites were its members while Samiti
was the house of commons

Later Vedic Age (1000-500 BC)

The expresion later Vedic Age comprises the far reaching changes and
developments that took place in the religion, social, economic and
political conditions of the people during the period when the later
Sanhitas Samaveda, Yajurveda and Atharvaveda, and the Brahmanas,
Arayank and Upanishads were composed. This age is also known as
PGW iron phase.
In later Vedic period, royal power increased. The Vidata completely
disappeared.
The Sabha and Samiti continued to hold the ground but their character
changed. They came to be dominated by chiefs, rich nobles and
Brahmanas.
Women were not allowed to sit in the Sabha.

The word veda is derived from the root 'vid' which means ‘to know’. Veda means the sacred knowledge contained in th
Vedic literature. These are Mantra and Brahmana (prose texts containing the explanations of the mantras as well as the
separate collections. These are the Rigveda, Samaveda, Yajurveda, and Atharvaveda. The four Vedas together with th
sages. The Aranyakas (literally forest treatises) and the Upanishads (sitting down beside) are mainly appendices to the
philosophical discussions.

RIGVEDA
Oldest of all Vedas and contains 1028 hymns and is divided into 10
Mandals.
Contains Gayatri Mantra, Purushukta hymn.
Hymns are in praise of various Gods and goddesses. Important are:
Agni- the god of Fire
Indra- a warrior god
Soma- a plant from which a special drink was prepared.
Also prayers for cattle, children (especially sons) and horses.

ATHARVAVEDA
(Book of magic formulae) contains charms and spells in verse, to ward
off evils and disease
It preserves many cultes and superstitions
contains 731 hymns
believed to be work of Non-Aryans
 Vedic Age
Social Division
The Rigveda shows some consciousness of the physical appearance of
people in the North Western India.
Varna was the term used for colour, and it seems that Aryan language
speakers were fair and the indigenous inhabitants were dark in complexion.
The Dasas and the Dasyus, who were conquered by Aryans, were treated as
Slaves and Shudras. The Rigveda mentions Arya Varna and Dasa Varna.
The tribal society was divided into three groups- warriors, priests and the
people. The fourth division called the Shudras appeared towards the end of
the Rigveda.
Position of women: Women seen to have enjoyed equal status with men,
received upnayan (initiation) and education, some of them even rose to the
rank of seers composing Vedic hymns.

Social Division
The society came to be divided into four Varnas called the Brahmans,
Kshatriyas, Vaishyas and Shudra. Brahmanas emerged as the most powerful
class, Vaishyas were the tribute payers.
The upper 03 Varnas were known as Dvij (twice born) and were entitled to
Upnayana or investiture with the sacred thread but the shudras were
deprived of it and were also not allowed to recite the Gayatri Mantra.
Position of Women: Status of women declined but opportunity of education
was not completely denied. As per Aitreya Brahmana, daughter is the source
of misery but son is the protector of family. As per Maitrayani Samhita, there
are three evils- liquor, dice and women.

In Vrihadarnjaka Upanishad, Yajnavalkya-Gargi dialouge proves that some

women got higher education.

‘to know’. Veda means the sacred knowledge contained in the texts known as Vedic text. Two categories of texts are included in the
exts containing the explanations of the mantras as well as the sacrificial rituals). The Mantra category forms the core of the Vedic text
Yajurveda, and Atharvaveda. The four Vedas together with their Brahmanas are also known as shruti or ‘hearing’, which was direct
Upanishads (sitting down beside) are mainly appendices to the Brahmanas. These are also known as the Vedanta (end of the Ved

SAMAVEDA
Collections of hymns taken mainly from VIII and IX mandals of Rigveda
Known as book of Chants
Origin of Indian music is traced to it
Sung by Udgatre priests.

UPAVEDAS
Upaveda Subject Related to
Dhanurveda Archery Rigveda
Ghandarvaveda Music Samaveda
Silpaveda Architecture Yajurveda
Ayurveda Medicine Atharvaveda
 Religious Life
Important feature: Personification of the press of nature
Vedic religion was Henotheism or Katheusthism
Predominance of Male Gods.
Aim of worship was material gains.
Sacrifice was the first of Vedic religion.

Religious Life
In this period, under Brahmanical influence Agni and Indra
lost their formal importance to Prajapati (the creator)
New Gods (Vishnu, Rudra, Prajapti etc) came into
prominence
The mode of worship changed considerably and the
sacrifices became more important than prayers.
Important Vedic sacrifices:
1. Ashvamedha: Horse sacrifice meant to establish a
king's supermacy over others
2. Vajapeya: A chariot race, which was meant to
reestablish a king's supermacy over his people.
3. Rajasuya: A consecration ceremony, which conferred
supreme power on the king
4. Ratnavinsi: A part of Rajasuya ceremony, in which
different royal officials invoked different Gods and
Goddesses.

as Vedic text. Two categories of texts are included in the corpus of the
s). The Mantra category forms the core of the Vedic texts and has four
s are also known as shruti or ‘hearing’, which was directly heard by the
These are also known as the Vedanta (end of the Veda) and contain

YAJURVEDA
Prescribes the rituals of performing different sacrificing.
Primarily a guide for the use of Adhvaryu priest
This Veda is in both Verse and Prose
Rajasuya and Vajapeya mentioned for the first time in this
Veda
Divided into two parts:
1. Krishna Yajurveda (Black)- Contains not only the hymns
but also prose commentaries
2. Sukla Yajurveda (White)- Contains only hymns

UPANISHADS
Literally means, be seated at the feet of the Guru to
received the teachings. The upanishads imparts
philosophical knowledge and spiritual learning. They are
also called Vedanta.
There are total 108 Upanishads
Brihadaranyaka Upanishad provides the first refernece of
the ideal rebirth.
Horses and Cows finds special mention. Horses were
yoked to chariots that were used in the battles, which
were fought to capture cattles. Battles were also fought
for land, which was important for growing hardy crops that
ripened quickly, such as barley. Some battles were
fought for water and to capture people.

SAPTASINDHU
The seven rivers included Sindhu, Vitasta (Jhelum),
Asikni (Chenab), Parushni (Ravi), Vipash (Beas),
Shutudri (Sutlej) and the Sarasvati.
According to Jaina Tradition, 24
Tirthankars were responsible for
the origin and development of
Jaina religion and philosophy.
They all are Kshatriyas belonging
to Royal families.
Rishabha was the first
Tirthankara. He is described as
the incarnation of Narayana in
the Vishnu Purana and Bhagavad
Purana.
The 23rd Tirthankara,
Parsvanatha, was the son of king
Ashvasena of Varanasi. He died at
the age of 100 at Sammet Sikhar
(Parsvanatha Hill), Hazaribagh,
Jharkhand.

Doctrines

Code of Conduct
Philosophy

Sects
 Councils

Spread

Contribution
Literature
 Jainism and Buddhism
The Vedic religious practices had become more cumbersome. Sacrifices and rituals increased and become more elaborate an
Kshatriyas also wield more political power than before.
As Jainism and Buddhism did not give much importance to the notion of birth for social status, they attracted the Vaisyas to t

JAINISM
Vardhmana Mahavira was born in 540 BC in a village near Vaishali. His father
Siddhartha was the head of a famous Kshatriya clan and his mother was Trishala, sister
of the Lichchhavi Princess Chief Chetaka, whose daughter was wedded to Bimbisara. His
wife Yasoda and daughter Anojja.
Mahavira's family was connected with the Royal family of Magadha.

Mahavira abandoned the world at the age of 30 and became an Ascetic. He wandered
for 12 years, during the course of his journey, it is said, he never changed his clothes
and abandoned them at the age of 42 (when he attained Kaivalaya, enlightenment) at
Jimbhikagrama on the bank of Rijupalika river undera Sal tree.

He propagated Jainism for 30 years and his mission took him to Koshala, Magadha,
Mithila, Champa etc. He passed away at the age of 72 in 468 BC at a place called
Pavapuri near modern Rajgir.

According to Jaina teachings, the cycle of birth and rebirth is shaped through karma.
Asceticism and penance are required to free oneself from the cycle of karma.
1. Ahimsa (Non Violence): To cause no harm to living beings.
2. Satya (Truthfulness): To always speak of truth
3. Asteya (Non-Stealing): Not to take into possession anything
4. Brahmacharya (Celibacy): To exercise control over sensed from undulgence
5. Aparigraha (Non-Materialism): To observe detachment from people, places
and material things.

A code of conduct was prescribed both for householder and for monks. A householder
was supposed to follow the five Anuvratas
(i) Non-injury
(ii) Non-stealing
(iii) Non-adultery
(iv) Speaking in truth
(v) Non-possession

A Jaina monk had to observe certain strict rule. Jainism believed that monastic life was
essential to attain salvation and householder could not attain it.
Nyayvada: The object of knowledge is highly complex and cannot be fully conceived by
a man. Therefore, the man's conception is valid only from a particular stand point.
Saptavanginyaya: There are seven points of view and none of the seven views are
comprehensive. So man's statement is conditional i.e. not fully true.
Syadvada: The theory of may be
Anekantvada: Doctrine of maryness of reality.

Five Categories of Siddhas (Devotees)

Tirthankara : who has attained salvation
Arihant : who is about to attain nirvana
Acharya : The head of ascetic group
Upadhyay : Teacher or saint
Sadhu : includes the rest

Three Ratnas:

Right Faith : Samyak Vishwass

Right Knowledge : Samyak Gyan
Right Conduct : Samyak Karma

After the death of Mahavira, during the reign of Chandragupta Maurya, a severe famine
led to a great exodus of Jain monks from Gangetic valley to Deccan.
This migration led to a Great Schism in Jainism.

Followers of Bhadrabahu, who accompanied him to South were known as Digambars as

they believed in the retention of the rule of nudity.

Sthulabhadra, the leader of the monks who remained in North, and his followers were
known as Svetambaras as they wore white garments.
First Council
Held at Patliputra, at about 300 BC. It resulted in the compilation of 12 Angas (sections)
to replace the last 14 Purvas (former texts).

Second Council
Held at Vallabhi in 512 AD and was presided over by Devardhi Kshamasramana. The
purpose of this council was to collect the sacred texts and write them down
systematically. The council resulted in the final compilation of 12 Angas and 12
Upangas.

The spread of Jainism in Karnataka is attributed to Chandragupta Maurya, who became

a Jaina, gave up his throne and spent the last years of his life in Karnataka (Shravana
Belagola) as a Jaina ascetic.
In the period between the Mauryas and the Guptas, Jainism can be traced from Orissa
in the east to Mathura in the west, but in later times it was chiefly concentrated in two
regions:
(i) Gujarat and Rajasthamn, where the Svetambara sect prevailed and
(ii) Mysore, where the Digambaras were dominant.

Jainism made the first serious attempt to mitigate the evils of Varna order and ritualistic
Vedic religion. They adopted Prakrit language of the common peopleto preach their
doctrines.
The most important idea in Jainism is that the entire world is animated: even stones,
rocks and water have life. Non-injury to living beings, especially to humans, animals,
plants and insects is central to Jaina philosophy.

Hagiography is a biography of a saint or religious leader.

 Jainism and Buddhism
rituals increased and become more elaborate and expensive. This established the domination of Brahmins in the society.

h for social status, they attracted the Vaisyas to their fold.

BUDDHISM
Buddha was born as Siddhartha in 563 BC in Shakya Kshatriya family in Lumbini in Nepal near Kapilvastu. His
father Sudhodhana was the elected ruler of kapilvastu and headed the republican clan of the Shakyas. His
mother Mahamaya was a princess from the Koshalan dynasty. He was married at the age of 16 to
Yashodhara, daughter of a neighbouring chieftan. His son was named Rahul.

Siddhartha was moved by misery, which people suffered in the world and looked for its solution. At the age
of 29, he left home and kept wandering for 7 years and then attained knowledge at the age of 35 at Bodh
Gaya under a pipal tree. From this time, he began to be called as Buddha.

Buddha delivered his first sermon at Sarnath in Banaras. He kept on wandering, preaching and meditating
continuously for 40 years, resting only in rainy season every year. Gautam Buddha passed away at the age of
80 in 483 BC at a place called Kushinagar, identical with the village called Kasia in Deoria district of Eastern
Uttar Pradesh.

The Buddha was a practical reformer. His primary aim was to secure deliverance from the grim reality of
sorrow and suffering. So, he pronounced the Four Nobel Truths (Arya Satya)
1. There is suffering
2. This suffering maust have a cause which is desire.
3. Suffering must be got rid of.
4. In order to get rid of suffering one must know the right way

He recommended an eight fold path

1. Right understanding 2. Right thought
3. Righ speech 4. Right action
5. Right livelihoods 6. Right effort
7. Right mindfulness 8. Right concentration
The great middle path is term that describe the character of the path that leads to liberation or Nirvana,
which implies not only the extinction of desire, but also the attainment of a perfect state of tranquility.
Emphasis is laid on the observance of the Silas (moralities), Samadhi (concentration) and Prajna (insight).

Buddhism does not recognise the existence of God and Soul. It particularly won the hearts of the lower
orders as it attacked the Varna System.
People were taken into the Buddhist order without any consideration of caste. Women were also admitted
to the Sangha and thus brought par with men.
Buddhism was liberal and democratic. The Buddha repudiated the authority of the Vedas and rituals.
Tri ratnas (Three Jewels of Buddhism are)

Buddha - The enlightened

Dhamma - The doctrine
Sangha - The order

Buddhism was divided into three main sects

Hinayana or lesser Wheel: Its follower believedthe original teachings of Buddha. They sought individual
salvation through self-discipline and meditation. They did not believe in idol worship. The oldest school of
Hinayana is the Sthaviravada (Theravada in Pali) or the Doctrine of Elders. Hinayana Buddhist used Pali
language as it was the language of the masses. Ashoka patronised Hinayanism.
Mahayana or Greater Wheel: Its followers believed in the heavenlines of Buddha and sought the salvation of
all through the grace and help of Buddha and Bodhisattvas. It believes in Idol worship.
Mahyana had two chief philosophical namely as schools the Madhyamika (propounded by Nagarjuna) and
Yogachara (founded by Maitreyanatha). Sanskrit, the language of scholars, was used by Mahayana
Buddhists.
Kanishka patronised Mahanayanism. Later Harsha supperted it.
Vajrayana or Vehicle of Thunderbolt: Its followers believed that salvation could be best attained by acquiring
the magical power, which they called Vajra. The chief divinites of this sect was Tara. It became popular in
Eastern India, particularly in Bengal and Bihar.
No. Venue Presiding Priest King Major Outcomes
First Satparni Mahakassapa Ajatashatru Upali recited the Vinay Pitaka which contains the
Rajagriha rules of the Buddhist order; Anand, the other disciple
(483 BC) of the Buddha, recited Suttapitaka, containing the
great collection of Buddha's sermons on matters of
doctrine and ethical beliefs.
Second Vaishali Sabakami Kalasoka Split of the Buddhist order into Sthaviravadins or
(383 BC) Theravadnis and Mahasanghikas over small points of
monastic discipline.
Third Pataliputra Upagupta Ashoka Establishment of the Sthaviravada school as an
(250 BC) orthodox school; Codification of Abhidhamma Pitaka,
which deals with philosophy of Buddhism in Pali.
Fourth Kundalvana Vasumitra; Kanishka Division of Buddhism into the Mahayana and
Kashmir Asvaghosha Hinayana sects
(72 AD) (deputy of
Vasumitra)

During Buddha's time, Buddhism was accepted by a large section of people. People of Magadha, Kosala,
Kausambi, Republics of Shakya, Vajjis and Mallas had embraced Buddhism.
Ashoka and Kanishka made Buddhism state religion and it spread into Central Asia, West Asia and Sri
Lanka.
Buddhism appeals to large section of population because it Emphasis on practical morality, a simple
philosophy and easily acceptable solution to the problems of mankind.
The idea of social equality laid down in the codes of Buddhism
The use of Pali language to explain the doctrines.
Buddhist Literature: Tripitakas of Buddhism
The Pali canons were first codified at the first council held at Rajagriha.
1. The Sutta Pitaka is a collection of Buddha's sermon and is divided into five groups (Nikayas)
(i) Digha Nikaya
(ii) Madhyami Nikaya
(iii) Samyakya Nikaya
(iv) Anguttara Nikaya
(v) Khuddaka Nikaya
2. The Vinay Pitaka contains the rule and regulations of monastic discipline (Sangha) for monks and is
divided into five groups
(i) Maha Varga
(ii) Kasullak Varga
(iii) Paschatta Varga
(iv) Parajika Varga
(v) Parivara Varga
3. The Abhidhamma Pitaka contains profound philosophy of Buddha's teachings
(i) The Jatak is a collection of over 500 poems, which describes the previous birth of Buddha
(ii) The Buddhavamsa contains legends of verses about the 24 Buddhas, who preceded Gautama in earlier
times.
(iii) Milind Panho is a discussion between Indo-Greek ruler Menander and Buddhist monk Nagasena.

As Buddhism travelled to new regions such as Sri Lanka, other texts such as the Dipavamsa (the chronicle of
the island) and Mahavamsa (the great chronicle) were written containing regional histories of Buddhism.
When Buddhism spread to East Asia, pilgrims such as Fa Xian and Xuan Zang travelled all the way from
China to India in search of texts. These they took back to their own country, where they were translated by
scholars.
 The Mahajanpads
Mahajanapads represent the state system that emerged in the 6th century BC. The Buddhist
text Angutar Nikaya (a part of Sutta Pitaka), provides the names of 16 Mahajanapads at the
time of Buddha. (another texts which authenticates the same are Bhagvati Sutra (Jain) and
Mahavastu (Buddha).
These mahajnapads were either monarchical or republican in character.
Rise of Magadha
The period from 6th to 4th century BC saw the struggle for supermacy aming four
mahajanapads- Magadha, Kosala, Vatsa and Avanti. Ultimately Magadha emerged as the
most powerful and prosperous kingdom in North India.
The founder of Magadh was Jarasandha and Brihadratha. But the growth started under the
Haryankas.

The Haryanka Dynasty

Founded in 566 BC by grandfather of Bimbisara, but came into prominence under the
leadership of Bimbisara. He strengthened his position by matrimonial alliances.
Bimbisara was succeeded by his son Ajatshatru (492-460 BC). He pursued an aggressive
policy of expansion. Ajatshatru was succeeded by Udayin (460-444 BC).
Udayin built a fort on the confluence of Ganga and Son rivers at Patliputra (Patna), thus
transferred his capital from Rajgir to Patliputra.

Sisunaga Dynasty:
Udayin was succeeded by Sisunaga, who temporarily shifted the capital to Vaishali.
Their greatest achievement was the destruction of the power of Avanti (capital at ujjain).
This brought an end to 100 years old rivalry between Magadha and Avanti.
Kalasoka succeeded Sisunaga, who transferred the capital from Vaishali to Patliputra.

Nanda Dynasty (Mahapadma Nanda, founder).

The Sisunagas were succeeded by Nandas, who proved to be the most powerful rulers of
Magadha.
It is considered to be first non-Kshatriya dynasty.
The Nandas added to the Magadhan power by conquering Kalinga from where they brought
an image of Jina as a victory trophy.
Mahapadma Nanda was also known as Ekarat, Ek-chchhatra and Sarvakshatrantaka.
The last ruler, Dhana Nanda was defeated by Chandragupta Maurya.
The Mahajanpads
Factors which Contibuted to the formation and growth of State
The widespread use of iron in Eastern Ganga valley
The practise of wet rice cultivation was adopted.
Iron weapons enabled the warrior class to tighten their control over peasents, thus, faciliating
emergence of an elaborate taxation system.

Causes for rise:

Abundance of iron enabled Magadhan rulers to equip with effective weapons
Alluvial soil of the Gangetic valley and sufficient rainfall were very conducive for agriculture.
Use of elephants on large scale in war.
Contribution of several enterprising and ambitious rulers and their policies.

The earliest capital of Magadh was Rajgriha, which was called Girivraj at that time. It was
surrounded by five hills, the openings in which were closed by stone walls on all sides. This
made Rajgriha impregnable.

Iranian Invasion:
The Archaemenian ruler of Iran, who extended their empire at the same time as the
Magadhan kings, took advantages of the political disunity on the North-West frontier.
Herodotus, the Greek historain, also known as the Father of History tell that in 516 BC,
Darius (552-486 BC), grandson of Cyrus, sent a naval expedition to explore the valley of
Sindhu river and annexed the part of Punjab and Sindh.
Effects:
Introduction of the Aramic form of writing, which later developed into Kharoshthi alphabets
Promotion of Indo-Iranian trade
Geographical exploration of the Indus and Arabian sea, leading to opening of a new water
route.

Alexander's Invasion
In the 4th BC, the Greeks and the Iranians fought for the supermacy of the world. The Greek
ruler Alexander conquered not only Asia minor and Iraq but also Iran. From Iran he marched
to India.
Effects of Greek Invasion
It opened the trade route between North-West India and Western Asia and Europe came
into contact.
Indians learnt from the Greek in the field of Astronomy, coinage, architecture and sculpture
(Gandhara School)
Many Greek scholars came to India and wrote on Indian History which is relevant in
constructions of contemporary socio-religious aspects.
 The Mauryan Empire

Ruler
Chandragupta Maurya (321-298 BC)
Mauryan dynasty founded by Chandragupta (at the age of 25). He took
advantage of growing weakness of the Nandas in the last days of their rule
and with the help of Chanakya he overthrew the last ruler Dhanananda.
In 305 BC, Chandragupta moved towards North-West for a campaign against
Seleucus Nicator, which ended with a treaty of 303 BC in the favour of
Mauryas. Chandragupta gave 500 elephants to Seleucus and in return,
Seleucus gave him Eastern Afghanistan, Baluchistan and the areas West of
Indus. There was a matrimonial alliance between Seleucus and
Chandragupta.
Chandragupta went to South India with Bhadrabahu, the Jaina saint. At
Shravana Belagola, he spent rest of his life and died in the orthodox Jain way
by slow starvation (Sallekhana).

Bindusara (298-273 BC)

Son of Chandragupta. He continued his friendly relations with Syrian King
Antiochus I.
Deimachus, the Ambassador of Antiochus-I was said to have been in his
court.
Bindusara's religious learnings are said to be more towards the Ajivika sect
which was founded by Makkali Gosala.
Various names of Bindusara are
Amitraghat (Sanskritliterature)
Amitchetas (Strabo, greek version of Amitraghat)
Seemseri (Rajvalli Katha)
Bindupala (Fa-Feenchulin or slayer of foes)

Ashoka (273-232
He was a viceroy at Ujjain. He was coronated in 269 BC (4 years after the
death of his father).

After ascending the throne, Ashoka spen several years in extreme pleasure
and came to be called as Kamasoka.
This was followed by a period of extreme wickedness, which earned him the
name of Chandasoka.
Finally, his conversion to Buddhism earned him the name Dhammasoka.

After Kalinga war, Ashoka abandoned the policy of physical occupation in

favour of cultural conquest.
Bhabru inscription states that two years after the war, Ashoka became an
ardent supporter of Buddhism, under the influnce of Buddhist monk
Upagupta.

Ashoka's Dhamma
The Dhamma, according to the Ashoka's edict is not a religion or religious
system but a moral law (a common code of conduct).
Ashoka asked people to show respect towards elders, abstain from killing of
living beings, to maintian purity of heart and truthfulness.

Art and Architecture

1. Pillars and Sculpture:
2. Stupas: The main purpose of building stupas was to enshrine some relics
of Buddha or some great buddhist monk. The best example is Sanchi stupa.
3. Caves: The caves primarily served as residences of monks and assembly
halls. Lomas rishi and Sudama caves were donated by Ashoka to Ajivikas.

.
The most immediate and unexpected by product of Alexander's invasion of the
North-West was that it hastened the Mauryan conquest of the whole country.

Literary Source
Arthashastra

Written by Kautilya (Chanakya), Prime minister of Chandragupta Maurya.

This is a treatise on statecraft and public administration. It is divided into 15
adhikarans (sections) and 180 prakaranas (chapters).
It is written in prose as well as in verse in Sanskrit.
"A full treasury is a guarantee of the prosperity of the state".
Arthsahastra describes the system of revenue at great length.
Also mentioned- various aspects of espionage, Army organisation and
Training.
Arthashastra refers to troops recruited from all four Varnas.
Laws concerning marriage.

Indica

Written in Greek by Megasthenese, ambassador of Seleucus Nicator.

Information provided by him:
King employed a large body of spies, armed female guards of king.
Criminal law was severe, death was awarded for injuring the royal artisans.
Wood was the principal material used in construction. Broad-sword was
principal weapon. Four horses usually drew the chariots.
Description of Patliputra.

Ashoka (273-232 BC)

 Ashoka's Edicts
Ashokan edicts are inscribed on pillars of stone or on rocks.
Ashokan inscription use three different languages Prakrit, Greek and Aramic
and 4 srcipts Brahmi, Kharoshthi, Greek and Aramic.
There are 14 Major rock edicts found at 8 places.
Minor rock edicts are spread on 13 places which includes
Kandhar Inscriptions
Bhabru inscription: Bairat, Rajasthan, deals with Ashoka's conversion to
Buddhism.

There are seven Major pillar edicts. These edicts are engraved on monolithic
pillars.
Minor pillar edicts
Rummindei: It mentions the exemption of Lumbini from tax
Nigalisagar: Kapilvastu, informs about Ashoka increasing the size of stupa of
Buddha Konakamana to its double.
Scheism: appeals for maintaining unity in buddhist order
Barabara Cave: Ashoka's donation of cave to the Ajivikas.

Art and Architecture

4. Palaces: Excavations has revealed a Royal palace in ruined condition near
Kumrahar.
5. Terracotta objects: Primitive idols or images, toys, dice, ornaments and
leads.
6. Folk arts: The example includes Yaksha of Parkham, Yakshini of Besnagar
and Chamargrahini of Diarganj. These statues are made of stone.
1. Prohibiton on animal slaughter and festivities
2. Mention of places of Cholas, Pardayans,Satayaputras and Keralputras.
3.Directions for propagation of Dhamma
4. Impact of Dhamma on society. Non violence towards animals.
5. Appointments of Dhamma mahamatras
6. Welfare measures and efficient organisation of administration.
7. Propagation of peace, balance of mind and faith
8. Details of visit to Bodhi tree, Dhammasutras
9. Stress on ceremony of Dhamma
10. Ashoka's desire to gain popularity for Dhamma
11. Appraisal of Dhamma, religious tolerance
12. Promotion to religion of different faiths, change of heart after kalinga war.
13. Largest of all- victory over Kalinga, mention of greek rulers, castles like-

Kamboj, Nabhkas etc.

14. Nature of all other rock edicts.
 Post Maurya Age
Northern and Eastern India

The Sunga Dynasty (185-75 BC)

Pushyamitra Sunga, who assasinated the last Mauryan king Brihadrath in 184 BC, was the founder of
this dynasty.
According to Puranas, Pushyamitra ruled till 148 BC.
The great Grammarian Patanjali was a contemporary of Pushyamitra.
Pushyamitra performed the Ashvamedha sacrifice.

Pushyamitra was succeeded by his son Agnimitra, who was the hero of Kalidas's drama
Malvikagnimitram. He ruled for eight years.
Later kings are
Vasumitra
Bhagavat: identified with Bhagabhadra of Vidisa pillar inscription
Devbhuti: The last king of the dynasty. According to Puranas, he was incapable and ease loving ruler.
He was put to death by his minister Vasudeva Kanav in 75 BC.

The Kanva Dynasty (75-30 BC)

Vasudeva was the founder of this dynasty in Magadha. There were only 4 Kanva kings who ruled from
patliputra.
Bhumimitra succeeded Vasudeva, who was followed by his son Narayana.
Narayana was succeeded by his son Susarman.

Deccan and Central In

The Satavahana Dynasty
The Satavahana appeared as the successors of Mauryas in Deccan. The Puranas list thirty kings of
the dynasty ruling for over 460 years.
The Satavahanas were known as Andhras, Andhrajatiyah and Andhrabhrityas in the puranic list. Some
Historians suggest their place of origin in Maharashtra. Two inscription of the Satavahanas i.e.
Nanaghat and Nasik have been discovered in Maharashtra.
Rulers
1. Simuka: founder of this dynasty. He was the immediate successor of Ashoka and there are
references that he built many Buddhist and Jaina temples. After a reign of 23 years, he was
assasinated and succeeded by his brother Kanha.
2.Kanha: ruled between 207-189 BC, as confirmed by Nasik inscription.
3. Satkarni: son of Simuka. He married Naganika and took the title of Dakshina Pathapati and
Aparatihata Chakra. Naganika's Nasik inscriptions describe about his achievements.
4. Sri Satkarni I: performed two Ashvamedha and one Rajsuya sacrifice.
5. Sri Satkarni II: ruled for 65 years.
Administration:
The kingdom was divided into Janpadas which were futrther sub-divided into Aharas. Each Ahara was
under an Amatya. The basic unit of Ahara was Grama with the village headman called Gamik.
The Satavahana rulers were Brahmans and they represented the march of triumphant Brahmanism.
They worshipped a large number of Vaishnava Gods such as Krishna, Vasudeva and Others.

Chedi Dynasty of Kalinga

The dynasty whose capital was Kalinganagar rose to prominence in the middle of the 1 BC under
Kharavela, whose achievements are given in detail in the Hathigumpha inscription (written in Prakrit
language and Brahmi script).
Kharvela was a follower of Jainism and he patronised this religion.

Invasion from Central

The first to invade India were the Greeks, who were also called the Bactrian Greeks. Two Greek
dynasties ruled North-Western India on parallel lines at one and the same point.
The most famous Indo-Greek ruler was Menander (165-145 BC) with his capital at Sakala in Punjab.
His reign is mentioned in the famous Milinda Panho written by Buddhist scholar Nagasena.

The Shakas (90 BC - AD 100)

The Greeks were followed by the Shakas, who controlled a much greater part of India than the Greeks
did. There wer five brances of the Shakas with their seats of power in different parts of India and
Afghanistan.
One branch of Shakas settled in Afghanistan.
The second branch settled in Punjab with its capital as Taxila.
The third branch settled in Mathua.
The fourth branch established its hold over western India.
The fifth branch of shakas established its power in upper deccan.

The Parthians (AD 19-45)

The Shakas domination in North-Western India was followed by that of the Parthians and in many
ancient Indian Sanskrit texts the two people are together mentioned as Shakas-Pallavas.
Originally, the Parthians lived in Iran from they moved to India. In comparison with the Greeks and the
Shakas they occupied a small portion of North-Western.
The most famous Parthian's king was Gondophernes, in whose reign St Thomas is said to have come
to India for the propagation of Christianity.
 The period after Mauryas is notable for intimate and widespread contacts between Central Asia and India. Mauryas were
succeeded by many native rulers such as Sungas, Kanvas and the Satvahanas.

The information about the Sunga dynasty is found in Gargi Samhita (Mahabhasya of Patanjali), Malvikagnimitram
(Kalidas) and Harshcharita (Bana). The capital of the Sungas was Patliputra and Vidisha.

The Sunga period is remarkable for the revival of Brahmanism and growing importance of Bhagavata religion. The Sunga
dynasty's greatest achievement was the safeguarding of India from the invasions of Hunas. They valiantly resisted the
Huna's attacks.
Hunas: One of the fierce tribes from Central Asia. They had been invading India since the Sunga period. They were
resisted by the rulers until the second half of AD 5th Century. But the weakness of Gupta Empire provided them with a
chance to occupy Eastern Malva and a good portion of Central India.

Heliodorus: Ambassador of Greek king Antialicdas and stayed in the court of Bhagabhadra. He constructed a pillar at
Vidisha in honour of God Vasudev. The pillar is also known as Garudadhwaja.

According to Puranas, the Andhrabhrityas overthrew this dynasty. However there is no evidence of Magadha occupation
by Satavahanas.

Deccan and Central India

6. Hala: was the 17th ruler of this dynasty. His reign of five years (20-25 AD) was a period of great prosperity. He himself
composed Gathasaptasati, ad anthology of 700 erotic verses in Maharashtri or Paisachi Prakrit.
7. Gautami Putra Satkarni: was the greatest ruler of this dynasty (80-104 AD). He revived the Satavahana power and is
called as Ekabrahmana. His achievements are recorded in the Nasik prasasti by his mother Gautami Balasri.
by defeating Naphpana, he rooted out Saka Satrapas and recovered all the lost territories. Coins found from Jogalthambi
indicate his victory over Nahpana.
8. Vasishtiputra Pulamayi: ruled for 24 years (130-154 AD). His coins have been found in Godavari and Guntur districts.
Pulamayi's reference is found in the largest number of Satvahana inscriptions. The old Stupa at Amravati was repaired
and enlarged.
9. Yajna Shri Satkarni: (170-194 AD) was the last great king of this dynasty to have control over the two seas.
 Architecture:
In the Satavahana phase, many temples and monastries were cut out of the solid rock in the North-Western Deccan or
Maharashtra with great skill.
The common structures were the temple which was called Chaitya and the monastery which was called Vihar.
The Chaitya was a large hall with a number of columns, and the Vihara consisted of a central hall entered by a doorway
from a Verandah in front. The Viharas were excavated near the Chaityas for the residence of Monks in the rainy season.

The first known king of the dynasty was Mahameghavarmana.

Kharvela is said to have defeated Bahasapatimitra, captured the fortress of Garathgiri and recovered an image of a Jaina
saint from Magadha, which had been previously carried away from Kalinga by Mahapadma Nanda.
He is also credited with the construction of a magificent temple at Bhubaneswar.
In the ninth year of his reign Kharvela built Mahavijaya Prasad (place of Great Victory) on both banks of River Prachi, in
order to commemorate his victories in North.

Invasion from Central Asia

The Indo-Greek rule is important in the history of India because of large number of coins which the Greeks issued.
The Greek rule introduced features of Hellenistic art in the North-West frontier of India. This art was not purely Greek, but
was a outcome of their contact with Non-Greek conquered peoples.
Gandhara art was its best example in India.

Rudradaman I
The Shakas used prestigious titles such as Rajadhiraj in addition of Maharaj.
The most famous Shaka ruler in India was Rudradaman I (AD 130-150). He ruled not only over Sindh, but also over a
good part of Gujarat, Konkan, the Narmada valley, Malwa and Kathiawar.
He undertook to improve the Sudarshan Lake in the Semi-arid Zone of Kathiawar.
Although, a foreigner settled in India, he issued first ever long inscription in chaste Sanskrit The Junagarh Rock
Inscription.
The Shaka era is used by the Indian National Calendar and a few other Hindu calendars.

The Kushanas (AD 45-73)

The Parthians were followed by the Kushanas, who were also called Yuehchis.
The kushanas Chief Kujula Kadphises united the tribes of Yuehchi.
We came across two successive dynasties of the Kushanas.
The first dynasty was founded by a house of Chiefs who were called Kadphises.
The houses of Kadphises was succeeded by that of Kanishka. Its kingdom extended the Kushana power over upper India
and lower Indus basin.

Kanishka
Kanishka patronised Charaka who wrote Charak Samhita.
Another great medical student Sushruta also belonged to Kanishka's time.
SANGAM LITERATURE
Sangam were the socities of learned men. As per tradition, there were three Sangams under the patronage of Pandyan Kings.
Sangam
1s
2nd
3rd
The AD 1st Century witnessed the formation of three states respectively
under the Cholas, Cheras and Pandyas.
Some important factors behind their rising
Spread of Iron technology
Monetisation of economy
Development of North-South trade
Flourishing trade with the Roman Empire

The Chola Kingdom:

The first ruler was Uruvapperhare-iulanjeltani.
The eminent ruler of the kingdom was Karikal (man with charred leg). His
dramatic capture of throne is portrayed ia a poem in Pattupattu.
He is believed to have been extended his authority over Ceylon. He
founded Puhar which became coastal capital of cholas.
But the successors of Karikal were weak and the kingdom declined under
them.
One of the main reasons for the decline was attacks by neighbouring
territory of the Cheras and Pandyas.

The society in Sangam age was divided into two classes

1. Brahmins and
2. Non-Brahmins
The agricultural communities were called Vallangai and craftsmen were
Illangai.
Untouchables were called Parriyas.
Prevalence of Devdasi system hints degradation of social condition of
women.

.
e were three Sangams under the patronage of Pandyan Kings. The Sangam age in Tamil literautre was a period of great glory.
Venue
Madura
Kapatpuram
North Mudra
The three Sangam Kingdoms
Kingdom Capital Royal Emblem
Cholas Uraiyur (later Puhar) Tiger
Cheras Vanji or Karur Bow
Pandyas Madurai Carp (fish)

The Chera Kingdom:

The Cheras were also known as Keralputras.
Nedunjeral is the first known Chera King. He is said to have fed both the
armies of the Mahabharata war at Kurukshetra and so had earned the title
of Udiyanjiral.
The history of the Cheras was marked by continuous fight with the cholas
and the Pandyas.
Senguttuvan the Red Chera, according to Chera poets, was the greaest
Chera king. It is said that he invaded the North and crossed the Ganga. He
is remembered for building a temple of Kannagi. The worship of Kannagi
(Pattini cult) was started by him. After the 2nd century the Chera power
declined.

The religion in Sangam age was influenced by rituals and animism.

Animism accounts for a good part of Tamil Sangam religion and comprised
worship of stones, water, stars and planets.
A planted log of wood called Kandu was an object of worship.
The sangam people worshipped Murugan, Tirumal, Balram and Indra in
the temple known as Nagar, Kottam, Purai or Devalayam. The worship of
Kannagi was common.
The Vedic religion too had struck its roots, which accounts for elaborate
sacrifices made by the monarchs of the age.
There was a special festival instituted in Puhar dedicated to the Vedic God
Indra.
age in Tamil literautre was a period of great glory.
Chairman
Agastaya
Agastaya (Founder) Tolakappiyar (later)
Nakkirar

Royal Emblem
uhar) Tiger
Bow
Carp (fish)

The Pandyan Kingdom:

It was first mentioned by Megasthenese, who stated that Pandyas were
famous for the rule of a Woman and Pearls. The first ruler of this dynasty
was Nediyan.
He is accredited with bringing into existence the river Pahrulli and starting
sea worship.
Nediyan was the most important King of the Pandyas. He accused Kovalan
of theft.
As result, the city of Madurai was laid under a curse by Kannagi (Kovalan's
wife).

The Sangam literautre can roughly be divided into two groups, narrative
and didactic.
The narrative texts are called Melkannaku or Eighteen major works.
The didactic works are called Kilkanakku or eighteen minor works.
THE GUPTA EMPIRE
Rise of the Guptas:
Centre of their operation lays in the fertile land of Madhyadesa covering Bihar and Uttar Pradesh. They could
exploit the iron-ores of Central India and South Bihar.
Being feudatories of the Kushanas at one time, they learnt from the Kushanas, the use of saddle, reins etc.
These gave them mobility and made them excellent horsemen.
They skillfully used matrimonial alliances to consolidate their power.

Srigupta
The Gupta Dynasty was founded by Srigupta in the AD 3rd century. He used the title of Maharaja.
The Poona Copper plate inscriptions of Prabhavati Gupta describe Sri Gupta as the Adiraja of the Gupta
Dynasty.
Chandragupta I (AD 319-335)
Ghatotkacha was succeeded by his son Chandragupta I, who assumed the title of Maharaja Dhiraja. Like
Bimbisara, he strengthened his position by matrimonial alliances with the Lichchhavis. He married
Lichchhavi Princess Kumaradevi. Specially Kumaradevi type coins were minted to commemorate her
marriage to Chandragupta I.

Samudragupta (AD 335-375)

The Gupta Empire was enlarged enormously by Chandragupta's son and successor Samudragupta. The
basic information about his reign is provided by Prayag Prasasti, composed by court poet Harisena, and
engraved on the Ashokan Pillar inscription.
Samudragupta followed the policy of conquest for his military achievements, he has been complemented as
Indian Napolean by historian V A Smith. He described Samudragupta as the Hero of Hundred battles. He is
mentioned as great musician and issued coins of veena type. He is also mentioned as Kaviraja.

Chandragupta II (AD 380-412)

Samudragupta was succeeded by Chandragupta II. He extended the limits of his empire by matrimonial
alliances and conquests. He married Naga princess Kubernaga and allied himself with the powerful
Vakatakas of the Deccan by marrying his daughter Prabhavati with the Vakataka Prince Rudrasena.
Chandragupta II conquered Western Malwa and Gujarat from the Shaka Kshatriyas.
Chandragupta II adopted the title of Vikramaditya as a mark of victory over the Shakas Kshatrapas of
Western India.

Kumargupta (AD 415-455)

Nothing is known about his political career, but numismatics and epigraphic evidence indicates that the
strength, unity and prestige of the empire remained unshaken in his reign.
Vilsada edict provides information about beginning of his reign. Towards the close of his reign, the Gupta
power was seriously menaced by the Hunas.
Bhittari pillar edict informs that Pushyamitras attacked Gupta Empire towards close of his empire but were
defeated by Skandagupta.

Skandagupta
He was the one of the greatest rulers of Gupta dynasty. His chief claim to fame in Gupta history rests upon
his remarkable defence of the territorial integrity of the Gupta empire both against foreign invasion as well as
internal upheavals.
Administration:
All powers were concentrated with the King, often an element of divinity was attached to the kings and they
were looked upon as Gods.
A Council of Ministers and several civil officials assisted the king. The most important officers in the Gupta
empire were the Kumaramatyas.

Economy
The agricultural crops constituted the main resources which the society produced and the major part of the
revenue of the state came from agriculture.
The sources of the Gupta period suggest that certain important changes were taking place in the agranian
society.
Feudal developments surfaced under the Guptas with te grant of fiscal and administrative concessions to
priests and administrator.

A new office of Sandhivigrahaka first appears under the Gupta ruler Samudragupta. He was the minister of
peace and war.
For the first time, civil and criminal law were clearly defined and demarcated. The King acted as the fountain
head of justice and decided all disputes in general. Punishments were light and mild.
Social Life: The Brahmans claimed many previliges on account of wealth accumulated by land grants.
The position of Shudras improved in the Gupta period. They wer now permitted to listen to the epics and
Puranas. They could also worship Lord Krishna and were allowed to perform certain domestic rites.
But the practice of untouchability became more intense than before.
The position of women deteriorated further, Polygamy was common. The first example of sati appears in the
Gupta period in AD 510 in Eran in Madhya Pradesh.

Art and Architecture:

In art, architecture, sculpture, painting and terracotta figurines, the Gupta period witnessed unprecedented
activities and development all over India.
It initiated a creative and formative period for the foundation of a typical Indian temple architecture.
Ghatotkachagupta:
He succeeded Srigupta, his father. He also took the title of Maharaja.

Fa-Hein Navratans in
A chinese buddhist monk, who travelled from China to India, visiting Chandragupta II's court
sacred Buddhist sites to acquire Buddhist scriptures. His journey is (i)Kalidas, (ii) Amarsingh,
described in his important travelouge, a record of Buddhist Kingdom. (iii) Dhanvantri, (iv)
He visited India during reign of Chandragupta II for his pilgrimage to Vrahmihira, (v) Vararuchi,
Lumbini. (vi) Ghatakarna, (vii)
He also wrote a book on his travels, filled with accounts of early Kshpranak, (viii) Velabhatt
Buddhism, and the Geography and History of numerous countries and (ix) Shanku
along the silk routes.

University of Nalanda was established during the reign of Kumargupta.

Provincial and Local Administration City Administration
The empire was divided into Bhuktis headed by Uparika Paura was the council responsible for city
Bhuktis into districts called Vishyas headed by Vishyapati. administration.
Vishyas were divided into Vithis and Vithis into villages. It included
The police arrangements were efficient in the state President of the city corporation,
Head of the frontier state was known as Gopta. Chief representative of the guild of merchants,
A representative of the artisans and
Chief accountant

A study of inscriptions of the Gupta period reveals that 18 different

taxes were levied at that time. Land tax was between one-fourth to
one-sixth of the produce.

Religion: Since, the society was highly materialistic Hinduism revived.

Bhagavatism (Vaishnavism) centred around the worship of Vishnu and
originated in post Mauryan times under the patronage of Gupta rulers.

Literature:
The growing influence of Brahmanical religion gave an impetus to the
development of Sanskrit which displaced Prakrit as the popular
language. Most of the inscriptions were written in Sankrit which
bacame official language of Gupta period.
Some historians put
Ramagupta between
Samudragupta and
Chandragupta II.
Ramagupta is the elder
brother of Chandragupta II.
 ion
council responsible for city

city corporation,
ative of the guild of merchants,
e of the artisans and
nt
 The Post Gupta Era
The Hunas: The Maukharis:
It was a barbarious race, which came to India They held the region of Western Uttar
from Central Asia. Hunas invaded India for the Pradesh around Kannauj. They had
first time during the reign of Kumargupta. conquered a part of Magadha. Isanavarman
They could not succeed in India under and his son Sarvavarman were powerful
Kumargupta and Skandagupta but under rulers of this dynasty.
weak Guptas they could penetrate into India.
They established their supermacy in North
The
India.Pushyabhutis:
Their capital
Toramana waswastheir
Thaneshwar.
ablest rulerOne
andofMihirkula
the most important ruler of this dynasty was
Prabhakarvardhana.
the most uncultured one.
The Harshavardhana Conquests
The Kingdom of Thaneshwar rose to 1. His first expedition against Gaudas was a failure, but he was soon to extend
importance under its King with the help of Bhaskarvarman of Kamarupa, as mentioned in a book Arya M
Prabhakarvardhana, a feudal of Gupta family Kalpa.
and belonged to Pushyabhuti dynasty. After 2. He is said to have established his control over five indies- Orissa, G
he had fallen ill his elder son Rajyavardhana Kanyakubja and Svarstha (Punjab).
was crowned, but was mudered by Sasanka. 3. Harsha defeated Dhruvasena II Baladitya, the Maitraka ruler of Vallabhi (Guja
Later Harshavardhana was crowned as King 4. He conquered Kongoda Ganjam (Orissa) and offered its 80 township as
in AD 606. Buddhist monk Jayasena.
5. Harsha was defeated by Pulakeshin II on the banks of river Narmada. This is
Aihole inscription of Pulakeshin II authored by Ravikriti, who describes Harsha
the Northern Country (Saka Lottara Patheshvara)
6. Harsha is generally regarded as the last great Hindu Emperor of India
authority was limited to North India except Kashmir.
7. Mostly, the feudatories seem to have accepted his suzerainty.
8. The Chinese traveller, Hiuen Tsang sent three

Religion: Assemblies under Harsha:

Harsha was primarily a worshipper of Shiva, Kannauj: Harsha arranged a big assembly of
though his ancestors were worshippers of 20 kings, 3000 monks acquainted with
Sun. He was tolerant to otherreligions as well. Buddhism, 3000 Brahmins and Nirgranthas
He endowed the land grants to the priests of (Jainas) and 1000 scholars from all over India.
both Hindu and Buddhist religion. In his later It was presided over by Hiuen Tsang. For
life he became a great patron of Buddhism. three weeks, topics of Mahayana Buddhism
He convened a grand assembly at Kannauj to were discussed. This was a shot in arms of
widely publicise doctrines of Mahayana Mahayana Buddhism.
Buddhism.

Deccan and South India

The Vakatakas: 1. Vindyasakti: was the founder of the
A powerful dynasty ruling contemporaneously Vakatakas.
with Guptas. Inscriptions and Puranas testify 2. Pravarasena I: was the son of Vindyasakti.
that in the hey-day of their glory they He assumed imperial titles as Maharajadhiraja
dominated the entire country of Bundelkhand, and Samrat. He is said to have performed
central provinces, Berar, Northern Deccan. sacrifices such as Asvamedha, Vajpeya
The Vakatakas it seems were Brahmins and 3. Gautamiputra: son of Pravarsena I. He
in their inscriptions they called themselves as married the daughter of the Bharasiva king,
Haritaputras. Bhavanaga but did not ascend the throne.
4. Rudrasena I: was the next ruler and
isidentified with Rudradeva mentioned in the
Allahabad Pillar inscription as having suffered
defeat at the hands of Samudragupta.

The Chalukyas
Chalukyas of Badami Chalukyas of Vengi (Capital - Vengi)
(Capital - Badami/Vatapi) This dynasty was founded by Pulkeshin II's
The most prominent of the post Gupta brother Kubjavishnu Vardana. He transformed
dynasties of the Deccan. his capital from Pishtapura to the ancient city
Jayasimha was the first Chalukyan king. But of Vengi in Andhra
Pulkeshin I is generally attributed to be the Vijayaditya III (AD 848-892) is credited with
first Chalukyan King. victories over the Pallavas, the Pandyas and
Pulkeshin II was the most important ruler of the Rashtrakutas.
this dynasty, who ruled from AD 608 and was The power of Eastern Chalukyas was
a contemporary of Harshavardhana. He weakened in AD 10th Century and they
defeated the Kadambas, the Ganges of became the allies of the Cholas. Kulottuna
Mysore and Harsha's Army. Chola annexed the Kingdom in 1076.
But he was defeated and killed by the Pallava
ruler Narsimhavarmana in a later battle.
Pulkeshin II's court poet Ravikirti wrote the
eulogy of his patron in the Aihole inscription.

The Kingdom of Souh India

The Pallavas
The term Pallava means creeper, and is a Simha Vishnu (575-600) was the real founder
Sanskrit version of the Tamil word Tondai, of this dynasty.
which also carries the same meaning. The His son and successor Mahendravarman (AD
Pallavas were possibly a local tribe, who 600-630) was defeated by the Chalukyan king
established their authority in the Tondai Nadu. Pulkeshin II. With this started the great
But it took them some time to be completely struggle between the Pallavas and the
civilised and acceptable beacuse in Tamil the Chalukyas.
word Pallava is also synonym of robber.
 After the fall of the Guptas, five major centres of power and their centres emerged in North India
The Maitrakas: The Gaudas:
They established a kingdom in Saurashtra They ruled over a territory in Bengal and were quite lesser known of the four kin
with Vallabhi as capital. Under the able Its most powerful ruler was Sasanka. He invaded Maukharis, killed Grahavarma
guidance of Bhatarka, Vallabhi not only imprisoned his wife Rajyasri (sister of Harshavardhana). He treacherously murd
became a seat of learning and culture but also Rajyavardhana (elder brother of Harshavardhana), who was the ruler of Thanes
a centre for trade and commerce.

Out of all the five dynasties that followed the Guptas, the Pushyabhutis became the most powerful under Harshavardhana, who
his capital to Kannauj.
Kannauj remained the centre of political activity in North India till Turkish conquests at the end of 12th century.

Hiuen Tsang: The Chinese Buddhist pilgrim,

das was a failure, but he was soon to extend his authority visited India during Harsha's reign. He had left
Kamarupa, as mentioned in a book Arya Manjusri Moola a lengthy account of his travels. He noticed
that Buddhism was not as popular in all parts
ed his control over five indies- Orissa, Gauda, Mithila, of India as he had thought. But in Eastern
. India it was still popular.
Baladitya, the Maitraka ruler of Vallabhi (Gujarat). Nalanda University was still a famous centre
m (Orissa) and offered its 80 township as a gift to local of Buddhism. He also recorded the existence
of a rigid caste system and talked about the
shin II on the banks of river Narmada. This is mentioned in existence of many sub-castes.
authored by Ravikriti, who describes Harsha as the Lord of
Patheshvara)
as the last great Hindu Emperor of India. However is
except Kashmir.
have accepted his suzerainty.
ang sent three

Prayag: Literature:
Quinquennial distribution by the king to the Harsha was a lover of literature and wrote
people was held at Prayag. Here a great three dramas- Ratnawali, Nagananda and
assembly for 75 days was held. Priyadarshika.
The images of Buddha, Sun and Shiva were He patronised Banbhatta who wrote
publicly worshipped and gifts of valuable Kadambari, Harshacharita and Parvati
articles and clothing were given to about 50 Parinaya.
lakh persons belonging to all faiths. He also patronised Haridatta and Jayasena.
Hiuen Tsang was invited by Harsha to witness
his 6th quinquennial distribution of alms and
gifts at Prayag. Hiuen Tsang writes that
Harsha actually gave away everything in the
royal treasury and became a monk.

By the beginning of the 7th Century, the Chalukyas of Badami, the Vakatakas and the
Ikshavakus emerged as the three major states in Deccan. While in South India after the fall of
Satavahanas, the Pallavas established a powerful kingdom.
 5. Prithvisena: was next ruler. His reign was 7. Pravarsena II: built the city of Pravarapura,
known for peace and prosperity. made it his capital and built there a temple of
6. Rudrasena II: was married to Ramchandra. He composed a famous Prakrit
Prabhavatigupta, the daughter of poem Setubandha.
Chandragupta II. He rendered help to Kalidas wrote Meghadutam in Pravarasena II
Chandragupta II in finishing off the Shakas. court.
Under Prabhavati's influnce, he became a After him the Vakatakas gradually become
Vaishnavaitr. After the death of her husband, weak, and the Vakatakas power was
Prabhavati ruled on behalf of her minor sons ultimately shattered in the second quarter of
Damodarsen and Divakarsena. AD 6th century by the Kalachuris of the South.

The Chalukyas
Western Chalukyas of Kalyani
The later Chalukyas who ruled over Kalyani claim descent from the main line of Chalukyas of
Vatapi.
The kingdom was re-established by Taila II in AD 973, when he defeated the last Rashtrakuta
ruler Amoghavarsha IV. During his rule (AD 973-997), he brought under his control extensive
territories, including Southern part of the Parmara Kingdom of Malwa.
Someshvara I (AD 1043-1068) was involved in a protracted war with the Cholas and was
finally defeated by the Chola ruler, Virarajendra, in the Battle of Kudai.
Someshvara II (AD 1068-1076), a tyrannical ruler, was overthrown by his brother,
Vikramaditya VI (AD 1076-1126), tyhe hero of Bilhana's Vikramankadevacharita. His victories
over Cholas earned him titles Permadideva and Tribhuvanamalla (lord of three worlds).
With the death of Jagadekamalla II, the Chalukyas power was eclipsed and the throne was
usurped by the Kalachuri minister of war, Bijjala. With the rise of the Yadavs of Devagiri and
the Hoyasalas, the Chalukyas Dynasty ceased to exist by the middle of the 13th Century.

Kingdom of Souh India

Narasimhavarman I (AD 630-668) was the Many prominent scholars like Bharavi,
most successful Pallava King. In 642 he Dandin, Dingnang, Mayursarman etc achieved
occupied the Chalukyan capital Vatapi and a lot in the domain of literature due to the
probably killed Pulakeshin II. Pallavan aid and assistance.
The Kailashnath temple at Kanchi and seven The Pallavan Power was wiped out by Aditya
Pagodas as well as some other mansions I, a Chola king, who routed Aparajitavarman
were built in the reign of Narasimhavarman. and annexed the Pallava kingdom.
The striking feature of them is that they were
cut out of solid ricks.
in North India

l and were quite lesser known of the four kingdom.

a. He invaded Maukharis, killed Grahavarman and
of Harshavardhana). He treacherously murdered
rshavardhana), who was the ruler of Thaneshwar.

e most powerful under Harshavardhana, who shifted

s at the end of 12th century.

Transformation of the Ancient Phase to Medieval Phase
Social and Economic Changes
The central factor that ultimately transformed the Ancient Indian society into medieval society was
the practice of land grants.
Rise of the Landlords: From the 8th century onwards Samanta, Ranak, Rautta etc class of people
grew in power. Some were government officers, who wer not paid in cash but by assignings to
them revenue bearing villages. Thus the growth of feudalism can be traced from this period
onwards.

Cultural Developments

In about 6th and 7th Centuries started the formation of cultural units which later came to be known
as Karnataka, Maharashtra, Orissa, Tamil Nadu, Rajasthan etc.
Hiuen Tsang mentioned several nationalities.
The Jaina books of the late 8th Century notice the existence of 18 major people or nationalities. It
describes the physical feature of 16.
This period is equally important for Sanskrit literature. From AD 7th Century, a remarkable
development takes place in the linguistic history of India. Buddhist writings from Eastern India show
the faint beginning of Bengali, Assamese, Maithili, Oriya and Hindi.
Similarly, the Jaina Prakrit works of the same period show the beginning of Gujarati and
Rajasthani.
In South, Tamil was the oldest language but Kannada came to grow at about this time. Telugu and
Malayalam developed much later.
It seems that each region develop its own language on account of its isolation from other.
Bhagavatism
With the emergence of Vishnu and Shiva as the most popular Gods and with people developing
deep devotion, the Vedic religion was transformed into a more popular form, later came to be
called Hinduism.
Vaishnava Cults:
1. Bhagavata the cult, supposed to have been propounded by Vasudeva, a popular deified hero
worshipped in Western India.
The twelve Alvars spread Bhagavatism in Southern India.
2. Pancharatras, another Vaishnava cult, worshipped the defied sage Narayana, who was later
identified as Vasudeva Krishna. According to tradition, the teachings of Pancharatra were first
systematised by Sandilya in AD 100.
3. Bhagavata and Pancharatra cults were later amalgamated into one cult known as the
Pancharatra Agama.
4. Vaikhanasas: It was a ritualistic Vaishnava cult founded by Vikhanas. Initially a part of the
Taittiriya school of Yajurveda, the Vaikhanas cult later became an orthodox Vaishnava cult. The
Vaikhanasa Sutra is the main text of this cult. The Vaikhanasa cult is based on the five-fold
conception of Vishnu
(i) Brahmin
(ii) Puruhsa
(iii) Satya
(iv) Achyuta
(v) Anirudha

Six School of Philo

Vedanta:
Vedanta means the end of the Veda or the goal of the Veda. The Brahmsutra of Badrayana
compiled in the 2nd Century BC formed it's basic text on which commentaries were written later by
Shankracharya in 9th AD and Ramanuj in 12th AD.
The fundamental tent of this school is tat tvam asi, which means thou art that signifying the identity
of the individualsoul with Brahma, which is the universal soul.

Nyaya:
It's a school of analysis and was developed as a system of logic. Nyaya was founded by
Akshapada, literally the eye footed. The tenants of this system were set forth in the Nyayasutra of
Gotama. Gotama recognised four forms of true knowledge- perception, inference, analogy and
credible testimony. This school influenced Indian scholars, who took to systematic thinking and
reasoning.

Sankhya:
It literally means count. Founded by Kapila. It admits of two entities Prakriti (nature) and Purusha
(spirit), which are without beginning and end but essentially different. This system talks of the
mutual relation between these two entities. Initially the Sankhya system was atheistic, however,
under the influence of the yoga system with which it coalesced, it became theistic.
Decline of Trade: From 6th AD century onwards, there was a sharp decline in trade. The decline in trade and commerce was du
the collapse in the West of the Roman Empire with which India had flourishing and profitable trade.

Religious Developments

There occur some religious changes in the Post Gupta times.

Hindu divinities came to be arranged according to their grades in the hierarchy.
Vishnu, Shiva and Durga appeared as supreme deities, presiding over many other Gods and Goddesses.
Practice of worshipping Brahma, Ganapati, Vishnu, Shakti and Shiva. They were called Panchadeva.
The cheif God Shiva or some other deity was installed in the main temple, around which 4 subsidiary shrines were erected to h
the other four deities. Such temples were known as Panchayatana.
From 7th AD onwards, the Bhakti cult spread throughout the country, and especially in South.
The most remarkable development in the religious field in India from about 6th AD Century was the spread of Tantricism. Tantri
admitted both women and Shudras into its ranks and laid great stress on the use of magic rituals.
Saivism
Saivism probably rose when a fertility deity, whose cult may have been kept alive in non-Brahminic circles from the days of the
Harappan Civilisation, rose in prominence. This was Shiva, identified with the Rigvedic Rudra.
In the Yajurveda, Shiva is referred to as Sankara or Shambhu. Shiva is usually worshipped in the form of linga (phallus).
Saivism had four schools- Pasupata, Saiva, Kapalika, Kalamukha.
Saiva Cults:
1. Pasupata: The earliest known Saiva cult was founded by Lakulisa, an incarnation of Shiva. Lakulisa is usually depicted nake
hyshallic. A club (lakuta) was the special emblem of Lakulisa. Pasupatasutra, attributed to Lakulisa, is the main text of cult. The
was very popular in Orissa and in Western India from the AD 7th to 11th Centuries.
2. Kapalika: It is an extreme tantric cult, which flourished between the AD 10th and 13th Centuries. Probably an off-shoot of the
Pasupata Movement, Kapalika cult had its centre in Karnataka. The cult died out by the 14th Century and merged with other Sa
orders like Aghoris and Kanphatas.
3. The Kapaliks, the skull bearers, worshipped the terrifying aspects of Shiva, namely Mahakala, Kapalabhrit and Bhairav. The
Kapaliks ate meat, drank intoxicants and practised ritual sexual union. Yoga was mandatory for the Kapaliks. The Kapaliks mad
human sacrifices to please Bhairav and his consort Chandika.
4. Kalamukha, the other extreme tantric cult, flourished in the Karnataka region between the 11th and the 13th Century. The
Kalamukhas drank from cups made of human skull aand smeared their bodies with the ashes of cremated corpses.
5. The teachings of both Kapalika and Kalamukha cults are similiar.
6. Aghori: They were the successors of the Kapalika cult. They worshipped, Sitala and Kali besides Shiva. Cannibalism, animal
sacrifices and cruel rites were performed. TheAghoris led a wandering life.
7. Kanphata or Gorakhnathi sect was propounded by Gorakhnath, a native of Eastern Bengal.
8. Goraknath synthesised the Pasupata teachings with those of tantrism and yoga. Attaining eternal union with Shiva by means
yogic techniques is the ultimate aim of the sect. They are characterised by their split ears. The Yogis practise ritual copulation i
graveyards and sometimes cannibalism. The nine nathas and 84 siddhas play an important part in this sect.
9. Suddhasaiva, this sect was expounded by Srikanta Sevacharya, who upheld Ramanuja's teachings. The sect is based on th
vedantasara, which says liberation is attained by deep meditation on Shiva, who is identified with Brahm-the self.
10. Virasaiva or Lingayat cult, was founded by Basava. The cult concentrated on the linga as the only true symbol of divinity. A
of the linga is presented to each Virasaiva devotee at the initiation for daily worship. According to them one can worship Shiva d
without the aid of priests. The devotees are not cremated. The dead are buried in a sitting position facing North.

Six School of Philosophy

Mimansa:
It is concerned with the practical side of Vedic religion as found in the Brahmanas and the literature on rituals. According to Mim
Vedas contain the eternal truth. It mainly discusses the sacred ceremonies and the rewards gained from their performances.

Vaiseshika:
The school derives it's name from the world Visesha (particularly). The founder of this school was Ulukakanda. Initially, it was b
on the concept that everything in this world (except time, space, consciousness, mind, soul) is composed of various combinatio
atoms, which remain after a material object has been reduced to it's smallest part. It marked the beginning of physics in India. W
the Vaiseshika school merged with Nyaya system, it became theistic through the introduction of the concept of God.

Yoga:
Yoga system is complementary to Sankhya system. It’s founder was Patanjali. According to yoga school, a person can attain sa
through meditation and physical application. Practice of control over pleasure, senses and bodily organs is central to this system
Early Medieval India (AD 750-1200)
Kannauj After Harsha
Little is known of the kingdom of Kannauj after the death of Harsha. The political unity crumbled on Harsha's
death and the process of emergence of numerous centres of power started in different parts of North India leading
to multi-state system.

Yashovarman
He ruled in Kannauj at around AD 730 and defeated many kings. His vast empire extended from North Bengal to
the North-West Frontier Province.
He is supposed to have founded the city named Yashovarmapura (near modern Biharsharif in Bihar). His invasion
of Gauda (Bengal) formed the subject matter of the Prakrit poem Gaudavaho by Vakpatiraja, Yashovarman's
court poet.
Ayudha Rulers of Kannauj
Vajrayudha was the first king, who was defeated by Jayapida Vinayaditya of Kashmir. The next in line was
Indrayudha during whose reign, Dhruva Rashtrakuta invaded the Doab and defeated the Kannauj King.

Kannauj and the Tripartite Struggle

The tripartite struggle that continued for nearly a century refers to the struggle between the three important
dynasties of the period i.e the Gurjara-Pratiharas of Bhinmal (Rajasthan), the Palas of Bengal and the
Rashtrakutas of Manyakheta (Maharashtra).
The struggle ultimately ended in favour of the Gurjara-Pratihara ruler Nagabhata II, who founded the Gurjara-
Pratihara kingdom at Kannauj which survived for nearly two centuries.
GURJARA-PRATIHARAS
The empire extended from the foothills of the Himalayas to Ujjain and from Gujarat to Mongyr.
The Pratiharas were a branch of the famous Gurjara tribe, who came in large numbers to India during the Hunas
invasion from Central Asia.
Some Rashtrakutas records confirm the association of the Pratiharas with the Gurjara lineage. The most
important testimony is that of Kanarese poet Pampa, who calls Mahipala as Gurjara-raja.

Nagabhatta I
He was the first important ruler of the dynasty. He defended Western India from Mlechchha king (Arabs) and
reached upto Broach, bringing this line of Pratihara into prominence in the middle of the AD 8th Century.
He died in AD 760 and was succeeded by his brother's son, Kakustha and Devaraja.

Vatsaraja (AD 775--800)

Grand nephew of Nagabhatta I. Son and successor of Devaraja. He has been eulogised as a mighty ruler and as
distinguished Kshatriya.
He is known as Ranahastin Vatsaraj in the famous Jaina work Kuvalaymala (composed in AD778).
Vatsaraja sought to capture Kannauj. His ambition brought the Pratiharas into conflict with the Palas and the
Rashtrakutas.
Vatsaraja successfully challenged and defeated the Pala ruler Dharampala and Dantti durga the Rashtrakuta king
for control of Kannauj.
However around AD 800 Rashtrakuta ruler Dhruva defeated Vatsaraja.
Nagabhatta II
Son of Vatsaraja who made Pratiharas the most formidable power of North India.
About AD 816, he defeated and deposed Chakrayudha, Dharmpala's protégé and made Kannauj the capital of
Pratihara.
The Gwalior inscription of his grandson, describes the victories of Nagabhatta II.
His victory over Arabs has been mentioned in Prabhandakosha.

Nagabhatta II's successor, his son Rambhadra proved to be a weak ruler. During his brief reign of three years the
Pratihara power eclipsed owing to the aggressive policy of the Pala Emperor, Devapala.

Mihira Bhoja (AD 836-880)

He was the son and successor of Rambhadra and the greatest Pratihara King.
He reestablished the supermacy of his family in Bundelkhand ans subjugated the Jodhpur Pratiharas (or
Pariharas).
His extensive kingdom included the areas of Eastern Punjab, most of the Rajputana, the greater part of present
day UP and the regions of Gwalior.
The Daulatpura Copper Plate of Bhoja refers to the victories of the king in the Central and Eastern Rajputana.
He was defeated by the Pala king Devapala.
Mihir Bhoja's triumphant progress was checked by Rashtrakuta Ruler Dhruva II. His defeat in the hands of Dhruva
is recorded in the Bagumra Plate.
He defeated Rashtrakuta Krishna II on the banks of Narmada and reoccupied Malwa.
The famous Gwalior inscription is attributed to him.

Mahendrapala I (AD 880-910)

His most notable achievement was the conquest of Magadha and Northern Bengal. Thus, he not only maintained
the vast empire intact but even probably extended its boundaries, especially in the east.
He was also known as Nirbhay-Narendra

Bhoja II (AD 910-913)

He reigned for a short time and was overthrown by his step-brother Mahipala.
Mahipala I (AD 913-944)
Rashtrakuta Indra III invaded Pratihara empire, conquered Ujjaini and devastated the city of Kannauj.
Mahipala soon revived Kannauj as cout poet Rajashekhara calls him Maharajadhiraja of Aryavrata.
According to Kavyamimansa of Rajashekhara, Mahipala's reign extended from the upper course of the river Beas
in the Northwest to Kalinga in South-east and from the Himalayas to the Kerala or Chera country in the far south.
Arab traveller Al Masudi, describes about Mahipala as King having four armies according to the four quarters of
the wind.
Towards the close of his reign Mahipala also faced the invasion of Rashtrakuta Krishna III.

Mahendrapala II (AD 944-948)

He reigned for short duration but the inscription found at Mandsour indicates that the empire was extended upto
Mandsour.

The position of Pratiharas continues to weaken in 10th century, partly as a result of the drain of simultaneously
fighting off Turkic attacks from the west and the Pala advances in the east. The Gurjara-Pratiharas lost control of
Rajasthan to their feudatories and the Chandelas captured the strategic fortress of Gwalior in central India. By the
end of the tenth century the Gurjar Pratihara domains had dwindled to a small state centered on Kannauj.
Mahmud of Ghazni sacked Kannauj in 1018, and the Pratihara ruler Rajapla fled.
Chachnama, a work of rather late period written by Kazi Ismail, while narrating the history of Sindh, mentions four
kings ruling at Kannauj.
These four kings are Rasil Rai, Sayar, Sahiras and Rai Harachander, who ruled during a period of seventy years
following the death of Harsha. After these obscure rulers, about AD 730, we find a famous monarch named
Yashovarman ruling at Kannauj.

After Yashovarman's Dynasty, three rulers, who are popularly known as Ayudhas rulers, ruled over Kannauj
between the close of the 8th Century till the second decade of the 9th Century. It was during the rule of these
Ayudhas rulers that the struggle for Kannauj seems to have begun.

Indrayudha was also defeated by Dharmapala of Bengal who, instead of annexing this distant territory, deposed
Indrayudha and seated his protégé Chakrayudha to the throne of Kannauj. The Rashtrakuta ruler Govinda III
defeated Dharmapala and Chakrayudha.
However, finally the Nagabhata II defeated Chakrayudha and usurped the throne of Kannauj.

THE PALAS
The province of Bengal, from AD 650 to 750, after the death of Harsha, was subjected to internal disorder,
anarchy and confusion referred to as Matsyanyaya (the rule of strong devouring the weak). This gave birth to a
revolution by the people, in which the local chief Gopala was elected by the leading men of Bengal. The dynasty
founded by Gopala ruled for nearly 4 centuries.

The Palas were earnest followers of Buddhism, which developed newer tantric forms and was revived under their
patronage.
Monasteries were generously endowed; being the most effective agencies for the promotion of learning and
religion. The noted Buddhist scholars, Santarakshita and Dipankara (Atisa) went to Tibet on a Buddhist mission
about the middle of the 11th Century.
The Palas were, however,by no means unfavourable towards hinduism. They freely made gifts to Brahmins, and
even constructed temples in honour of Hindu Gods.
A Buddhist monk Srijanna in his later years went to Java and learnt Buddhist scriptures there, as mentioned in the
Tibetan work of Kalyna Mitra Phyag-sopra.

Gopala (AD 750-770)

He consolidated his authority over almost the whole of Bengal.
He was an ardent Buddhist. According to Tibetan Lama, Taranatha, Gopala buit the celebrated monastery at
Odantapur (Modern Biharsharif).
Dharampala (AD 770-810)
Son and successor of Gopala, who raised the Pala kingdom to greatness.
Dharamapala directly ruled the present-day Bengal and Bihar regions. The kingdom of Kanauj was his feudatory
at times.
According to the Pala records, several kingdoms in Madra, Kamboja, Rajputana, Malava and Berar were vassal
states which paid him tributes and acknowledged his mastery over them. One tradition also claims that Nepal was
his vassal state
Dharampala was a great patron of Buddhism. He revived the Nalanda University and founded the Vikramshila
university.
He is credited with construction of Vihara at Somapura.
According to Taranatha (Tibetan Lama), he founded fifty religious institutions and was patron of great Buddhist
author Haribhadra.

Devapala (AD 810-850)

He is considered as the mightiest Pala king. He launched his military campaigns under his cousin General
Jayapala. These expeditions resulted in the invasion of Pragjyotisha (Assam) and Utkalas.
The Munger copper plate of Devapala states that his empire extended upto the Vindhyas and kamboja. The Badal
Pillar inscription of his descendant Narayanpala states that Devapala's empire extended upto the Vindhyas, the
Himalayas and the two oceans.
A great patron of Buddhism, he constructed many temples and monasteries in Magadha.

Devapala was succeeded by Vigrahapala. After a short reign of three or four years, Vigrahapala abdicated the
throne.

Narayanapala (AD 854-915)

He was the son and successor of Vigrahapala.
The Bhagalpur inscription records that in the seventeenth year of his reign he granted a village in Tira-Bhukti to
the shrine of Shiva and built one thousand temples in the honour of the same deity.
During his reign Magadh along with North Bengal was lost to Gurjara Pratiharas, East Bengal came under
Chandras and the Pala authority was limited to Western and Southern Bengal.
He was succeeded by his son Rajyapala who was succeeded in turn by his son Gopala II.
The rule of these two rulers proved disastrous for the Pala power.
A series of invasions led by the Chandellas and the Kalchuris dismembered the Pala empire.
Vigrahapala II succeeded to the Pala king Gopala II.

Mahipala (AD 988-1038)

He was the son of Vigrahapala II.
Considered as the restorer of Pala prestige, Pala power had once more revivied under him.
He succeeded in reestablishing his authority over North, West and East Bengal and in extending his territories
upto Benaras in West.
Rajendra Chola invaded his State and defeated him, but retained the kingdom upon Chola king had return home.
Revolt of Kaivartas took place during his period. After his death, the Pala power declined on account of internal
dissensions and external invasions. His successors were weak. Thus, by the middle of the 12th Century, the Pala
power had faded.
Ramapala (AD 1077-1120)
Expeditions against Kaivartas- suppressed them and captured their chief.
Finds mention in Sandhyakara Nandi's book Ramcharita, which is the biography of Ramapala.

Kumarpala (AD 1124-1129)

Revolt of Kamroop took place during his reign, which was suppressed by his minister Vadyadeva.

Madanpala (AD 1143-1162)

He was the last ruler and was expelled by Vijayasena, who founded the new Sena dynasty.
The Rashtrkutas
Literally, the term, Rashtrakuta means designated officer-in-charge of territorial division called Rashtra. The
Rashtrakutas originally belonged to Lattalura (modern Latur). They were of Kannada origin and Kannada was
their mother tongue.
Initially they were the feudatories under Chalukyas of Badami.
The Rashtrakuta dynasty was founded in the early 8th Century by Dantidurga, also known as Dantivarman, who
after defeating the Chalukya ruler Kirtivarman II eastablished his control over the greater portion of the Deccan
and laid the foundation of a lasting empire.
Rashtrakutas belonged to the Yadu clan to which Lord Krishna belonged- inscriptions of the Rashtrakuta Kings.

The Senas of Bengal

The Sena family ruled Bengal after the Palas.
The dynasty's founder was Hemanta Sen, who was part of the Pala Dynasty until it began to weaken.
Vijayasena (AD 1096-1159)
He was greatest ruler of the Sena Dynasty. His victories over Nayva (King of Nepal and Mithila), Vira, Gauda,
Kamrupa and Kalinga have been described in the Deopara inscription composed by the poet Umapatidhara. He
had two capitals, Vijayapuri in West Bengal and Vikaramapura in East Bengal.

He was a devout of Shiva. The famous poet Sriharsha composed Vijayaprasasti in memory of Vijayasena.
He was succeeded by his son Ballalasena.

Ballalasena (AD 1159-1179)

His reign was generally peaceful and he maintained intact the dominion inherited from his father.
He was a great scholar. He wrote four works of which two are extant, the Danasagara (a work Smriti) and the
Adbhutasagara (a work on astronomy).

Lakshmanasena (AD 1179-1206)

He could not offer any resistance to the Turkish invader Mohammad-bin Bakhtiyar Khilji and escaped for his life to
Vikarampura in East Bengal.
The Turkish invaders thus easily occupied the Sena capital at Nadia
Southern India
The Imperial Cholas

The emergence of Chola power from obscurity, its rise to an imperial position and its conflicts, first beyond the
Tungabhadra and later with their successors, the Chalukyas of Kalyani, form the dominant features of the history
of South India in the period AD 850-1200. The whole region, South of the Tungabhadra was united and held as
one State for a period of two centuries or more.

Rajaraja (AD 985-1014)

The greatest Chola rulers were Rajaraja and his son, Rajendra I.
Rajaraja destroyed the Chera Navy, captured the Pandyan capital Madurai, and also annexed the Northern part of
Sri Lanka.
One of his naval exploits was the conquest of the Maldives Islands.
In the North, he annexed the North-Western parts of the Ganga region and in North-West Karnataka overran
Vengi.

Rajendra I (AD 1014-1044)

His son and successor, continued with the annexationist policy by completely overrunning the Pandya and Chera
kingdoms and including them in his empire.
He also annexed the rest of Sri Lanka which remained under Chola rule for another 50 years. He defeated King of
Sumatra and annexed a portion of Sumatra.
He Indianised several islands of South-east Asia.
He established cordial relationship with King of China.
Rajendra I also sent an expedition against Bengal through Kalinga, his armies crossed the Ganga and defeated
the Pala king Mahipala.
In commemoration of his victories in the Gangetic delta, he assumed the title Gangaikonda, and founded a
capital- Gangaikonda Cholapuram.

By AD 1118, the Chola empire was confined to the Tamil region and a relatively small area of the adjoining Telugu
districts.

Kulottunga (AD 1178-1210) was the last great Chola monarch, who remianed involved in the Pandyan wars of
succession and sacked the Pandya capital in 1205.
Chola rulers supported Brahmanical and Bhakti traditions, making land grants and constructing temples for Vishnu
and Shiva
In fact, some of the most magnificent Shiva temples, including those at Chidambaram, Thanjavur and
Gangaikondacholapuram, were constructed under the patronage of Chola rulers.
Arab Conquest of Sindh
In 712 AD Al Hajjaj, the Governor of Basra, led an expedition against Sindh's ruler Dahir, under his nephew and son-in-law, Mu
However the Arabs failed to build a permanent empire in India. Several factors were responsible for this
(a) Imprisonment of Muhammad bin Qasim by the new Khalifa
(b) New Khalifa's indifferent attitude towards desert Sindh Province
(c) Diversion of Arab attention due to fight over Khilafat
(d) Bravery and heroism of Indian ruler
(e) long distance between Baghdad and Sindh.
Attacks of Mahmud of Ghazni
Mahmud of Ghazni raided for the first time in AD 1000.
In a short period of 25 years, he made 17 raids.
He destroyed many temples e.g. Somnath temple in Gujarat (1025 AD).
Mahmud did not make any systematic effort to capture India. However, he may be seen as the founder of Turkish rule in India t

Attacks of Muhammed Ghori

The second attack from north-west was made by Muhammed Ghori at the end of 12 century.
He attacked from Gomal Pass in 1182, and conquered Sindh. In 1182, he conquered Lahore and soon after, an attack was com
Prithviraj Chauhan led the Rajputs against Muhammed Ghori at the First Battle of Tarain in 1191 and the Rajputs became vic
In Second Battle of Tarain in 1192, Prithviraj was defeated and the kingdom of Delhi fell to Ghori.
In Battle of Chadawar Muhammad Ghori defeated and killed Jayachandra.
Before his assasination in 1206, Turks had conquered the Ganga-Yamuna doab and its neighbouring areas, and Bihar and Ben

The Delhi Sultanate

The sudden death of Muhammad Ghori in 1206 and his failure to specify succession procedures pitted his three slaves Tajjudin
Meanwhile, Qutbuddin Aibak succeeded both in capturing the throne of Delhi and to retain over the Indian territories.
The period between 1206 and 1526 in the Indian history is known as the "Period of the Sultan Rulers".
During this period, rulers belonging to five different dynasties- the Slaves, the Khiljis, the Tughlaqs, the Sayyids and the Lodhis
The Slave Dynasty (1206 - 1290 AD)
All the Muslim rulers that ascended the throne of Delhi after the death of Muhammad Ghori in 1206 till 1290 were either themse
QUTB-UD-DIN AIBAK (1206-12210 AD)
Qutub's achievements as monarch were, however, a mere shadow of his achievements as Viceroy.
His devotion to to Islam is attested by two mosques built by him at Delhi and Ajmer.
In 1210, he died from the effects of a fall from his horse while playing polo.
ILTUTMISH (1210-1236)
He was the son-in-law of Aibak. He rendered great service to the Islamic empire in India.
He secured a letter of investiture from the Caliph of Baghdad in 1229 which bestowed him the title of Sultan of Hindustan.
He destroyed the power of Rajput princes and brought the whole of North India under his control.
Instead of Lahore, he made Delhi the capital and centre of the Muslim empire.
Iltutmish organised the Iqtas (administrative units), the army and the currency.
Iltutmish introduced silver coins (tanka) and copper coins (jital), basic coins of Sultanate period and with a standard weight of 1
Completion of the construction of Qutub Minar in Delhi.
Organisation of a group of 40 loyal nobles-Turkan-i-Chahalgani or Chalisa or Forty.

RAZIYA SULTAN (1236-1239 AD)

Daughter of Iltutmish. She was the first and last woman among the Muslim rulers who sat on the throne of the Delhi.
Pathan nobles regarded it below their dignity to pay obedience to woman. Also, appointment of an Abyssinian slave named Jam
Razia was murdered near Kaithal in 1240.
She was succeeded by several of her kins till 1266 when Balban emerged as a powerful Sultan.
Bahraamshah (1240-42) Created the post of Nayas-e-Mamlukat
Masud Shah (1242-46)
Nasiruddin Mahmud (11246-65): Taski-E-Nasiri by Siraaj is dedicated to him only 1249 conferred Balban the title of Ulug Khan.
BALBAN (1265-1287 AD)
He first executed the survivors of the Chalisa and relieved himself of the dangers of rivalry.
He suppressed with an iron hand the hillmen whose forays were a terror in the suburbs of Delhi. He cleared the forests around
He built forts and established Afghan garrisons to guard communications with Bengal.
Declaration that the Sultan was the representative of God on earth- forwarding the Iranian Divine Right Theory of Kingship.
Introduction of the practice of Sijda (under this practice, people would kneel and touch the ground with their head to greet the s

Balban died in 1286 after nominating Kai Khusroo, the son of Muhammad as his successor. The nobles, however, raised his gr
Kaikubad gave reign to pleasure and the guidance of government was entrusted to his vazir. During his short reign of three yea
The Khiljis Revolution (1290-1320 AD)
The Khiljis, wrongly believed to be Afghans, were actually Turks who had for long time settled in the region of Afghanistan, calle
JALAL-UD-DIN KHILJI (1290-1296 AD)
was the founder and the first king of Khilji dynasty.
He followed mild and generous policies.
In 1290, he invaded the fort of Ranthambor.
In 1294, his nephew Ala-ud-din Khilji invaded Devagiri and defeated Ramchandra.
Jalal-ud-din himself advanced to Kara to give warm welcome to his nephew who got him treacherously murdered and himself u

ALA-UD-DIN KHILJI (1296-1316 AD)

The most important experiment undertaken by the Alauddin was the attempt to control the markets. He was the first monarch in
paid by way of land revenue.
The check on markets was kept by two officers diwan-i-Riyasat and shahna-i-Mandi.
He introduced the first permanent standing army of India.

KAFUR (1315)
MUBARAK KHAN (1316-1320)
After the death of Kafur, Mubarak Khan was freed from prison and was appointed as regent for Shiab-ud-din.
He captured the throne at the first opportunity he got, but could rule only for 4 years as he sank into debauchry and could not g
He awarded his lover Hassan authority over the amy and palace guards, and the latter soon obtained full control over the Sulta
Hassan was given the title Khusarau Khan by the Sultan and within months Khusarau killed Mubarak Khan and assumed the tit
KHUSARAU KHAN (1320)
Khusarau khan was killed by Ghazi Khan, governor of Dipalpur when he tried to oppose a rebellion by Ghazi Malik and his son
This marked the end of the Khilji dynasty and the rise of Tughlaq dynasty at the throne of Delhi.

GHIYASUDDIN TUGHLAQ (1320-1325 AD)

He founded Tughlaq dynasty. From an ordinary person he rose to the position of provincial governor of Dinapur under Mubarak
He repeled the Mongol invaders several times. He killed Khusrau Khan and became the Sultan.
In 1323, he defeated the ruler of Warangal and annexed his territory. A war of succession was going on in Bengal. Ghiyas-ud-D
He suppressed the rebels and in this way Bengal also became a part of his empire.
He reintroduced the food laws of Ala-ud-Din.
He organised better postal systems and encouraged agriculture.

MUHAMMAD-BIN-TUGHLAQ (1325-1351 AD)

Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq is best remembered as a ruler who undertook a number of bold experiments and showed a keen inter
He was deeeply read in religion and philosophy and had a critical and and open mind.
He had deep interest in philosophy, astronomy, logic and mathematics.
He conversed not only with the Muslim mystics, but also with the Hindu Yogis and Jain saints such as Junaprabha Suri.
Transfer of Capital (1327): It appears that the Sultan wanted to make Deogir second capital so that he might be able to control
Introduction of Token Currency (1330): Muhammad Tughlaq decided to introduce bronze coins, which were to have the same v
Appointment of Ibn Batutah, a Moroccon as the head qazi of Delhi.

FIROZ SHAH TUGHLAQ (1351-1388 AD)

The nobles and theologians at the court selected Muhammad's cousin Firoz Shah as the next Sultan.
Firoz extended the principle of heredity to the army. Soldiers were allowed to rest in peace and to send in their place their sons
Construction of canals for irrigation: (i) from Yamuna to city of Hissar, (ii) from Sutlej to the Ghaggar, (iii) from Ghaggar to Firuza
Arrival of two Ashokan pillar edicts/inscriptions from khizrabad and Meerut to Delhi.
SUCCESSORS OF FIROZ SHAH
Firoz Shah died in 1388. His successor were weak and incompetent. They were merely kings in name and acted as puppets in
Allauddin, Sikandar Shah and Nasiruddin Mahmud Shah.
It was during the reign of Nasiruddin Mahmud Shah that Timur invaded India in 1398.

SAYYID DYNASTY (1414-1451 AD)

Khizr-Khan, a lieutenant of Timur, was a Sayyid and so his dynasty is called the Sayyid Dynasty.
Khizr Khan ruled till 1421, but his whole reign was marked by utter chaos and disorder.
MUBARAK SHAH (1421-1434)
Ahter death of Khizr Khan, his son Mubarak Shah succeeded him.
During his reign the Subedars of Punjab, Bhatinda and Doab broke out in revolt and the whole of his period was spent in trying
He died in 1434 and was succeeded by his son.
MOHAMMAD SHAH (1434-1443 AD)
During his reign, the ruler of Malwa invaded Delhi, which was however saved by his valiant Subedar of Lahore, Bahlol Lodhi.
ALAUD-DIN ALAM SHAH (1443-1451)
Mohammad Shah's son, he was proved to be a incompetent ruler.
He himself handed over the reigns of his kingdom to Bahlol Lodhi and retired to Badaun.

LODHI or PATHAN SULTANS (1451-1526 AD)

Lodhi sultans were the members of the first Pathan dynasty in India. Sher Shah founded the next.
BAHLOL LODHI (1451-1489 AD)
He tried to restore the glory of Delhi by conquering the territories around Delhi and after continous wars for 26 years, he succee
He was a kind and generous ruler.
Though he was himself illiterate, he extended his patronage to art and learning.
He died in 1488.

SIKANDAR LODHI (1489-1517 AD)

He extended his empire by conquering Dholpur, Chanderi and Jaunpur.
He shifted his capital to Agra (1506) after establishing it in 1504. He introduced several reforms and provided an efficient admin
He was a staunch Sunni and a Muslim fanatic.
Imposition of Jaziya and pilgrim's tax on the Hindus.
Demolition of Jwalamukhi temple at Nagarkot.
Introduction of Gaz-i- Sikandri (Sikandri's Yard) of 39 digits 32 inches for measuring cultivated land.

IBRAHIM LODHI (1517-1526 AD)

Son and successor of Sikandar Lodhi. He was obdurate and haughty.
His ill treatment turned the loyal Afghan noble against him.
They hatched a conspiracy to declare his uncle, Jalal Khan, as the ruler of Delhi, but they failed.
Defeated Rana Sanga in Battle of Gharoli (1517-18). Thereafter Ibrahim crushed his nobles very cruely.
Tired of his continous ill-treatment, Daulat Khan Lodhi, the governor of Punjab invited Babur to invade India.
Babur took advantage of the opportunity and defeated Ibrahim Lodhi in 1526 in the First Battle of Panipat.
The Emergence of Provincial Kingdoms
The attack by Timur lang in AD 1398, on Delhi and flight of Tughlaq king from his capital, exposed the weakness of Delhi Sultan
and embedded a number of provincial Governors and autonomous principalities to declare their independence. Hence, many
provincial dynasties emerged in India in the AD 15th and 16th Centuries.
BENGAL
Bengal was made a part of Delhi Sultanate by ? In ?. In 1345, Haji Iliyas became the ruler of Bengal under the title of Shamsh-u
din Iliyas Shah.
Jala-ud-din Mohammad Shah, originally a Brahmin, who later converted to Islam, was an important ruler. He patronised Brihasp
Mishra, a learned Brahmin, who wrote commentaries on Raghuvansha, Meghaduta and Amarkosha.
Ala-ud-din Hussain Shah (1493-1519) was the most famous ruler. It was during his reign that bengali language witnessed
considerable growth.
Assam and Kamarupa
The Ahoms under Sukapha founded a kingdom in Assam in the first half of the 13 Century. Sukapha extended his territory in th
West at the cost of kamarupa. Suhungmung, who reigned as Svarga Narayan was the most powerful ruler. There was rapid
hinduisation of the Ahoms under the inspiration of the Vaishnavite reformer Shankaardeva.
Ahom historical chronicles are known as Burangis.
The kingdom was annexed to Mughal Empire in 17th Century.

ORISSA

The kingdom of Orissa was consolidated by Anantavarman Choda Ganga, who ruled from 1076 to 1148. The kingdom extende
from the mouth of the Ganges to the North of Godavari in the South.
Anantvarman was not oly a great warrior and a conquerer but also a patron of religion and literatue.
The famous Jagannath Temple was built by him.
He successfully repelled the Turkish on slaught. After his death, his dynasty began to decline.
About 1434, this dynasty was supplanted by Kapilendra, who founded a new dynasty.
Kapilendra dynasty ruled over Orissa for about a century.
Kapilendra was succeeded by Purushottama during whose reign the kingdom became weak and lost the southern half of its
territory. He was succeeded by his son Prataprudra (1496-1540) who was compelled to surrender a part of his territory south of
Godavari to the Vijayanagar ruler.
In 1441-1442, the Kapilendra dynasty was repraced by Bhoi dynasty, which was founded by Govind.
Orissa was annexed to Bengal by Sulaiman in 1568.
JAUNPUR
During the period of chaos and confusion by the invasion of Timur lane, an independent kingdom was founded by the wazir of t
Tughlaq Emperor, Khwaja Jahan, who was given the title of Malik-us-Sharq or lord of the East, by his master.
The capital of this new kingdom was Jaunpur, a new city founded on the bank of the river Gomti by Firoz Tughlaq.
The rule of the Sharqi dynasty came to an end in 1476 when Bahlol Lodhi reconquered it.
KASHMIR
A muslim adventurer from Swat, named Shah Mirza had entered into the service of the Hindu prince of Kashmir in 1315. The H
prince died shortly afterwards and Shah Mirza seized the throne setting aside the claims of the descendants of the Hindu prince
himself assumed the title of the King.
He was however, a wise and generous ruler. He died in 1349 and was succeeded by his four sons one after another who ruled
total period of forty-six years. After the death of the fourth son Qub-ud-din (1394), his son Sikander ascended the thron.
Zain-ul Abidn (1420-1470) was the greatest muslim ruler of the Kashmir. He was highly enlightened, liberal and benevolent, for
which he was known as the Akbar of Kashmir.
After Zain-ul-Abidin's death, there ensued chaos and anarchy under the rule of the nominal kings who ascend the throne. Haide
Shah was fairly competent ruler, but his successors were so incompetent that in 1540 a relative of Babur, Mirza Haidar, conque
Kashmir.

GUJARAT AND MALWA

The Governors of Gujarat and Malwa declared independence after the invasion of Timur. Ahmad Shah, a powerful king of Guja
founded a beautiful city known after him as Ahmedabad and moved his capital there. His grandson Mahmud Begarha, who
ascended the throne as a boy and ruled from 1458-1511, was a remarkable person and his peculiarties or eccentricities were
carried by travellers in a legendary form of Europe.
He allied himself with the Sultan of Turkey for driving away the Portugese from the Indian seas.
The combined fleet of Turkey and Gujarat defeated the Portugese fleet of Turkey and Gujarat near Chaul in 1508.
But next year the Portugese fleet defeated the fleet of Gujarat and re-established its supermacy in the Indian seas.
The next important king Bahadur Shah (1526-1537), annexed Malwa and stormed the famous Rajput fort of Chittor.

Dilawar Khan Ghori established the Khalji dynasty in Malwa and made Mandu his capital.
Mahmud Khalji was the most important ruler of Malwa.
RAJASTHAN
During this period, there were three important independent states in Rajasthan.
(i) Mewar: Although Ala-ud-din Khalji captured Chittor, the capital of Mewar, in 1303, it was soon restored by Rana Hamir. Rana
Kumbha, the greatest ruler of the Hamir family, carried out incessant warfare against Gujarat and Malwa. In commemoration of
success against Malwa, Rana Kumbha built " Vijaya Stambha" at chittor.
(ii) Marwar: Rao Chunda, who ruled from 1404 to 1421, was succeeded by famous Jodha. Jodha built the fort of Jodhpur. Bikan
was founded by Bika, Malwa ruler and one of the sons of Jodha, in 1465.
(iii) Amber or Amer: Dullah Rao was the founder of the Kuchhawaha dynasty which ruled Amber during this period.
Hammir deva was the most famous last ruler of this dynasty.
BAHAMI KINGDOM
The Bahami Kingdom was founded in 1347 by Hasan Gangu, who proclaimed his independence from the Sultanate. He reigne
under the title of Alu-ud-din Bahmani or Bahman Shah.
Gulbarga was the capital of Bahmani Kingdom.
Some of the other notable Bahmani Sultans were: Muhammad Shah I, Firuz Shah, Ahmad Shah (also known as Wali due to his
association with a sufi, Gesu Daraz), Humayun (famous for his minister Mahmud Gawan) and Muhammad Shah III.
Ahmad Shah shifted the capital from Gulbarga to Bidar.

Following the downfall of the Bahami Kingdom, the following five independent kingdoms emerged in the Deccan.
1. The Imad Shahi Dynasty of Berar: It was the first principality to defect from the Bahmani dominions. In 1484, Fatullah Khan
soon occupied the whole of Berar. He founded the Imad Shahi dynasty which continued to rule, with Elichpur as its capital, till in
2. The Nizam Shahi Dynasty of Ahmednagar: In 1490, Malik Ahmad, the governor of Junnar, successfully revolted, and esta
wars with Bijapur and Golconda, it formed a Subha of Akbar's empire and was finally annexed to the Mughal 1637 under Shahj
3. The Qutub Shahi Dynasty Golconda: The Golconda kingdom comprised the ruins of the Kakatiya principality of Warangal,
Shah, who was appointed the Governor of Golconda by Mahmud Gawan. He moved the capital from Warangal to Golconda. In
seclusion.
Gradually, however, Golconda too got embroiled in the Deccan politics, fought serious wars against Bijapur and in 1565 joined

4. The Barid Shahi Dynasty of Bidar: The kingdom comprised the territory around the Bahmani capital. Qasim Barid, a forme
hesitated from assuming formal ranks until 1527. The Dynasty lasted till 1619 when, it was annexed by Bijapur.

5. The Adil Shahi Dynasty of Bijapur: The most important of the five kingdoms, Bijapur became an independent kingdom in 1
waged wars against Vijayanagar and the other Muslim neighbours, till his efforts were rewarded in the Battle of Talikota in 1565

VIJAYNAGAR KIN
Vijaynagar kingdom and the city was founded by Harihar-I and Bukka-I (sons of Sangama), who were feudatories of Kakatiyas
later became ministers in the court of Kampili. Harihar and Bukka were brought to the centre by Mohammad-bin-Tughlaq, conve
to Islam and were sent ot south again to control rebellion. Harihara and Bukka founded the Vijayanagara empire in 1336 on the
advice of Vidyaranya.
Vijayanagar's arch rival was Bahami with whom it fought over Tungbhadra doab and Marathwada. Vijayanagar-Bahami contest
started by Bukka I in 1367 when he attacked the Bahami fortress at Mudkal.
Vijaynagar was ruled by following four dynasties.
THE SANGAMA DYNASTY (1336-1485)
Harihara I laid the foundations of Vidyanagr. Bukka I strengthened the city of Vidyanagar and renamed it Vijaynagar. He restore
harmony between the warring Vaishnavs and the Jains. The Rais of Malabar, Ceylon and other countries kept ambassadors at
court. The greatest achievement of Deva Raya I (1406-1422) was his irrigation works, where a dam was built across the
Tungabhadra, with canals leading to the city. Deva Raya II (1422-1446) was the grandson of Deva Raya I.
Ahmad Shah I invaded Vijayanagar and exacted a war idemnity.
Deva Raya II, began the practie of employing Muslim cavalrymen and archers in the army. He allotted them jagirs, constructed
mosque in Vijayanagar and ordered that a copy of Quran be placed before his throne for the benefit of the Muslims. Nicolo con
visited during his time.

FIRST USURPATION: THE SALUVA DYNASTY (1485-1505)

Vijayanagar witnessed chaos and disorder after 1465 due to weak rulers. However, the situation was saved by the governor of
Chandragiri, Narasimha Suluva, who siezed the throne in about 1485 in what is known in history as the First Usurpation. Narsim
was succeeded by Timma and Imadi Narsimha who were minors at the time of their coronation. The real power was in the hand
Narsa Nayak, who was the Reagent.
SECOND USURPATION: THE TULUVU DYNASTY
Following the death of Narsa Nayak in 1505, his son Vira Narasimha, succeeded as the reagent. He deposed the Imadi Narsim
and laid the foundation of the Tuluvu dynasty by what is known in history as the Second Usurpation. Babur talked about K D Ra
(1509-1529) was the greatest ruler of the Tuluva dynasty. Some of the highlights of his rule are as follows
KD Raya maintained friendly relations with Albuqerque, the Portugese governor, whose ambassador Friar Luis resided in
Vijayanagar. He gave Albuquerque permission to build a fort of Bhatkal.
He built the Vijaya Mahal (House of Victory) and expanded the Hazara Rama temple and the Vithal Swami Temple. He took the
titles of Yavanaraj Sthapanacharya (restorer of the Yavana Kingdom i.e. Bahmani) and Abhinava Bhoja. Abolished 'marriage ta
is also known as Andhra-Pitamaha and Andhra Bhoja
He was a gifted scholar in both Telugu and Sanskrit, of which only two works are extant: the Telugu work on polity Amuktamaly
and the Sanskrit drama Jambavati Kalyanam.

THIRD USURPATION: THE ARAVIDU DYNASTY

The Aravidu dynasty was founded by Thirumala II, the brother of Rama Raja, who ruled in the name of Sadasiva Raya. On his
failure to repopulate Vijayanagar, he shifted the capital to Penugonda. During his rule, the Nayaks became independents. Thiru
then divided his empire into three practically linguistic sections and placed them under his sons.

Vijayanagar Administration
The Vijayanagar administration was a feudal organization but the king was the fountainhead of all authority with a distinct flair fo
autocracy.
The empire was divided into six provinces or prantas. Each province or pranta was placed under a governor, who was either a
member of the royal family or royal noble.

ECONOMIC CONDITION
Unbounded prosperity prevailed in the Viajayanagar empire. Agriculture flourished in different parts of the kingdom and the Sta
pursued a wise irrigation policy.
The principal industries were related to textiles, mining and metallurgy. And the most important of the minor industries was
perfumery.
Craftsmen's and merchant's guildplayed an important part in the economic life of the kingdom.
 ADMINISTRATION
Mahmud Gawan proved to be the most efficient administrator of the Bahami kingdom. Gawan founded
the four provinces of Gulbarga, Daulatabad, Telangana and Berar to administer efficiently. He divided
each of the four provinces into two divisions, placing each division under a separate governor
(tarafdar).

h Khan, Imad-ul-Mulk, the governor of Gawligarh, one of the two divisions of Berar, proclaimed independence and
al, till in 1595. It was annexed by the Mughals.
d established himself as an independent sovereign. He founded the Nizam Shahi dynasty. Frequently embroiled in
Shahjahan.
angal, and was extensive, fertile and rich in territory. It was founded in 1518 by a Turkish officer, Sultan Quli Qutb
da. Initially, in spite of the incessant warfare between Bijapur and Ahmednagar, it enjoyed a comparative

oined the Muslim confederacy against the Vijayanagr kingdom.

former minister of Mahmud Gawan, had became its de facto ruler as early as 1492. But he and his successor

m in 1489 AD when its Governor, Yusuf Adil Khan declared independence. He and his successors consistently
n 1565 Ad which rendered a death blow to Vijayanagar.

KINGDOM
Deva Raya II had learnings for Vira Saivism, yet he tolerated other religions and had members of other
sects as his ministers. Dindima was his court poet, whereas Srinatha was given the title of Kavi-
Sarvabhauma. 34 poets received his patronage.
Abdur Razzak: the envoy of Shah Rukh, visited Vijaynagar during his reign. He is the author of two
Sanskrit works: Mahanataka Sudhanidhi and a commentary on the Brahmasutras of Badrayana.

Krishnadeva Raya's Asthadiggajas (eight celebrated poets)

(i) Peddana: wrote Manucharitam and Harikathasaransamu
(ii) Timma: wrote Parijatapaharavam
(iii) Madaya: wrote Raja Shekarcharitam
(iv) Dhurjate: wrote Kalahasti Mahatyam
(v) Surona: wrote Raghava Pandaviyam and Prabhavti Pradyuman
(vi) Tenali Ramalingam: wrote Ponduranga Mahatyam
(vii) Ayyalaraju Ramabhadra: wrote Sakalamatasara Sangraharr
(viii) Rama Raja Bhusan:

THE BATTLE OF TALIKOTA (1565)

Rama Raja was an able and ambitious but tactless administrator, he took active interest in the politics
of Muslim states of Bijapur, Golconda, Ahmednagar and Bidar. He supported the one against the other
according to his interest. This incensed the Muslim rulers of Ahmednagar, Bijapur and Golconda and
they jointly fought battle against Vijayanagar in Talikota or Raksha Tangadi on 23rd Jan 1565.
Ramaraja was defeated and killed, which brought an virtual end to the Vijayanagar empire. Berar
stayed away from it.

SOCIETY
The brahmans exercised a predominant influences not only in social and religious matters but also in
the political affairs of the state.
The practice of Sati was largely prevalent.
The evil practice of exacting exorbitant dowries was greatly prevalent among those who were
economically well placed.
However, many women were fairly educated and they were employed as clerks in the royal household.
Overall the status of women improved during this period.
The most remarkable feature in the economic condition of the kingdom was commerce: inland,
coasting and overseas. The most important port on the Malabar coast was Calicut. It had commercial
relations with the islands in the Indian Ocean, the Malay Archipelago, Burma, China, Arabia, Persia,
South Africa, Abyssinia and Portugal.
The principal articles of exports wrre cloth, rice, iron, saltpetre, sugar and spices and the principal
imports in the empire were horses, elephants, pearls, copper, coral mercury, China silk and velvet.
SUFISM
In the early centuries of Islam, a group of minded people called sufis turned to asceticism and mysticism in protest against the g
materialism of the Caliphate as a religious and political institution.
Sufism represents the spiritual and mystical dimensions of Islam. The term Sufi probably came from the Arabic word Sof (wool)
perhaps due to the result of the old ascetic practice of wearing only a coarse woollen garment.
This movement was first born in Iran when some of the religious scholars and liberal thinkers in that country realised thaht there
difference among the various beliefs, such as the Shia and the Sunni sects.

Sufism springs from the doctrine of Wahadat-ul-wajud, which was based on unity of God and Universe and was helpful in bring
closer to Muslims.
This doctrine was propounded by Ibn-ul- Arabi (1165-1240).

One of the earliest Sufis was a woman saint (8th AD) Rabia of Basra, who laid great emphasis on love as bond between god an
The Sufi orders are widely divided into two: Ba-Shara i.e. those who followed the Islamic law and Be-Shara i.e. those who were
by it.
Sufis used the language of the common people and this led to the evolution of Urdu in North India.
They also contributed to the development of Punjabi, Sindhi, Kashmiri, Gujarati, Bengali etc.
Sufis opposed the ritualistic interpretation of Islam and criticised the various social evils prevailing at that time.
In Sufi Khanqahs (hospices), link between pir (teacher) and murid (disciples) was emphaised and led to educational advancem
society.

BHAKTI
The concept of the Bhakti was nothing new to Indians. It is old as the Hindu religion offers three paths for attaining salvations- t
Marg or the path of knowledge, Dharma Marg or the path of law and the Bhakti Marg or the path of devotion to a personal God.
There is evidence of this path in holy scriptures like the Upanishads, Ramayan, Mahabharata, Gita etc.
These scriptures distinctly refer to the two chief principles of unity of God and devotion to a personal God.
But it was in the 11th and 12th centuries that the Bhakti Movement rose and grew stronger.

The Bhakti exponents were divided into two groups : Nirguna Bhakti and Saguna Bhakti
Main characteristics of the Nirguna Bhakti are:
(i) Belief in one Supreme God
(ii) Self surrender to god
(iii) Faith in guru (master)
(iv) No belief in caste system, idol worship and ritualism
(v) No attachment to any particular language

PROMINENT EXPONENTS OF SAGUNA BHAKTI

RAMANUJA: In 12th century, Ramanuja tried to assimilate Bhakti to the tradition of Vedas. He argued that grace of God was m
important than knowledge about him in order to attain salvation. The tradition established by Ramanuja was followed by numbe
such as Madhvacharya, Ramananda, Vallabhacharya and others.

JNANDEVA: He was progenitor of Bhakti movement in Maharashtra

EKNATH: He was opposed to caste distinction and evinced greatest sympathy for men of low caste
TUKARAM: He was a farmer's son and a great devotee of Vithal.
RAMDAS: He established ashramas all over India. It was from him that Shivaji received the inspiration to overthrow Muslim aut
found the kingdom.
SURDASA: He was a disciple of famous religious teacher Vallabhacharya. He sang the glory of Krishna's childhood and youth
Sursagar.
TULSI DAS: He composed the fampus Ramacharitamanas.
Some of the earliest bhakti movements (6th century) were led by the Alvars (literally, those who are immersed in devotion to Vis
Nayanars (literally, leaders who are devotees of Shiva). They travelled from place to place singing hymns in Tamil in praise of t
During their travel the Alvars and Nayanars identified certain shrines as abodes of their chosen deities. Very often large temple
built at these sacred places.

LINGAYAT or VIR SHAIVA MOVEMENT

The twelfth century witnessed the emergence of a new movement in Karnataka, led by a Brahmana named Basavsanna (1106
initially a Jaina and a minister in the court of a Chalukya king.
His followers were known as Virashaivas (hero of Shiva) or Lingayats (wearers of the Linga).
Lingayat believe that on death the devotee will be united with Shiva and will not return to this world. Therefore they do not pract
rites such as cremation, prescribed in the Dhramashastras. Instead, they ceremonially bury their dead.
They also questioned the theory of rebirth.
The Lingayats also encouraged certain practices disapproved in the Dharmashastras, such as post-puberty marriage and the re
widows.
The developments that followed the coming of Islam were not confined to ruling elites. In fact
they permeated far and wide, through the subcontinent amongst different social strata-
peasants, artisans, warriors, merchants etc. All those who adopted Islam accepted, in
principle, the five "Pillars" of the faith: that there is one God, Allah and Prophet Muhammad
is his messenger (shahada); Offering prayers five times a day (namaz/salat); giving alms
(zakat); fasting during the month of Ramzan (sawm); and performing the pilgrimage to
Mecca (hajj).

The basic principles of the Bhakti movement was the loving relationship between the
devotee and his personal God. The Bhakti siants discarded rituals and sacrifices as modes
of worship.
Instead, they emphasized the purity of heart and mind as also kindness and love to all as
the simple way to the realisation if God. They also discarded the castes, creed and gender
based discrimination in the society.

Main characteristics of the Saguna Bhakti are:

(i) Belief in a particular form of God (such as Shiva, Vishnu and his avtars and Goddess)
(ii) Belief in idol worship
(iii) Non-belief in caste system and rituals
(iv) Popularisation of local language

PROMINENT EXPONENTS OF NIRGUNA BHAKTI

GURU NANAK: Nanak was born in a Khattri family at Talwandi in the Lahore district in 1469.
He spent his life preaching the gospel of tolerance. In order to put an ned to the religious
conflicts, he laid stress on moral virtues.
Sikhism conceives god as nirakara (formless) and recognises god by various names- Ram,
Rahim, Rab, Hari, Govind and Murari. Nanak preached his ideals through Kirtans, which are
collected in the form of a book called Adi Granth.
SANKARA'S ADVAITA PHILOSOPHY
In the post-Gupta period, the most serious challenge to Buddhism and Jainism was posed
by Sankara who revived Hinduism. He is called Aquinas of Hinduism. He propounded the
doctrine of Adviata (non-dualism). According to this philosophy, there are various levels of
truth. On a lower level, the world is a creation of Brahma. But, on the highest level, the whole
universe is Maya. The only ultimate reality was Brahma, the impersonal soul. According to
Sankara, God and the created world were one.
After his death, four mathas were established in Sringeri (Karnataka), Dwarka (Gujarat), Puri
(Orissa) and Badrinath (Uttaranchal).
THE MUGHALS (1526-1540 and 1555-1857)
BABUR (1526-1530)
Babur the first Mughal emperor of India. He was born in the Ferghana (1483), Central Asia, in the princely family of mixed Mong
After defeating Ibrahim he turned his attention to the Rajput confederacy and defeated Mewar ruler Rana Sanga in the Battle o
In Battle of Chanderi (1528) he defeated Medini Rai. He was first to entitle himself as the Padshah. After the Kushanas, he was
Battle of Ghaghra (1529) He fought against the allied forces of afghans in Bihar and Bengal. Sultan Nusrat Shah of Bengal face

HUMAYUN (1530-1556)
Humayun succeeded Babur at the young age of 23.
Humayun's early expeditions were against Kalinjar, Jaunpur and Chunar.
He waged war with Bahadur Shah of Gujarat in 1533-1536 and conquered the provinces of Sarangpur, Mandesar, Mandu, Cha
About the same time he built Dinpanah at Delhi as his second capital.
HUMAYUN'S EXPEDITIONS
Expedition of Kalinjar (1531) : Humayun besieged the fort of Kalinjar in Bundelkhand. Humayun was forced to make peace and
Battle of Dauhariya (1532) : Humayun defeated Mahmood Lodhi, the Afghan of Bihar
Siege of Chunar (1532): Humayun besieged the fort of Chunar under Sher Shah, who offered nominal submission. It proved to
Wars with Bahadur Shah (1535-1536) : Bahadur Shah annexed Malwa in 1531, Captured the fort of Raisin and defeated the ch
Humayun captured the fort of Mandu, Champaner and Mandsour.
With the conquest of Gujarat in 1535, Humayun completed his conquest in Central India.

Battle of Chausa (1539)

Humayun's return to Agra was blocked by Sher Khan. Both armies delayed the attack and rain started, leaving the Mughal enca
Battle of Kannauj (1540)
After reaching Agra, Humayun and his brother Kamran decided to fight Sher Shah but due to differences between brothers Hum
Humayun became fugitive and Sher Shah became the ruler of Agra and Delhi.
SHER SHAH SURI (1540-1545)
After defeating Humayun, he made himself emperor of Delhi, extending his control to Gwalior and Malwa.
He caried out innovations in the land revenue system and the army which were subsequently built on by the great Mughal emp
Sher Shah was a great expansionist and wanted to expand his kingdom.
In 1544, he invaded the fort of Kalinjar, which was ruled by Kirti Singh and laid a siege of the fort.
During this siege one of the cannons accidentally went off killing him on 26 May 1545.
His dead body was taken o Sasaram, where he had already built a mausoleum for himself, and was buried.

Sher Shah's Administration

Sher Shah was not only a great conqueror, he was also one of the greatest administrators of the medieval India, His administra
His central machinery of administration was based on the administration of Sultanate period.
Administrative units: Sher Shah divided his kingdom into 47 divisions called Sarkars.
Sarkars were divided into Parganas.
Parganas under the charge of Shiqdar, were consisted of a number of villages.
While Shiqdars looked after the law and order and general administration of his pargana, Munshif collected the land revenue in

Roads and Trade: Shar Shah made many roads to encourage trade, to provide comfort and convenience to the travellers, to fa
administration systematically and properly.
Of these roads, four are very important-
(a) the Grand Trunk Road, which lays between Sunargaon in East Bengal and Attock in the North-west boundary of India,
(b) a road from Agra to Burhanpur in the Deccan,
(c) a road between Agra and Jodhpur and Chittor in Rajputana, and
(d) a road between Lahore and Multan.
On either side of these roads, shady trees were planted, sarais were built at the interval of two koses (about three miles) from e
Hindu and Muslim existed more than 1700.
Coins: Sher Shah also reformed the coins and struck many kinds of coins of pure gold and silver. He gave the name of rupee to
Sur Architecture: Sur architecture forms the climax of Pre-Mughal style of architecture.
Sur built tombs of Sasaram which were octagonal. Most outstanding was Sher Shah's Mausoleum built on a huge plinth, amids
He also built the Purana Qila whose surviving the monuments are Qila-i-Kuhna Masjid and the Sher Mandal library.
Restoration of Humayun
During his exile in Persia, Humayun was given military help by King Shah Tahmasp to conquer Kabul and Kandhar (1554) from
Kamran.
After that he turned to India to regain his lost throne. With the help of Bairam Khan, Humayun defeated the weak rulers of the S
and took control over Agra and Delhi in 1556.
He died from the effects of an accidental fall from the staircase of his library at Delhi in AD 1556.

AKBAR (1556-1605)
Akbar was crowned at Kalanaur at the young age of 13 years under the protection of Bairam Khan.
Second Battle of Panipat: Akbar's earliest conflict was with Hemu, a general of Adil Shah.
Hemu proceeded to Delhi where Mughal governor, Tardi Beg Khan, offered resistance and suffered defeat (1556).
Bairam Khan marched to meet Hemu. The two armies met at Panipat (5th Nov 1556).
Hemu fought bravely but was defeated and Akbar reoccupied Delhi and Agra.
"Hemu defeat was sheer an accident, where as Akbar's victory was bestoved by god". R P Tripathi.

Military Conquests of Akbar (1556-1560)

In 1560, Akbar ended the regency of the Bairam Khan and took the reins of government into his own hands.
But the initial phase of conquest had begun during the regency of Bairam Khan. Gwalior, Ajmer and Jaunpur were occupied.
1561: Conquest of Malwa. The independent Sultan of Malwa, Baz Bahadur, was indifferent to politics and war. The struggle en
Bahadur's submission in 1570 and his enrolment as a Mansabdar in Akbar's court.
1564: Asaf Khan conquered the independent Hindu principality of Garh Katanga. This was a Gond Kingdom comprising the not
of modern Madhya Pradesh.
1562: Akbar made his first pilgrimage to the mausoleum of the Sufi Saint, Sheikh Moin-ud-Din Chisti, at Ajmer. On the way, he
Bhar Mal of Ajmer who made his submission without fighting.
1570: Akbar received the submission of the rulers of Marwar and Bikaner.
There was only one Rajput state which continued to offer opposition- Chittor. The siege of Chittor had begun in 1567. Udai Sing
sought safety in the Aravali Hills, leaving the defence of the fort to two gallant chiefs, Jaimal Rathor and Patta. In 1568, the grea
Akbar was able to cement his alliance with Rajputs.
Akbar conquered Gujarat (1572-1573) and Bengal (1574-1576).
In 1591, Akbar sent four missions to the rulers of Khandesh, Ahmadnagar, Bijapur and Golconda, calling upon them to recogniz
suzerainty and pay him tribute.
Khandesh ruler offered his submission.
Ahmadnagar was captured in 1600.
By 1595, Akbar's armies had conquered Kashmir, Sindh, Orissa, Central India and Qandhar.

JEHANGIR (1605-1627)
Military campaigns started by Akbar continued.

The Sisodiya ruler of Mewar, Amar Singh, accepted Mughal Service.

Less successful campaigns against the Sikhs, the Ahoms and Ahmadnagar followed.
A skilled connoisseur of Persian art and painting, Jehangir patronised the best painters of the period like Abul Hasan and Mans
unprecedented emphasis on scenic beauty, bidr and beasts.

SHAH JEHAN (1627-1658)

Mughal campaigns continued in the Deccan under Shah Jehan.
The Afghan noble Khan Jahan Lodi rebelled and was defeated.
Campaigns were launched against Ahmadnagar
the Bundelas were defeated and Orchha seized.
In the north-west, the campaign to sieze Balkh from Uzbegs was unsuccessful and Qandhar was lost to the Safavids.
In 1632, Ahmadnagar was finally annexed and the Bijapur forces sued for peace.

In 1657-1658, there was conflict over succession amongst Shah Jahan's sons.
Aurangzeb was victorious and his three brothers, including Dara Shikoh were killed.
Shah Jahan was imprisoned for the rest of his life in Agra.
AURANGZEB (1658-1707)
In North-East, the Ahoms were defeated in 1663, but rebelled again in the 1680s.
Campaigns in the north-west against the Yusufzai and the Sikhs were temporarily successful.
Mughal intervention in the succession and internal politics of the Rathor Rajputs of Marwar led to their rebellion.
Campaigns against the Maratha chieftain Shivaji were initially successful.
But Aurangzeb insulted Shivaji who escaped from Agra, declared himself an independent king and resumed his campaigns aga
Mughals.

LATER MUGHALS

BAHADUR SHAH I (1707-1712)

Aurangzeb died in 1707. A war of succession started amongst his three surviving sons-Muazzam, Azam and Khan Baksh.
Muazzam defeated his brothers and ascended the throne with the title of Bahadur Shah. He pursued pacifist policy and was, th
called Shah Bekhabar.
He also assumed title of Shah Alam I. He made peace with Guru Gobind Singh and Chatrasal.
He granted Sardeshmukhi to Marathas and also released Shahu.
He forced Ajit Singh to submiy, but later recognised him as the Rana of Marwar.
JAHANDAR SHAH (1712-13)
Ascended the throne with the aid of Zulfikar Khan.
His nephew, Farrukhsiyar dethroned him.
FARRUKHSIYAR (1713-1719)
Ascended the throne with help of Sayyid brothers, Abdullah Khan and Hussain Khan, who were Wazir and Mir Bakshi respectiv
Farrukhsyar was killed by the Sayyid brothers in 1719.
Sikh leader Banda Bahadur was captured at Gurdaspur and exacuted.
MOHAMMAD SHAH (1719-1748)
During his reign, Nadir Shah raided India and took away the peacock throne and the Kohinoor diamond.
He was a pleasure loving king and was nicknamed Rangeela.
During his reign, autonomous states of Hyderabad, Bengal and Awadh were established by Nizam-ul-mulk, Murshid Quli Khan
Kahn Burhan-ul-Mulk respectively.
AHMED SHAH (1748-1754)
During his reign Ahmed Shah Abdali (one of the ablest generals of Nadir Shah) marched towards Delhi and the Mughals ceded
Multan.
ALAMGIR (1754-1759)
During his reign Ahmed Shah Abdali occupied Delhi. Later, Delhi was also plundered by the Marathas.
SHAH ALAM II (1759-1806)
During his reign, Najib Khan Rohilla became very powerful in Delhi.
The Battle of Buxar (1764) was fought during his reign.
During his reign Delhi was overpowered by the 1803.
AKBAR SHAH II (1806-1837)
During his reign, Lord Hastings ceased to accept the sovereignty of Mughals and claimed an equal status
BAHADUR SHAH II (1837-1862)
The last Mughal king, who was confined by the British to the red fort.
During the revolt of 1857, he was proclaimed the Emperor by the rebellions.
He was deported to Rangoon following the 1857 rebellion.

THIRD BATTLE OF PANIPAT

Ahmed Shah Abdali in his fifth invasion received a stiff resistance from Marathas. He was enraged when Rohilla chief Najib-ud-
the Nawab of Awadh Shuja-ud-Daulah, established by him, were defeated by the Marathas.
He also felt humiliated when his son Timur Shah was ousted from Punjab. He invaded India for the sixth time in 1759 and regai
Third battle of Panipat was fought on 14 January 1761, between the forces of Ahmad Shah Abdali and Marathas at Panipat.
After initial success, the Marathas suffered a crushing defeat. In all, the Marathas lost 28,000 soldiers.
The sense of defeat was so great that the Peshwa Balaji Baji Rao (Nana Saheb) died of shock.

MUGHAL ADMINISTRATIVE STRUCTURE

The centre of whole structure of government was the sovereign.
Central Administration: Wazir was the most important functionary. The unrestricted use of the powers of a Wazir by Bairam Kha
warning against the appointment of an all-powerful Wazir. Akbar abolished the post.

Provincial Administration: Mughal empire was divided into subah or province which was further subdivided into sarkars, pargan
villages. However, it also had other territorial unit as Khalisa (royal land), Jagirs (autonomous rajas) and Inams ( gifted lands, m
lands). There were 12 territorial units during Akbar's reign, which increased to 21 under Aurangzeb's reign. The provincial admi
based on the principles of "uniformity" and "Check and Balance".

Judicial Administration: The Mughals efficiently carried on the judicial administration with the help of Qazi-ul-Quzat. He was the
of the state and decided the religious and criminal cases. Local Qazis were appointed by him. He also used to supervise the law
within the empire. He could also hear appeals against local law courts. At the provincial level, Sadr, Kotwal, Muqaddam and Ch
heard the cases. The consumer cases were heard by amil.
MANSABDARI SYSTEM

Mansabdari system, introduced by Akbar in 1573-74, was the steel-frame of the empror's military policy. The term mansab mea
or rank. The Mansabdar, i.e. the holder of th e mansab, was an official who, out of his pay, was expected to furnish a certain nu
cavalry to the imperial army.
Salient features of the Mansabdari system were as follows
Mansabdars were granted into 39 classes, ranging from commanders of 10 to 10,000.
Twin ranks-- Zat and Sawar were alloted. The former indicated a noble's personal status, while the latter, the number of troops
maintain.
Mansabdari had three scale gradations:
(i) Mansabdar (500 zat and below)
(ii) Amir (between 500-2500 Zat)
(iii) Amir-i-Umda (2500 Zat and above)
Mansabdari was not an hereditary system. Mansabdars were paid through revenue assignments (jagirs).
Reforms in Mansabdari: An important change in Mansabdari in Jehangir's reign was the introduction of the du-aspa-sih-aspa ra
made part of the sawar rank. The mansabdari sawar obligations and the payment made for them were both doubled.
Shah Jehan introduced the Month-Ratio or Month-Scale system in Mansabdari. Under this system, salaries of Mansabdars wer
month scale. The obligations of maintaining sawars were brought down accordingly.

DECCAN POLICY
The Mughal policy of expansions towards the Deccan proved to be very fatal to the Mughal empire. First, these long wars of the
spelled the bankruptcy of the Mughal empire from the economic view point.
Secondly, the administration received a setback by Aurangzeb's continuous absence (for 25 years) from the capital. Conseque
were risings and revolts against the Mughal empire in al sides.

RELIGIOUS POLICY
Babur proclaimed jihad against the Hindus especially Rana Snaga and he called the Hindus Kafirs in order to excite his soldiers
demolished several hindu and jain temples.
Humayun too adopted his father's policy as far as his relations with Hindus were concerned.
The credit of establishing a "Secular State" in India goes to Akbar alone.
He abolihed Jaziya and pilgrimage tax and forcible conversion of prisoners of war.
He built an Ibadat Khana at Fatehpur sikri to discuss religious matters. He invited many distinguished person at the Ibadat Khan
To curb the dominance of Ulema, Akbar introduced a new Khutba, written by Faizi, and proclaimed Mahzarnama in 1579, which
the final interpreter of Islamic law (Mujtahid Imam-i-Adil) in case of any controversies. It made him Amir-ul-Momin (leader of the
Amir-i-Adil (a just ruler).
His religious liberalism is reflected again in the pronouncement of Tauhid-i-Ilahi or Din-i-Ilahi which propounded Sufi divide mon

Jehangir, of course, continued to follow his father's liberal policy and refused to play in the hands of Ulemas.
He was moved by religious ends to some extent in adopting an oppressive policy towards Guru Arjun Dev.
Like his father, Shah Jehan pursued a tolerant religious policy, although there were aberrations at times.

Aurangzeb was a bigoted Sunni Muslim who wanted to establish a Muslim state in India. He demolished countless temples and
mosques in their places.
He slaughtered cows in temples and confiscated lands previously endowed on them. He issued royal edicts to the effect that th
should not open any school for their children.
He imposed jaziya and pilgrimage tax on Hindus. Octroi taxes were collected from the Hindus very strictly and severely.
The celebration of Hindu festivals like Dusshera, Diwali etc. in the Royal court was absolutely stopped.
Guru Arjun Dev (5th Sikh Guru) was beheaded
During 1681, the affairs of the South centred around the rise of the Maratha power under
Shivaji. For about 25 years (1682-1707), he made desperate efforts to crush the Marathas,
exhausting himself and his empire in the process.
LAND REVENUE SYSTEM
Land was classified into four types:
Polaj (continuously cultivated)
Parauti (left fallow for a year or two to recover productivity)
Chahcar (left fallow for three or four year)
Banjar (uncultivated for five years or more).

Ghallabaksh: Under this system, a share of each crop was taken by the state. This system
prevailed in lower Sind, a part of Kabul and Kashmir.
Zabti system: [Todar Mal, finance minister, diwan-i-asraf] in 1582 set up a regulation which
was applied from Multan to Bihar and in large parts of Rajputana, Malwa and Gujarat.
The settlement under the Zabti system was made directly with the cultivator.
Under the Zabti system, the cash rates were fixed on the average of ten years' actual i.e.
from the past experience of ten years. That is why this system is also called Dahsala system.
Nasaq or Estimate: Past assesment determined the present. Todar Mal collected the
accounts of Qanungos and in some places ascertained
TENETS OF DIN-I-ILAHI
It could be adopted on Sunday by performing paibos, (the emperor placed his feet on the
head of the initiated), following which Akbar gave Shat (formula).
The initiated had to express greeting in the form of Allah-o-Akbar and Jalle-Jalalhu
He had to abstain from meat and give alms
There were no scriptures and priests
Tauhid-i-Ilahi had four grades of devotion in the ascending order- sacrifice of property, life,
honour and religion.
Birbal, Abul fazal and Faizi joined the order
Badauni believed that Akbat was creating a new religion but contemporary historians believe
that he was only trying to attain the staus of Insaan-i-Kamil.
MARATHA
Various factors contributed to the rise of Marathas in the sixteenth and seventeenth century.
The mountainousregion and dense forests made them brave soldiers and adopt guirella tactics. They built
a number of forts on the mountians.
The spread of Bhakti movement in Maharashtra inculcated a spirit of religious unity among them.
The spiritual leaders like Tukaram, Ramdas, Vaman Pandit and Eknath fostered social unity.
The political unity was conferred by Shivaji.
The Marathas held important positions in the administrative and military systems of Deccan Sultanates of
Bijapaur and Ahmadnagar.

SHIVAJI (AD 1627-1680)

Shivaji was born in the fort of Shivner in AD 1627. He belonged to the Bhonsle family of Poona district.
Shivaji inherited the territory of Poona as a jagir.
Shivaji was brought up at Poona under the careful supervision of his mother and an able Brahman Dadaji
Kondadev who made him an expert soldier and an efficient administrator.
Shivaji, also came under the religious influence of Guru Ramdas, who made him proud of his motherland.

MARATHA ADMINISTRATION

Shivaji appointed Hindus on high posts. Marathi was made the state language instead of Persian.
He ordered Pandit Hanumant to prepare a dictionary of state craft for official use, titled as Raja Vyakaran
Kosh.
Shivaji's administrative system was largely borrowed from the administrative practices of Deccan (mostly
of Malik Amber of Ahmadnagar).
King was assisted by Ashtapradhan (group of eight ministers).
Shivaji did not allowed the high offices to become hereditary.
Shivaji divided the territory directly under his rule into three provinces, each under a viceroy. He further
divided the provinces into Prants each of which was subdivided into Parganas and Tarafs. The lowest unit
was the village, and each village had its headman or Patel.
Maratha power under Peshwas
After his release by the Mughal emperor Bahadur Shah in AD 1707, Sahu got the loyal and sincere help
of a capable officer Balaji Vishwanath. At his coronation in Jan 1708, Sahu conferred upon Balai
Vishwanath the title of Sena-Karte (Maker of Army) and later on elevated him to the post of Peshwa.
With Balaji's appointment as the Peshwa. the office of the Peshwa became hereditary. Balaji and his
successors became the defacto rulers of the Maratha kingdom and the Chhatapati became just a figure
head.
The secretariat of the Peshwa's i.e. Huzur Daftar, was located at Poona. Now the feudals ruled over their
jagirs independently.
Malik Amber of Ahmednagar made friends with the Marathas and using their best talent and cooperation,
both for war and administration, he improved the financial condition of that kingdom and succesfully
opposed the Mughal advance for a quarter of century.
Politically, the ground for establishment of independent Maratha state was prepared by the advance of
Mughal armies in the South.
The fall of Khandesh, the gradual disappearance of Ahmednagar and the creation of the Mughal Vice-
royalty in the Deccan affected the every aspect of Maratha life, which induced an awakening among the
Marathas as nation under the leadership of Shivaji and others.

Coronation of Shivaji
Shivaji decared himsef the independent ruler of the Maratha kingdom and was crowned Chhatrapati in AD
1674 at Raigarh (his capital). Shivaji's coronation symbolises the rises of the people to challenge the
might of Mughals. It was significant due to the following reasons:
By coronating under the title Haindava Dharmodharak (protector of Hinduism) of the nre and independent
State Hindav Swarajya. Shivaji proclaimed to the world that he was no just a rebel son of a Maratha
Sardar in Bijapur court, but equal to any other ruler in India.
Only a coronation could give Shivaji the legitimate right to collect revenue from the land and levy tax on
the people. Ganga Bhatt, the priest presiding over the function, declared that Shivaji was Suryavanshi
Kshatriya and gave the title of Kshatriya Kalvatvamsa.

REVENUE ADMINISTRATION
Shivaji abolished the Jagirdari system and replced it with Ryotwari system.
Appointment of revenue officials helped in establishing a strong revenue system.
Besides the land revenue, Shivaji had other sources of income of which most important were the Chauth
and Sardeshmukhi. (these taxes were levied on those living outisde Maratha kingdom, on an undefined
belt of land which was legally part of the Mughal empire or the Deccan states.
Kathi System
Land was carefully measurec with the help of a measuring rod or kathi.

MARATHA CONFEDERACY

The origin of Maratha confederacy may be traced to the revival of the Jagir or Saranjam system by
Rajaram. But it was only in the time of Baji Rao I that the system made a base for itself.
In this process, Shahu issued letters of authority (Saranjam) to his various Maratha Sardars for collecting
Chauth and Sardeshmukhi from various parts of India. They merely recognised the Peshwas as their
nominal head after the death of Shahu.
But, unfortunately, the Maratha confederacy, owing to internal desertions fell prey to the British
imperialism and their confederacy decayed.
Confederacies
Bhonsle of Berar
Gaekwad of Baroda
Holkar of Indore
Scindia of Gwalior
Peshwa of Poona
EUROPEANS ADVENT: THE PORTUGESE
It was in 1492 that Christopher Columbus, who wanted to reach India but discovered America instead, leading to exploitation an
Prince Henry of Portugal encouraged voyages for the discovery of sea-routes to India following which Bartholomew Diaz reach
Vasco da Gama discovered a new sea route from Europe to Asia via Cape of Good Hope. He was helped by Gujarati navigator
He landed at Calicut on 21st May, 1498. Calicut, then under Zamorins, enjoyed a high degree of prosperity.

The arrival of Pedro Alvarez Cabral in 1500 and the second trip of Vasco da Gama in 1502 led to establishment of Portugese tr
Cochin.
The Portugese maritime empire acquired the name of Estado da India, which intended to monopolise the pepper and spice trad
Beside controlling the whole of the export trade to Europe, the Portugese monopolised the port-to-port trade on the Malabar co
Persian coast on the one side and to Malacca on the other.

Power Establishment
Portugal's initial objective was to sieze the spice trade, but later it decided to divert to all trade of the East with Europe. It was n
the Eastern trade could not be established by sending an annual fleet and establishing a few isolated factories.
Thus a new policy was adopted in 1505. A Governor was to be appointed for a three year term.

Francisco de Almeida (AD 1505-09)

First Governor of Portugese territory. The systematic assault of the Portugese on the Muslim (mainly Arab) monopoly of trade in
deprived Egypt and Turkey of the duties on Indian goods passing through the sea route and across Egypt to Alexandria.
Similarly, the Sultans of Bijapur and Gujarat feared that the Portugesewould extend their control from the Southern (Malabar) p
their interest. This brought about an alliance between Egypt, Turkey and Gujarat against the Portugese intruders.
In a naval battle fought near haul, the combined Muslim fleet won a victory over the Portugese fleet under Almeida's son who w
A year later, Almeida defeated the combined Muslim fleet in a naval battle near Diu (Feb 1509).

Alfonso de Albuquerque (AD 1509-15)

Albuquerque, the next governor, built up a great territorial power in India. The plan of Albuquerque consisted of three series of o
1. The control of the Persian Gulf and the Red Sea
2. The establishment of the headquarters of the Portugese power at a central port in the West coast of India
3. The destruction of Arab trade in the Malaya Peninsula and the Far East.
The conquest of Goa from the Adilshahi Sultan of Bijapur was Albuquerque's first achievement. The conquest of Goa put "the s
South-West coast.

Nino da Cunha (1529-38)

He established settlements at Santhome near Madras and at Hugli in Bengal and thus developed commerce on the Eastern co
In 1534, the portugese secured permission to build factories at Satgaon (port Piqueno, little port) and Chittagong (porto Grande
In Ad 1535, Cunha got possession of Diu and Bassein from Bahadur Shah of Gujarat.

By 1571 the Asiatic Empire of Portugal was divided into three independent commands, namely
(1) A governorship at Mozambique controlling the settlements on the African coast
(2) A viceroyalty at Goa in charge of the Indian and Persian territories; and
(3) A governorship at Malacca to control the trade of Java and the Spice Archipelago

Gradually, almost all of their territories were lost to Marathas (Salsette and Bassein in 1739), Dutch and English.
Only Goa, Diu and Daman remained with them until 1961.

The Portugese brought to India the cultivation of tobacco.

The Portugese spread Catholicism in certain regions on India's Western and Eastern coasts.
Institution of inquisition was established at Goa in 1560.
The first printing press in India was set up by the Portugese at Goa in 1556
The first scientific work on Indian medicinal plants by a European writer was printed at Goa in 1563.
In AD 1661, the King of Portugal gave Bombay to Charles II of England as dowry when Charles II married the Cathrine.

THE DUTCH
Dutch United East India Company, was formed in 1602.
The company was vested with ample powers of attack and conquest by the state. It was the first multinational company to issue
and the enthusiastic national support which the company enjoyed enabled it to monopolise the entire Spice trade to Europe.
DUTCH Settlements
After an earlier abortive attempt to start trade at Surat and on the Malabar coast, Admiral Van der Haghen opened up trade with
permanent factory at Masulipatnam. Soon, another factory was founded at Devanampatnam or Fort St David (after British occu
In 1610, upon negotiating with the King of Chandragiri, the Dutch found another factory at Pulicat, named Fort Gledria.
Negapatnam became new centre in 1689 (acquired from the Portugese in 1659).
Exports
Textiles, woven according to special patterns constituted the chief export of the Coromandel ports.
Other commodities were indigo and saltpetre,opium, the most important export was consumed in Java and China and yielded e
Imports
Spices, sandalwood and pepper from the Archipelago, copper from Japan and textiles from China.
Trade from Bengal
The Dutch first established a factory at Pipli, but soon abandoned it for Balasore, which was in turn neglected when a firm footin
1653. The Dutch constructed Fort Gustavus at Chinsura. Subsequently, they established factories at Kasimbazar and Patna,
After a bitter struggle for power, Dutch were finally defeated by English in the Battle of Bedara, 1759.
SIGNIFICANCE:
The Dutch on the one hand, dislodged the Portugese from India's maritime trade, and on the other, they gave a new direction a
trade. The credit for making Indian textiles the premier export from India goes to the Dutch.
The Dutch instead of the spices greatly promoted the export of textiles, which they considered more lucrative. Gradually the Ind
flung parts of the world.

THE ENGLISH
Before the East India Company established trade in India, John Mildenhall, a English merchant came to India over land route to
Through the Charter granted by Queen Elizabeth I on 31st Dec 1600 under the title of "The Governor and Company of Merchan
formed.
The immediate aim of the company was the acquisition of the spices and pepper of the Eastern Archipelago and therefore, the
1601-1606, were made, not to India, but to Achin (In Sumatara), Bantam (in Java) and the Malaccas.
Finally, with the third voyage in 1608, the English initiated the process of the company's trade with India and Captain William Ha
and could speak Turkish, was approached to meet Akbar with a letter from King James I.

English Settlements at Western Coast

The English beginning in India was not very promising on account on Portugese rivalry.
William Hawkins journeyed from Surat and arrived at the Jahangir's Court, in 1609, but failed to get permission to erect a factor
grant permission later refused due to Portugese pressure.
However, the victory of English under Captain Best over Portugese fleet at Swally (near Surat) in 1612 broke the tradition of Po
issued by Jahangir permitting the English to establish a factory at Surat.
Sir Thomas Roe came to India as ambassador of James I, the king of England to the Mughal court in 1615. He succeeded in ge
Prince Khurram granting the permission to trade and erect factories in different parts of empire.
The English established their factories at Agra, Ahmedabad, Baroda and Broach by 1619. The English East India Company acq
Francis Day founded the city of Madras where the Fort St. George was built.
In 1690, an English factory was established at a place called Sutanuti by Job Charnock. Later it developed into the city of Calcu
Calcutta became the capital of British India.
Thus Bombay, Madras, Calcutta became three presidency towns of the English settlements in India.

THE DANES
Denmark also establish trade settlements in India. Their settlement at Tranquebar was founded in 1620. Another important Dan
(headquarters) in Bengal. They failed to strengthen themselves in India and they sold all their settlement in India to the British in

THE FRENCH
Compagnie des Indes Orientales popularly known as the French East India Company was formed by Colbert (the famous minis
in 1664.
In 1667, an expedition was sent under Francois Caron, who established the first French factory in India at Surat.
In 1669, Marcara founded another French factory at Masulipatnam by securing patent from the Sultan of Golconda.
In July 1672, Fench squadron under De La Haye occupied Santhome near Madras, which the Sultan of Golconda had conquer
led to an alliance of the Dutch and the Sultan of Golconda against the French. Faced with a critical situation, De La Haye surren

Meanwhile in 1673, Francois Martin, director of the Masulipatnam factory, obtained from Sher Khan Lodhi (Governor of Valikon
developed into Pondicherry with Martin its first Governor.

The Death of Martin in December 1706 marked the decline of French power in India, which persisted till 1719 and led to the rec
The French power in India was revived under Lenoir and Dumas (Governors) between 1720-1742. They occupied Mahe in Mal
Tamilnadu.
The arrival of Dupleix as French Governor in India in 1724 saw the beginning of Anglo-French conflict resulting in their final def
1760.
THE ANGLO FRENCH STRUGGLE
First Carnatic War (1746-1748)
In March 1740, there took place in Europe the War of Austrian Succession where the French and the English were
opposite sides.
The hostility in India was initiated by EIC when English navy under Barnett captured French ships. Dupleix
captured Fort St George in 1746.

the war came to end with the termination of hostilities in Europe by the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle (1748)
According to this treaty, the English got back the Madras and the French got the Louisburg region in North America.

Second Carnatic War (1749-1754)

The conflict began with the issue of disputed succession to the throne Carnatic. The French supported Chanda
Sahib to become the Nawab and the English supported Mohammad Ali.
In the war French were defeated, and Chanda Sahib was beheaded. The peace treaty concluded between English
and French and Mohammad Ali was recognised as the Nawab of Carnatic.

Third Carnatic War (1757-1763)

In 1756, seven years war broke out in Europe.
The French army under Count de Lally (Governor General) captured Fort St David. After a series of conflicts the
English Army under General Eyre Coote decisively defeated the French forces at Wandiwash (a fort in Carnatic
State) on 22 Jan 1760.
English captured Pondicherry, Mahe and Jinji.
The war came to end with Treaty of Paris (1763). According to this treaty, Pondicherry and some other French
settlements were returned to the French.

BATTLE OF PLASSEY 1757

The beginnings of British political sway over India may be traced to this battle. It was the most decisive war that
marked the initiation of British rule in India for the next two centuries.
The battle was fought between British East India company (under Robert Clive) and Siraj-ud-daulah (Nawab of
Bengal) and his French allies.

Mir Jafar Ali Khan, grand-uncle of Siraj and Commander-in-chief of Nawab's army, joined the British side through
secret mediators in Battle of Plassey. He was made nawab after the war.
However, Mir Jafar realised that the British had high expectations and he wanted to set free from English with the
help of Dutch.
The Dutch were defeated by British and Mir Qasim (Son-in-law of Mir Jafar) was made nawab but he did not act
according to the expectations of British.
He was overthrowned and Mir Jafar was again made the nawab.

BATTLE OF BUXAR 1764

The battle was fought between British and Armies of Mir Qasim, Shah Alam II (Emperor) and Shuja-ud-daulah
(Nawab of Awadh).
British army under Major Hector Munro won the battle.
After the victoy of Buxar, the English army advanced towards Awadh and established their control over Banaras and
Allahabad.
The then Nawab of Bengal signed a treaty with the company on 20th Feb 1765. According to the treaty:
Nawab would dissolve most of his army and to administer Bengal through a Deputy Subedar (nominated by the
company).

Robert Clive was made the first Governor of Fort William under the Company’s rule. He introduced Dual System of
Administration in Bengal.
He was succeeded by Verelst and Cartier.
In 1772, the Company appointed Warren Hastings as the Governor of Fort William.
THE CONQUEST OF MYSORE STATE
Mysore was earlier the part of Vijayanagara Empire. After its decline in 1565, Wodeyar Dynasty founded its rule.
During 1731-34, Devaraj and Nanjaraja controlled real power in the state and became the defacto rulers.
Devaraja and Nanjaraja failed to control the situation and this paved the way for the rise of Haider Ali. Haider's
policy of expansion in the Southern states alarmed British. They initiated efforts to counter balance Haider Ali which
gave birth to Anglo-Mysore conflict.

FIRST ANGLO-MYSORE WAR (1767-69)

To check Haider, British, the Nizam and the Marathas formed a Tripartite alliance. However, Haider succeeded in
breaking this alliance. He along with Marathas and the Nizam launched an attack on British.
In the war, Haider registered brilliant victories over the British and finally appeared at the gates of Madras.
The panic stricken Madras Government was forced to sign a humiliating treaty (Treaty of Madras) on 4th April
1769.
Sir Jadunath Sarkar has narrated the importance of the Battle of Plassey saying
that it brought an end to the medieval period and inaugrated modern period in
Indian History.

The battle resulted into securing Diwani rights to administer the collection and
management of revenues of large areas of Bengal, Bihar and Orissa,
Governor-Generals of Company
Warren Hastings (1772-1785)
The first Governor-General of company for Bengal.
Charter Act of 1773.
Administrative Reforms: He put an end to Dual system of government in Bengal.
The treasury was shifted from Murshidabad to Calcutta and it became the seat of
government.
Revenue Reforms: Although, the company had got the Diwani of Bengal, Bihar and
Orissa in 1765, the work of collection of land revenue had been left in the hands of
Amirs. Warren Hastings decided that company must directly collect the revenue.
Consequently, he appointed collectors.
Economic Reforms: Warren Hastings prohibited the use of Dastaks by the servants
of the company. He abolished a large number of custom houses. He reduced the
duties on all goods except salt, betel nut and tobacco.
Judicial Reforms: The judicial system at the time of Warren Hasting's ascendancy
was a store-house of abuses. He felt the necessity of reorganising the judicial system.
Each district was provided with a civil court (Diwani Adalat) under the Collector and a
criminal court (Faujdari Adalat) under an Indian Judge.
Two courts of appeal were established at Calcutta. They are the Sadar Diwani Adalat
(the Supreme Civil court) and Sadar Nizamat Adalat (the Supreme Criminal court).

Lord Charles Cornwallis (1786-1793)

A warrior-statesman, succeeded Warren Hastings as Governor-General. He
distinguished himself as a remarkable soldier in the American war of Independence.
Although he surrendered at York Town in 1781 before the American troops, his
reputation was not spoiled.
Cornwallis was prompted by a strong sense of public duty and enjoyed the respect as
well as the confidence of his fellow countrymen.
Administrative reforms: The great work of Cornwallis was the purification of the civil
service by the employment of capable and honest public servants mainly on the basis
of merit thereby laying the foundation of the Indian Civil Service.
Cornwallis also introduced separation of three branches of service, i.e. Commercial,
Judicial and Revenue.
Judicial Reforms: With the help of George Barlow, Cornwallis prepared a
comprehensive code, covering the whole filed of administration, judicial, police,
commercial and fiscal. This code (Cornwallis code of 1793) was based upon the
pricniple of Montesquieu, "the separation of Powers".
After 1790, the District Faujdari Adalats presided over by Indian Judges were
abolished. In these place Circuit Courts were established and presided by the
European Servants.
A new class of officer called the District Judge was created to preside over the
District Civil Court. The District Judge was also given the magestrial and the Police
function.
Police Reforms: The effective implementation of judicial reforms required the
reorganisation of police administration. The District Judge controlled the police. Each
district was divided into thanas or police circles each of was about 20 sqaure miles. It
was placed under an Indian officer called Daroga.
Lord Richard Colley Wellesley (1798-1805)
Called himself as Tiger of Bengal. In 1794, the Board of Trade founded.
Vigorously applied the policy of Subsidiary Alliance in order to make "the British
Empire in India" into "the British Empire of India".
He sent a British envoy Mehdi Ali Khan to the court of Shah of Persia, later he sent
John Marshall.
Foundation of Fort William College.
Formation of Madras presidency after the annexation of the kingdoms of Tanjore and
Carnatic.
Under his leadership, Lord Lake captured Delhi and Agra in 1803 and took the
emperor under the Company's protection.

Sir George Barlow (1805-1807)

Vellore mutiny (1806)
Slave trade abolished in the British Empire in 1807
Lord Minto I (1807-1813)
Treaty of Amritsar with Ranjit Singh (1809)
Charter Act of 1813.
Lord Hastings (1813-1823)
He adopted a vigorous forward policy and waged wars extensively. His aggressive
and imperialist policies paved the way for the general expansion of the British Empire.
The Pindaris, Marathas and Gorkhas were posing serious threat to British, therefore
Hastings determined to restore order by suppressing the Pindaris and to eliminate
threats to the British power by waging wars with the Marathas and the Gurkhas.

Lord Amherst (1823-1828)

The First Burmese war (1824-1826)
In 1824, Barrackpore Mutiny
First Anglo- Maratha War (1775-1782)
Apart from their territorial ambition, the major reason for the British
intervention in Maratha state was primarily commercial. The sudden
growth in the company's cotton trade after 1784 to China from Gujarat
through Bombay motivated the British authorities to play a more
interventionist role in the region.
The Marathas were largely remained disunited since the Third Battle
of Panipet (1761).
Their internal conflicts led to signing of Treaty of Surat (1775), in
which Marathas promised to cede Bassein and Salsette to British. In
1776 Treaty of Surat cancelled and Treaty of Purander was signed.
However war followed these treaties and conflict ended with the
signing of Treaty of Salbai between Mahadji Sindhia and Warren
Hastings. This treaty provided the British twenty years of peace with
the Marathas.

The Permanent Settlement

Introduced in Bengal, which was extended to the provinces of Bihar
and Orissa. Cornwallis along with Sir John Shore and James Grant
abolished annual lease system (introduced by Hastings) and
introduced a decimal (Ten years) settlement which was subsequently
declared to be continuous.
The main features were as follows:
(i) The zamindars of Bengal were recognised as the owners of the
land as long as they paid revenue to the East India Company
regularly.
(ii) The amount of revenue was fixed. EIC got 89% leaving rest for the
zamindars.
(iii) The ryots became the tenants since they were considered the
tillers of the soil.
(iv) The settlement took away the administrative and judicial functions
of the zamindars.
The problem with this settlement was that in case of non-payment
many zamindaris were lost. Even if there is rise in market price, EIC
would not be benefitted as the rates were fixed. This made zamindars
showing disinterest in improving the land.
On the other hand, the cultivators also found the system extremely
oppressive.
SUBSIDIARY ALLIANCE
Any ruler entered into alliance had to maintain a contingent of British
troops (commanded by british officer) in his territory. The Indian state
was called 'the protected state' and the British hereinafter were
referred to as 'the paramount power'. It was the duty of the British to
safeguard that state from external aggression and help its ruler
maintain internal peace.

Ryotwari Settlement
Introduced by Sir Thomas Munroe in the Madras, Berar, Bombay and
Assam.
The Peasant was recognised as the proprietor of land. [No
intermediary like a Zamindar between the Peasant and the
Government]
The system failed as it was certainly not possible to collect revenue in
a systematic manner. Driven by the desire to increase the income
from the land, revenue officials fixed too high revenue demand.
Peasants were unable to pay,ryots fled the countryside, and villages
became deserted in many regions.
Second Anglo-Mysore War (1780-1784)
The cause of war was
The mutual distrust and refusal of English to fulfill the terms of the
defensive treaty with Haider, when he was attacked by the Marathas in
1771.
Haider found French more helpful in meeting his military demands for gun,
saltpetre and lead than the English and therefore established a close
alliance with them.
The outbreak of American war of independence, and English attempt to
capture Mahe (French settlement within Haider's territory)
Haider Ali formed a grand alliance with the Nizam of Hyderabad and the
Marathas against the British in 1779.
Haider Ali defeated Col Baillie and captured Arcot in 1780.
Warren Hastings divided Haider's confederacy leaving him isolated. Sir
Eyre Coote defeated Haider at Porto Novo in March 1781.
In Dec 1782 Haider died due to Cancer, Tipu Sultan carried on with war.
The Second Mysore war came to an end by the Treaty of Mangalore
(1783).

Third Anglo Mysore War (1790-1792)

The Treaty of Mangalore (1784) exhibited the military strength of Mysore,
exposed English weakness and increased Tipu's strength. Like his father
he wanted to eliminate the English from India. His other designs were to
wreak vengeance on the Nizam and on the Marathas as they had betrayed
his father.
Tipu send envoys to France and Turkey to seek help.
In 1789, the British concluded a tripartite alliance with the Nizam and the
Marathas against Tipu.
War broke out in May 1790 and was fought in three phases.
In 1792 English forces occupied the hills near Srirangapattinam and seized
it.
Tipu Sultan concluded Treaty of Srirangapattinam :
(i) Tipu has to give half of his dominions
(ii) Tipu had to pay a war idemnity of 03 crore rupees and surrender two of
his sons as hostages to the English
(iii) Both sides agreed to release prisoner of wars.
Fourth Anglo Mysore War 1799
Tipu Sultan wanted to avenge his humiliating defeat and the terms imposed
on him by the British. Tipu worked continuously to secure help to fight
British Imperialism. He took efforts to seek the help of the France, Arabia,
Kabul and Turkey. He corresponded with the Revolutionary French
Government in July 1798. At Srirangapttinam, a Jacobian Club was started
and the flag of the French Republic was hoisted. The tree of Liberty was
also planted. Later, when Napoleon came to power, Tipu received a
friendly letter from Napoleon.
Wellesly set out to persuade Tipu to accept a pact of Subsidiary alliance,
but Tipu didn't paid attention.
The war was short and decisive. Tipu died in the war.
Wellesly restored Hindu rule at the central part of the kingdom.

Gurkha War and Suppression of Pindaris

Nepal emerged as a powerful Gurkha state in 1768. The aggressions of the
Gurkhas into the British territories culminated in war. In 1814 several
battles were fought. Amar Singh Thapa, General of Nepal Army was
forced to surrender. In 1816, Treaty of Sagauli was concluded. The
Gurkhas gave up their claim over the Tarai region and ceded the areas of
Kumaon and Garhwal and withdraws from Sikkim. The British also obtained
the sites of hill stations like Simla, Mussoorie, Nainital, Ranikhet and
develpoed them as tourist spots.
PINDARIS
The origin of Pindaris is lost in odscurity. The first reference about them is
during the Mughal invasion of Maharashtra. They did not belong to any
particular cast or creed. They used to serve in the army without any
payment but instead allowed to plunder. They were mostly active in the
areas of Rajputana and the central provinces and subsisted on plunder.
In 1812, Pindaris plundered Mirzapur and Shahabad and in 1815 raided
the Nizam's dominions.
By 1818 were suppressed by Hastings with the help of Sir Thomas Hislop.
In 1781, Warren Hastings established a Madrasa in Calcutta to encourage
the study of Muslim laws along with Arabic and Persian languages.

In 1791 due to the sincere efforts of the British resident, Jonathan Duncan,
a Sanskrit College was established to promote the study of Hindu laws and
philosophy in Banaras.
Second Maratha War (1803-1805)
Peshwa Baji Rao II signed subsidiary treaty, Treaty of Bassein in 1802.
Daulat Rao Scindia and Raghoji Bhosle took the Treaty of Bassein as an
insult to the national honour of the Marathas.
Arthur Wellesly declared war in 1803. Captured Ahmednagar in Aug 1803
and defeated combined forces of Scindia and Bhosle at Assaye near
Aurangabad. Subsequently Wellesly carried war into Bhonsle's territory and
completely defeated the Maratha forces.
The Treaty of Deogaon (subsidiary) was signed between Bhosle and
Wellesly.

Third Maratha War (1817-1818)

The relationships of Maratha chiefs like Bhonlse, Gaekwar, Scindia, Holkar
and the Peshwas were ridden with mutual jealous.
Peshwa Baji Rao II wanted to become the head of the Maratha Confederacy
and the same time wanted freedom from the British control.
On 13 Jun 1817, British Resident Elphinstone forced the Peshwa to sign
the Treaty of Poona. Bajirao gave up his desire to become the supreme
head.
But soon, Peshwa undid this treaty and attacked the British residency on 05
Nov 1817. He was defeated at Kirkee.
Similarly, Bhonsle chief Appa Sahib also refused to abide by the Treaty of
Nagpur (1816) and fought with British in Battle of Sitabaldi in Nov 1817, but
was defeated.
The Peshwa now turned to Holkar for help, but Holkar too was defeated by
the British on 21 Dec 1817 at Baroda.
Therefore by Dec 1817 the dream of a Mighty Maratha Confederacy was
finally shattered.
The campaign of British Commander Lord Lake against the forces of
Scindia was rather dramatic. Lake triumphantly entered Delhi and
took Shah Alam, the Mughal emperor under British protection. Lake
was quick in consolidating his conquests. By negotiating with the
Raja of Bharatpur, he occupied Agra. Scindia signed a subsidiary
treaty, Treaty of Surji-Arjungaon.
During war Holkar remained aloof, but when Wellesly offered an
alliance they made extreme demands resulting a war with British.
However British failed and Holkars remained unsubdued.
 0
Lord William Bentinck (1828-1835)
Was Governor of Madras in 1803 and supported Sir
Thomas Munroe in revenue administration.
As Governor-General, Bentinck had initiated an era of
progress and reforms. He acted on the dictum that "the
welfare of the subject peoples was a main, perhaps the
primary, duty of the British in India."
He adopted a policy a non-intervention and non-
aggression with Indian states.
To improve financial condition of company he reduced
the salaries and allownaces of all officers and additional
staff were removed. In military, he abolsihed the system
of double batta.
In judicial department he abolished the provincial
courts of appeal established by Cornwallis. He
introduced local language in local courts and English in
the higher courts in place of Persian.

Sir Charles Metcalfe (1835-1836)

In 1808, he was selected by Lord Minto as envoy to the
Court of Ranjit Singh at Lahore.
On 25 April 1809 he concluded the important treaty
securing the independence of the Sikh States between
the Sutlej and Jammu.
He abolished restriction on press. He also called
Liberator of press.

Lord Auckland (1836-1842)

Tripatriate Treaty was signed between the company,
Ranjit Singh and Shah Shuja by which
(a) Ranjit Singh accepted company's mediation in
disputes with Amirs (Sindh).
(b) Shah Shuja conceded his sovereign right to the
company over Sindh on condition of receiving the
arrears of the tribute, the amount of which was to be
determined by the company.

Lord Ellenborough (1842-1844)

Lord Hardinge I (1844-1848)
English education declared as essential qualification for
public services. In 1845, the Danish possession sold to
the English.
Lord Dalhousie (1848-1856)
Youngest Governor General. He did much for the
progress of railway construction in England as the
president of Board of Trade.
The most important aspect of Dalhousie's administration
is related to "the great drama of annexation".

Dalhousie's annexation of Oudh, the last one among his

annexations, created political danger. The annexation
offended the Muslim elite. Indian troops in British Army,
many of who came from Oudh occupied a previliged
position before its annexation but later they were treated
as equals with the rest of the population. Thus
annexation of Oudh contributed to Mutiny of 1857.
Mysore Relationship with Ranjit Singh
Hindu ruler Krishnaraja III, restored by Wellesly proved incompetent. Lord Bentinck was the first GG to visualise
A revolt of peasantry broke out in 1830 and it was suppressed with a Russian threat. His intention was to have
the help of army from Madras. Mysore administration was placed friendly relation with Punjab, Sind and to
under a Commissioner (Sir Mark Cubbon 1834-1861). make Afghanistan asa buffer state.
Cachar Bentinck and Ranjit Singh met on 25 Oct
lying in NE Frontier, came under British protection by Treaty of 1831, at Rupar, on the bank of river Sutlej
Yandaboo, concluded at the end of first Burmese war. Bentinck and signed Indus Navigation Treaty. In
annexed this state on the wish of people after their the King was addition a commercial treaty was also
assasinated in 1832. negotiated. Similar treaty was concluded
Jaintia with Amirs of Sindh.
The ruler of the small country behaved in an unruly way by abducting
few subjects of British India with the evil intention of sacrificing them
to goddess Kali. Therefore to avert this act of cruelty Bentinck
annexed this country.
Coorg
Vira Raja was a ruthless ruler of Coorg, treated his people with
savage barbarity. Bentinck send Col Lindsay to capture Mercara,
capital of Coorg. The Raja was deposed in 1834 and the state was
annexed.

Mandavi state was annexed in 1839.

Death of Ranjit Singh in 1839.
In 1839, he has started construction of Grand Trunk Road from
Calcutta to Delhi. In his period, Sher Shah Suri Marg also renamed
as Grand Trunk Road.

First Anglo Sikh was and Treaty of Lahore (1846).
Prohibition of female infanticide and
suppression of the practice of human
sacrifice among the Khionds of Central
India. In 1846, the rebellion of Khonds took
place.
Annexation of Punjab Domestic Reforms
At the end of second Anglo-Sikh war in 1849, Punjab was annexed Railways
by Dalhousie. First railway line connecting Bombay with Thane opened
Annexation of Lower Burma and from Madras to Arrakonam in 1856.
After the end of second Burmese war 1852, Dalhousie annexed Telegraph
Lower Burma with its capital at Pegu. In 1852, O'Shaughnessy was appointed the Supreintende
Rangoon, Britain's most valuable acquisition from the war became Peshawar and Madras were telegraphically connected. A
one of the biggest ports in Asia. before Dalhousie's departure.
Doctrine of Lapse Postal Reform
Satara annexed in 1848, Jhansi and Nagpur in 1854. After 1857 Post Office Act was passed in 1854. Postage stamps wer
mutiny it was withdrawn. post card was charged.
Annexation of Oudh in 1856. Education
The educational Despatch of Sir Charles Wood (1854) wa
provided an outline for the comprehensive scheme of edu
Departments of Public Instructions were organized.
The Universities of Calcutta, Bombay and Madras were fo
Social Reforms
Abolition of Sati
Sati was banned by Regulation XVII on 4 Dec 1829. Regulation
was extended to the Madras and Bombay Presidencies in 1830.
Suppression of Thugs
Hereditary robbers, who in group of 50 to 100 robbed peaceful
travellers. Colonel William Sleeman suppressed them in course
of five years.
Female Infanticide
Prevalent in places like Rajputana, Punjab, Malwa and Kutch.
Bentinck took effective steps to prevent the ritual of child sacrifice
at Saugar island in Bengal. He prohibited female infanticide and
declared them as punishable crime.
Introduction of English Education
He appointed a committee headed by Lord Macaulay. In his
report, Macauly emphasized the promotion of European literature
and science through english medium to the people of India. In
1835, Government resolution made English as the official and
literary language of India. In the same year, William Bentinck laid
the foundation of the Calcutta Medical College.
mbay with Thane opened in 1853. Calcutta to Raniganj coal-fields in 1854
in 1856.

ppointed the Supreintendent of Telegraph department. Calcutta, Bombay,

egraphically connected. About 4000 miles long Telegraph lines were laid

854. Postage stamps were introduced. A uniform rate of half an anna per

Charles Wood (1854) was considered the "Intellectual Charter of India". It

prehensive scheme of education at primary, secondary and collegiate levels.
ns were organized.
mbay and Madras were founded in 1857.
Mahalwari Settlement
In 1833, the Mahalwari Settlement was introduced in
Punjab, the Central Province and parts of North
Western Provinces. Under this system the basic unit
of revenue settlement was the village or the Mahal.
As the village lands belonged jointly to the village
community, the reponsibility of paying the revenue
rested with the entire Mahal or the village
community.
Though the Mahalwari system eliminated middlemen
between the government and the village community
and brought about improvement in irrigation facility,
yet its benefit was largely enjoyed by the
government.
Public Works Department
Before Dalhousie PWD work was done by Military
Board. Dalhousie created PWD and allotted more
funds for cutting canals and roads. The Upper
Ganges Canal was completed in 1854. By
mordernizing the PWD he laid the foundaions of the
engineering service in India.
REVOLT OF 1857 was of the opinion that the Revolt was purely a military outbreak, and not a conspiracy to overthrow British r
Sir John Lawrence
Vir Savarkar hailed it as a first war of independence.

Causes
POLITICAL
The discontent and disaffection manifested
in the form of revolts against the British
Government were not confined to the ruling
chiefs and royal families alone.
British rule was disliked by the people at
large in any region when it was newly
introduced. Anti-British feelings were
particularly strong in those regions like
Burma, Assam, Coorg, Sind and the Punjab
which were unjustly annexed to the Britsh
empire.
The Doctrine of Lapse produced grave
discontent and alarm among the native
princes, who were directly affected.

ECONOMIC
The huge drain of wealth, the destrucion of
its industry and increasing land revenue
had became the common feature.
The British damaged the Indian trade and
manufacture by imposing a high tariff in
Britain against Indian goods, and by
encouraging all means the import of British
goods to India.
A new plantation system introduced in the
year 1833 resulted in incalculabe misery for
the Indian peasants. This was the result of
permitting Englishmen to acquire land
plantations in India. The hard hit were the
peasants on the Indigo plantations in
Bengal and Bihar.

MILITARY
Poor salary and prospects of promotion of
Indian sepoys in the Britsh Army.
Another important cause of the sepoy's
dissatisfaction was the abolition of foreign
allowances or batta.
inion that the Revolt was purely a military outbreak, and not a conspiracy to overthrow British rule.
ar of independence.
Beginning of Revotl
The 1857 Revolt was sparked off by the episode of greased cartridges. The new Enfield rifle introduced for the first time had
greased paper covered cartridges whose end had to be bitten off before the cartridge was loaded into the rifle.
On 29 March 1857 at Barrackpore, Mangal Pandey refused to use the greased cartridges and single-handedly attacked and kil
his officer. Mangal Pandey was hanged, the regiment was disbanded and sepoys guilty of rebellion punished.
At Meerut in May 1857, 85 sepoys of the 3rd Cavalry regiment were sentenced to long terms of imprisonment for refusing to us
greased cartridges.
On 10th May, sepoys broke out in open rebellion, shot their officers, released their fellow sepoys and headed towards Delhi.
(General Hewitt, OC at Meerut).
Next morning the rebellious army reached Delhi. Delhi fell into the hands of rebellious soldiers on 12 May, Lt. Willtashby, the OI
Delhi could not prevent the mutineers. Soon the mutineers proclaimed the aged nominal king Bahadur Shah II of the Mughal
dynasty as the Emperor of India.

DELHI
Real control was exercised by General Bakht Khan. By the combined efforts of Nicholson, Wilson, Baird Smithand Neville
Chamberlain enabled the recapture of Delhi by Sep 1857. Bahadur Shah was arrested and deported to Rangoon, where he
remained in exile and died in 1862.
KANPUR
Revolt led by Nana Saheb, adopted son of Baji Rao II with the help of Tantia Tope and Azimullah. Sir Hugh Wheeler, command
British garrison surrendered on 27 Jun 1857. But soon Kanpur was recaptured by British commander Sir Colin Campbell.
LUCKNOW
Begum of Oudh with the assistance of sepoys, zamindars and peasants organised an all out attack on British. Henry Lawrence
Chief Commissioner was killed during fight. Later Sir Colin Campbell suppressed the revolt.
JHANSI
Rani Lakshmi Bai (widowed queen of Gangadhar Rao) along with Tantia Tope capture Gwalior. Meanwhile Sir Hugh Rose defe
Tantia Tope and stormed Jhansi on 3rd April 1858. He then captured Gwalior. Rani died on 17 Jun 1858 and Tantia Tope was
captured and hanged.
BIHAR
Kunwar Singh, a ruined and discontented zamindar of Jagdishpur near Oudh fought with British. He sustained a fatal wound in
battle and died on 27 Apr 1858 at Jagdishpur.

Ultimately the 1857 Revolt came to en end with the victory of the British.