FINAL ASSESSMENT

SUBMITTED BY
NAME: RAMISHA ANAN RAHMAN
ID: 1831695649
SUBMITTED TO
MS. NUSRAT HOSSAIN
LECTURER Q. What are the reasons behind
DEPARTMENT OF the Course: Pharmaceutical
formulation of
PHARMACEUTICAL SCIENCES pharmaceutical
Technology suspension?
1
NORTH SOUTH UNIVERSITY Briefly discuss some
Course Code: PHR212
commonly used suspensions
withSection:
examples.3
Semester: Spring 2020
A pharmaceutical suspension is a
dispersion of insoluble drug
substances in a liquid medium. It is
a coarse dispersion of insoluble
finely divided drug particles as the internal phase, somewhat uniformly distributed in the
external phase.
Suspensions that are manufactured in the form ready for consumption is known as an oral
suspension. In some cases, drugs that are unstable in liquid vehicles for long periods of time
may be sold as a dry powder, which can be reconstituted by a liquid media before
consumption, to be stored in its liquid form for a certain short period of time. These are
known as dry suspensions. Based on route of administration, suspensions can be parenteral,
oral, or rectal.
Suspension are a type of liquid dosage form that is widely manufactured and formulated in
the pharmaceutical industry. There are numerous reasons why a suspension is often formed
of a drug, in place of some other dosage form. Some of these reasons are listed below:
● Many drug particles are unstable in aqueous solutions. However, some of these may
be stable when formulated into a suspension form. Therefore, the stability of the drug
can be maintained, while formulating the drug into a liquid dosage form.
● Unstable drug solutions are often made into suspensions rather than a solid dosage
form. This is because liquid dosage forms are more preferred by many, and is also
convenient and easier to swallow. Liquid dosage forms are often required for intake
by children, and the elderly.
● In a suspension, the drug particles remain undissolved. Since any substance needs to
be dissolved in order to be tasted, this particular dosage form is of great advantage for
drugs that are unpalatable and have an undesired taste. In a solution, flavoring and
sweetening agents would have to be used to mask the taste. However, in the case of
suspensions, no additional agents need to be added to enhance palatability.
● Suspensions allow a liquid dosage form to be formulated of hydrophobic drugs. [1]
● Disadvantages of aqueous solutions such as oxidation, microbial activity, hydrolysis,
etc can be avoided. [1]
● In comparison to other liquid dosage forms, more amount of the drug substance can
be distributed in a suspension than in solutions. [1]
● Suspensions also act as an effective means of parenteral drug administration.
● Cosolvents do not need to be used in pharmaceutical suspenions. [1]
● Pharmaceutical suspensions provide greater bioavailability than any other dosage
form, except that of solutions. [1]
For the aforementioned reasons, many drugs are formulated into suspensions. A medicine
that is commonly taken in the form a suspension is an antacid suspension. Antacids are
usually taken for symptoms of hyperacidity and dyspepsia. They are usually marketed as
combinations of different bases, which work to neutralize excess acids in our body.
Antacid suspensions are available in our local pharmacies by the names given by
different brands.
Brand name: Entacyd Plus
Generic name: Aluminium Hydroxide + Magnesium Hydroxide + Simethicone [2]
Antacids are also manufactured in the tablet form, but the suspension form is more
common because the suspension dissolves more easily than the tablet, and works quicker
to achieve rapid relief. [3]
Another commonly used suspension is an antifungal medicine used to treat candidiasis. It
is often used for protection or treatment of infections caused candida albicans in the
pharyngeal areas and intestinal tracts.
Brand name: Nystat
Generic name: Nystatin BP [4]
This medicine is also available in its tablet form. However, its suspension form is
convenient for use by children and elderly, since tablets are not always preferred for these
age groups.
Q. Write a review on the applications of multiple modified emulsions.
An emulsion refers to the dispersion of liquid droplets in an immiscible liquid. There are
generally two types of emulsions. W/O emulsions consist of water droplets dispersed in the
continuous media, which is the oil. Conversely, O/W emulsions contain dispersion of oil droplets
in the continuous media, which is water in this case.
A multiple emulsion refers to a more complex emulsion system in which both types of emulsion
are present. These are generally of two types.
1. Oil-in-water-in-oil (O/W/O) emulsions: This emulsion has oil droplets dispersed in
water, which is further enclosed in oil phase.
2. Water-in-oil-in-water (W/O/W) emulsions: This emulsion has water droplets dispersed
in an old phase, which is further enclosed in water. [5]

Multiple modified emulsions have multiple uses in a lot of sectors, some of which has been
briefly discussed below.
1. Pharmaceutical Industry:
⮚ Used in drugs for which sustained release is preferred, as they prolong the rate
of drug release. [6]
⮚ Used as vaccine adjuvants. O/W emulsions are often difficult to inject.
However, multiple W/O/W emulsion allows for easier administration and
better immune response. [6]
⮚ Immunosuppression is most effective when applied to the target organs.
W/O/W emulsions are used to directly go to the target site to carry out local
immunosuppression. [6]
⮚ Multiple emulsions are used for their taste masking abilities. [6]
⮚ Multiple emulsions may also be used to carry oxygen. In this system,
hemoglobin is dissolved in the form of Hb-in-oil-in-water (Hb/O/W). [6]
⮚ They can be used to immobilize enzymes, by converting water soluble
enzymes. This is mainly required in case of kidney diseases. [6]
⮚ W/O/W emulsions of certain drugs have been proved to result in a higher
absorption in the gastrointestinal tract. [6]
⮚ Can be used for parenteral administration.
⮚ Protects drugs that easily undergo oxidation and hydrolysis.
2. Food Industry:
Multiple emulsions can be used for preparation of functional foods, also known as
nutraceuticals. These are food products that contain more health promoting additives
than its conventional and natural counterpart, thereby providing enhanced
physiological benefits.
⮚ W/O/W emulsions are used to reduce fat content of certain foods, but still
provide the same flavor and texture. Since this emulsion consists of water in
oil, which is further encapsulated in water, it still provides the creamy taste
 and feel of the conventional food product, but has less fat content due to the
presence of water droplets. [7]
⮚ It can also be used to deliver certain flavors and ingredients.
⮚ W/O/W emulsions have the ability to carry both hydrophilic and hydrophobic
ingredients, due to its two different layers. [7]
⮚ Multiple emulsions can also help reduce salt content in food intake. Saltiness
is perceived only by the food in contact with our taste buds, but salt is
distributed throughout the bulk of the food consumed. Only a portion of that
bulk is actually perceived and tasted, as only a portion comes in contact with
the taste buds, but the entire content of salt actually enters our body. If pockets
of high concentrations of salt can be carried directly to the taste buds, it will
enable the same perception of saltiness by having a lower salt content in those
pockets than the previous salt content delivered throughout the bulk of the
food. W/O/W emulsions can be used by encapsulating in a starch shell, which
will dissolve upon its contact with salivary amylase, resulting in the same
saltiness with a lower salt content than that distributed amongst the whole
bulk of the food. [7]
⮚ Protein drinks implement the use of multiple emulsifiers. Additional minerals
is desired in protein drinks. However, only a minimal amount of extra
minerals can be added since it causes coalescence of the protein present. To
overcome this problem, proteins and minerals can be added to the two
different water phases in a multiple emulsion, thus preventing their
interaction. [8]
3. Cosmetics Industry:
⮚ They enable slow release of active therapeutic ingredients from the internal
phase into the external phase, prolonging its action. [9]
⮚ Multiple emulsion cosmetics have a smoother application. [9]
⮚ They are used to improve solubility of less soluble ingredients used.
⮚ They can protect sensitive ingredients such as Vitamin C and E from
hydrolysis and oxidation.[9]
⮚ Allows for better watery feel on the skin than of the generally greasy texture of
oily creams and emulsions.
⮚ O/W/O emulsions are used as sun protection and in makeup formulation.

Q. Explain the factors effecting the stability of emulsions with remedies.

As discussed earlier, emulsion is a dispersion system in which droplets of a liquid is dispersed
throughout an immiscible liquid. Since this system is thermodynamically unstable, an
emulsifying agent is required for its homogenization. However, it does not have a high stability
and is prone to different stability problems, depending on its external conditions. Some of these
problems and their remedies are discussed below.
1. Flocculation: Flocculation is the aggregation of two or more droplets, while still
functioning as individual droplets. [10] It is the first step to bigger problems such as
coalescence.
● Cause: Flocculation occurs as a result of the electrical potential on the droplets.
Among the droplets, there is usually a high repulsive force. This can be reduced if
the emulsifying agent is not sufficiently present or if there is a large portion of
internal phase, which then causes flocculation. [11]
● Remedy:
⮚ Use more emulsifier
⮚ Floccules may come apart by agitation
⮚ Adding higher HLB emulsifier
2. Creaming: Creaming refers to the aggregation of globules of the internal phase that
separates partially and forms a layer at the top of the emulsion. Creaming often leads to
coalescence.
● Cause: Creaming generally occurs due to a large density difference between the
internal and continuous phase. It occurs when the dispersed phase is less dense
than the continuous phase. It may also occur if it left to stand for a long time. [12]
● Remedies:
⮚ Can be redistributed by shaking
⮚ The density difference between the two phases is minimized
⮚ More emulsifier is used
⮚ Viscosity of external phase is increased
3. Sedimentation: Sedimentation occurs for the same causes of creaming, and have the
same remedies. In sedimentation, the aggregation layer is formed at the bottom, while in
creaming, the layer is formed at the top. This occurs because the dispersed phase is
denser than the continuous phase. [13]
4. Coalescence: Coalescence refers to when two droplets come together to form a single
large daughter droplet. It is usually an irreversible process.
● Cause: Coalescence can occur due to a number of different reasons. Amount of
emulsifier added might be insufficient, or the wrong type of emulsifier might be
added. It also may occur due to pH imbalance or temperature changes.
● Remedy:
⮚ Using agitation in pharmaceutical vessels for demulsification
⮚ Adding additional emulsifying agent [13]
5. Breaking/Cracking: Cracking refers to the condition in which the two phases have
completely separated to form their individual layers. It is an irreversible process. In
cracking, the protective layer around the droplets is completely absent.
● Cause: Cracking can be caused due to use of chemicals incompatible with the
emulsifying agent used. It can also be due to incompatibilities amongst multiple
emulsifiers used. Bacterial growth and temperature fluctuations are also common
causes of cracking in emulsions. [14]
 ● Remedy: The only way to reverse cracking is to reconstitute the emulsion in
pharmaceutical vessels using automated agitation.
6. Phase Inversion: In phase inversion, the internal phase becomes the continuous phase
and vice versa. O/W emulsions turn into W/O emulsions.
● Cause: Phase inversion mainly occurs if a large concentration of the internal
phase is used. The concentration of internal phase should be around 30% to 60%.
It can also occur if ionic surfactants are not being ionized, due to addition of
oppositely charged molecules. Inappropriate volumes of the two phases and
higher temperatures are also common causes.
● Remedies:
⮚ This can be prevented by adding a suitable amount of internal phase,
within the acceptable range.
⮚ The emulsion can be stored in cooler temperatures.
⮚ Emulsifier should be used in proper concentration.
7. Microbial contamination: The presence of microbial growth can lead to degradation and
decomposition of the emulsion, thus reducing its efficacy.
● Causes: Contamination of microorganisms may occur as a result of improper
packaging and storing.
● Remedies:
⮚ Fungistatic preservatives such as methylparaben and propylparaben is
added to O/W emulsions.
⮚ Alcohol may be added to O/W oral emulsions.
8. Physical and chemical changes: Stability problems may arise in the form of
decomposition by environmental conditions.
● Cause: Decomposition of the emulsion may be caused by oxidation. Also, light
sensitive emulsions may also undergo degradation in the presence of intense light.
● Remedies:
⮚ In case of light sensitive emulsions, light resistant containers must be
used.
⮚ To prevent oxidative decomposition, antioxidants can be used.
⮚ To prevent oxidation, the container must always be tightly closed.
9. Ostwald Ripening: Ostwald ripening involves formation of large droplets instead of
smaller ones, since larger droplets are more stable. It is an irreversible process. It occurs
when two droplets merge to form a larger and a smaller droplet. The smaller droplets
ultimately dissolve into the emulsion, while the larger ones only grow in size. It is
generally observed in water in oil emulsions, where internal phase has some solubility in
the continuous phase.
● Cause: It is generally caused by the presence of different sized droplets within the
emulsion. It mainly occurs due to the difference in chemical potential of different
droplet sizes. It can also be enhanced due to micelle formations in the emulsion,
which increases the solubility of the oil in water. [15]
 ● Remedies:
⮚ Addition of second immiscible oil
⮚ Uniform droplet sizes
⮚ Use of oil phase that is less soluble in water

Q. Make a proper classification and characteristics of various ointment bases with

examples using your own words.
Ointments are a semi solid dosage form which is often used for topical or transdermal use.
Ointment base refers to the vehicle that is used to incorporate the active pharmaceutical
ingredients into. They may also be used for their physical functions.
There are mainly four types of ointment bases, which are discussed below:
1. Oleaginous bases: These are hydrocarbon bases that are oily and often used for their
emollient properties. Since they are greasy, they prevent escape of moisture from
skin. They are also used for occlusive dressings, which are air tight dressings that do
not have absorptive properties. They are not easily washable, so they can be used for
medicaments which need to be in contact with skin for prolonged periods. Water can
be added to them in small amount, but they don’t dissipate easily in the base. They
are difficult to wash off with water.
Examples of oleaginous bases include Petrolatum, White Ointment, White Petrolatum
and Yellow Ointment.
 A. Petrolatum is a semisolid mixture of purified petroleum, containing many
hydrocarbons. They are usually yellowish or amber in color. It is also known
as Yellow Petrolatum, and is commercially widely known as Vaseline.
B. White Petrolatum is simply decolorized Petrolatum, that may be used for
aesthetic cosmetic purposes.
C. Yellow ointment is a combination of yellow wax and petrolatum.
D. White ointment is a combination of white wax (decolorized yellow wax) and
petrolatum.
2. Absorption Bases: Absorption bases are hydrocarbons that have water added, by
means of emulsifier. They are not water soluble since the external phase is oily. They
can absorb water. Absorption bases have enhanced drug release than oleaginous
bases.
Examples of absorption bases include hydrophilic petrolatum and anhydrous lanolin.
A. Hydrophilic Petrolatum consists of cholesterol, stearyl alcohol, white wax and
white petrolatum.
B. Lanolin is a waxy substance which is purified, decolorized, and completely
cleaned. It is found in sheep wool.
3. Water Removable Bases: These bases are structurally similar to O/W emulsions.
They are non-greasy and can be easily removed by washing since the external phase
is water. They can absorb large amounts of skin discharges. A large amount of water
can be added to these bases. They are mostly used for creams and lotions.
Examples of water removable bases include hydrous lanolin, cold cream etc.
A. Hydrous lanolin consists of Lanolin and purified water. It is used for deep
moisturization.
B. Cold creams contain water and fats, and are used for smoothening skin.
4. Water Soluble Bases: These bases do not have hydrocarbons, hence they do not have
a greasy feel. They are completely washable by water. They mix well with skin
secretions, and their drug release is good.
Examples include Polyethylene Glycol ointments.
A. Polyethylene glycol is a mixture of ethylene oxide and water. They can be of
different molecular weights. [16]
Q. Explain alginate-raft formulations in the treatment of heartburn and acid reflux. Write
a summary using the given journals using own words.
Acid reflux refers to a condition in which acid from the stomach flows backwards into the
esophagus, causing burning sensations in the chest, known as heartburns. This may be caused for
different reasons, such as the intake of spicy foods, medicines such as anti-inflammatory
painkillers etc.
Acid reflux, also known as Gastroesophageal Reflux Disease (GER) are usually treated using the
following types of medicines:
1. Antacids are used. They are basic and therefore can neutralize the excess acid.
2. H-2 receptor blockers are used to lower secretion of acid.
3. Proton pump inhibitors which stop acid production and helps heal the esophagus. [17]
For GERD symptoms, antacids are most commonly used. However, it is found that alginate raft
formulations are more effective than the antacids we generally use.
Alginate raft formulations work in a different mechanism than that of conventional antacids. The
mechanism is briefly discussed below:
1. Alginates present in the formulation form precipitates after coming into contact with
gastric acid.
2. Metal carbonates react with the acid, producing carbon dioxide.
3. This carbon dioxide gas is captured by the alginate precipitate.
4. A foam is thus formed, which acts as a raft floating on top of the acid. [18]
The excess floats underneath the raft. The raft ensures that the acid cannot diffuse through the
raft and enter higher up in the gut.
These formulations are preferred to other GERD symptomatic treatments, for several different
reasons:
1. The raft formed can move into the esophagus as needed and settle in place, ahead of an
acid reflux, thus preventing heartburn.
2. The raft can also work as a physical obstruction, so that reflux cannot occur.
3. With the use of proton pump inhibitors, alginate raft formulations still remain effective
for symptomatic treatment.
4. Rafts are formed very quickly, thus giving a more rapid action that that of traditional
antacids.
5. The raft can remain in the stomach for prolonged time, thus providing long lasting action.
6. Since it is non-systemic, it can be used for heartburn in pregnant women and children.
7. It is a safe medication, with a very less number of side effects.
8. It provides relief for around 4 hours, whereas conventional antacids only exert its
therapeutic effect for 30-40 minutes. [18]
Alginate raft formulations are often preferred to other forms of GERD treatment. Antacids have
always been the most common form of symptomatic treatment for acid reflux. H-2 receptor
blockers need to be systemically absorbed to show its therapeutic action. Therefore, it’s onset of
action is delayed, and cannot be used for rapid relief. However, it has long and prolonged action.
Antacids are mainly used to provide instantaneous relief of heartburn. They are generally
carbonate and bicarbonate salts which act by neutralizing the excess acidic content of the
stomach. They have a rapid onset of action, but only act for a short period of time. It is thus clear
that both types of medications have their disadvantages. Larger gastric acid secretions can have
its burning effects for numerous hours, so a symptomatic treatment with rapid action and
prolonged therapeutic activity is required. Long term use of proton pump inhibitors for
symptomatic treatment have been shown to have adverse effects such as Vitamin B12 deficiency,
kidney damage, bone fracture etc. Also, proton pump inhibitors do not have a fast onset of
action. This issue can be solved by using alginate raft formulations. [18]
Alginate raft formulations are often preferred, since they can compensate for both of the
disadvantages of other medications. This is because, they have a rapid onset of action since they
do not require systemic circulation. The raft can also float on the gastric contents for a long
period of time, meaning that it has a longer window for therapeutic action. Moreover, alginate
raft formulations may have antacid components in it, thus creating a pH neutral barrier at the raft
also. Furthermore, calcium carbonates release calcium ions, which strengthen the alginate raft.
[19]
A commercially produced alginate raft formulation and combination acid is Gaviscon. It consists
of both alginates and carbonates, in order to produce the foamy raft. Gaviscon is widely used for
its fast onset of action and longer time of relief. It effectively reduces heartburn in the esophagus,
due to the physical barrier formed by the raft. [20]
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