A comprehensive review on energy storage in hybrid electric vehicle

Shrey Verma1, Shubham Mishra1, Ambar Gaur1, Subhankar Chowdhury 1, Subhashree

Mohapatra 1, Gaurav Dwivedi 1* and Puneet Verma 2*

1
Energy Centre, Maulana Azad National Institute of Technology, Bhopal, India
2*
School of Earth and Atmospheric Sciences, Queensland University of Technology,
Brisbane,4001, Australia
Abstract:
The sharp inclination in the emissions from conventional vehicles contribute to a significant
increase in environmental issues, besides the energy crises and low conversion efficiency
leads to the evolution of electric vehicles (EV). Hybrid electric vehicles (HEV) have efficient
fuel economy and reduce the overall running cost, but the ultimate goal is to shift completely
to the pure electric vehicle. Dispite this, the main obstruction of HEV is energy storage
capability. An EV requires high specific power (W/kg) and high specific energy (Wh/kg) to
increase the distance travelled and reduce the time required for charging. The main focus of
this paper is on the energy sources as these are the main components in EVs towards making
them eco-friendly and cost-effective. Various topologies of EV technology such as HEVs,
plug-in HEVs, and many more have been discussed. These topologies of EVs are based on
the diverse combination of batteries, fuel cells, super-capacitor, flywheels, regenerative
braking systems, which are used as energy sources and energy storage devices.
Keywords:
Electric Vehicle; Energy Storage; Battery Electric Vehicle; Hybrid Electric Vehicles
1 Introduction
The conventional vehicle widely operates using an internal combustion engine (ICE)because
of its well-engineered and performance, consumes fossil fuels (i.e. diesel & petrol) and
releases gases such as hydrocarbons, nitrogen oxides, carbon monoxides, etc. [1]. The
transportation sector is one of the leading contributors to the greenhouse gas (GHG)
emissions as shown in Fig. 1. As per the report of the United States Environmental Protection
Agency(EPA) CO2 is the primary GHG emitted through human activity. Human activities
have affected the carbon cycle by adding more CO 2 to the atmosphere and depleting the
natural sink of CO2 gas like forest and soils which remove/store or fix the CO2 level in the
atmosphere [2]. The rise in fossil fuel price, environmental pollution and the limited lifetime
of fossil fuels has led the automobile manufacturers to look for an alternative to fossil fuel
such as natural gas, hydrogen and biofuel for the propulsion of the vehicle. Among the
various developed technologies, the electric vehicles (EVs) have gained tremendous attention
as an alternative technology and are becoming a part of the modern transportation system [3].
The average efficiency of ICE is 25%, which means that only 25% of the fuel is converted
into useful energy and the rest of the 75% fuel is wasted through heat and friction losses, on
the other hand, EV has an average efficiency of 80% [4] but it has limitations in terms of total
mileage and refuelling time as compared to ICE vehicle [5].  
 EV is
Others 7%
the
Residentail &
Commercial 11%
Transportaion
34%

Industry 15%

Electricity 32%

combination of different technologies, which includes multiple engineering fields such as

mechanical, electrical, automotive, chemical engineering and electronics [6]. By the
combination of different technologies, the overall efficiency and fuel consumption of the EV
is reduced which makes it more efficient in comparison to conventional vehicles. EV consists
of three major components motors, energy storage/generation, and power converter. EVs use
electric motor for locomotion and consume electrical energy stored in the batteries [7]. EV
never exhaust any pollution while running as conventional vehicles release, which makes EV
alone as eco-friendly vehicles[8]. However, charging of EV requires electrical energy which
can be produced from renewable energy sources such as solar, wind, hydroelectricity based
power plants [9]. The EV includes battery EVs (BEV), HEVs, plug-in HEVs (PHEV), and
fuel cell EVs (FCEV). The main issue is the cost of energy sources in electric vehicles. The
cost of energy is almost one-third of the total cost of vehicle [1]. Automobile companies like
BMW, Volkswagen, Honda, Ford, Mitsubishi, Toyota, etc. are focusing mostly on plug-in
hybrid vehicles and HEVs. Fuel cell EV has been regarded as zero exhaust from the engines,
highly fuel efficient, and less dependent on crude oil [9,10]. In hybrid energy systems,
batteries and supercapacitors are always utilized because of the better performance on
smoothing the output power at start-up transmission and various load conditions [12]. On the
other hand, PHEV and BEV requires energy storage charging system, which introduces a
new challenge to the grid integration. This has a direct effect on the utility grid system and
since many countries are switching towards renewable energy sources (such as solar, wind) to
full fill the extra need of EVs and to avoid full dependency on fossil fuels. Renewable energy
sources help in reducing the peak load at peak hours of power consumption and maintain the
supply side management due to EV charging requirements. Around 95% of EVs are parked in
grid-based charging stations [13].

Fig. 1. Carbon dioxide emission by different sources [2]

2 Types of electric vehicle (EV) technology

EVs are mainly classified into four types, based on the source of electricity for the propulsion
of the vehicle; they are BEV, HEV, PHEV, and FCEV [14].
2.1 Battery Electric Vehicle
In BEV the total electricity is provided by the battery, there is no fuel tank for the storage of
fuel, so BEV is also called “pure electric vehicles”. It consists of a large rechargeable battery
that doesn’t release harmful toxic gas to the environment but, consumers suspect that it
creates much pollution during the generation of electricity, manufacturing of batteries and
discarded battery dumping [15]. The battery is charged from the grid power or any external
energy source using a charging plug [16]. Charging of BEVs taken on an average of 6-8 hr
for charging with a slow charges and 20-40 min with a fast charger, leading to a mismatch
with gasoline refueling time in ICEV [17]. The driveline architecture of BEV is shown in Fig.

2.
Fig. 2. Driveline architecture of BEV
The performance of BEV is totally dependent on the battery capacity and its thermal
management system. Battery temperature plays a crucial role in governing the performance
of the battery and the lifespan [18]. In BEV electrical energy is converted to mechanical
energy with minimum conversion losses. BEV is suitable for short-distance and stop and run
conditions. It ranges from 100 – 400 km, depending on the type of battery installed. Vehicle
charging time varies with the capacity of the battery, charging scheme, and series/parallel
connection used. For increasing the distance covered and capabilities we redirect to the
upgraded version of HEV, PHEV, and others.
2.2 Hybrid Electric Vehicle
Hybrid means a merger of multiple types of technology, as in HEV there are two or more
types of energy and power sources to drive the vehicle. Energy sources such as a flywheel,
battery or regenerative braking, and power sources such as battery bank, fuel-cell (FC), ultra-
capacitor (UC), or internal combustion engine (ICE) [5,6]. H Fathabadi [21] designed and
constructed the FC/UC hybrid power source and found that 96.2% power efficiency, provides
a maximum speed of 158 km/h, and covers up to 435 km with a weight of 1880 kg. Proper
energy management strategies and optimization lead to long mileage, reduction in emissions
and fuel consumption [22]. The benefit of HEV is that when the primary fuel (diesel,
gasoline) storage tank gets void while driving the ICE then the secondary source will work as
a backup system to the driveline with its maximum range[23]. Depending on the types of
energy sources applied to the driveline HEV is further classified into three categories such as
series, parallel, and dual HEVs.
2.2.1 Series hybrid Electric Vehicle
In series HEV, the electric motor, and the IEC directly power the driveline and it is used to
charge the battery and provide power directly to run the motor as shown in Fig. 3.

Fig. 3. Driveline architecture of series HEV

In this combination electric motor is the only source to provide traction power to drive the
vehicle[24]. These vehicles have large battery backup with small ICE and large electric
motor, need a control algorithm to maximize the driveline efficiency and minimize the losses
[25]. In this system, there is no mechanical link of ICE to the gearbox, which allows the ICE
to work at maximum efficiency. The major drawback is the multiple conversion stages
involved in between the ICE and gearbox, which reduces the overall efficiency and increase
the cost of the battery and its components[26]. Chevrolet Volt was primarily operated as a
series HEV.
2.2.2 Parallel Hybrid Electric Vehicle
In parallel HEV, the driveline is parallelly connected to both the electric motor and IEC to
provide the traction power as shown in Fig. 4.

Fig. 4. Driveline architecture of parallel HEV

ICE works as a primary source of driveline and the electric motor work as a support to
escalate the traction power with a control strategy to effectively improve the fuel
consumption [27]. The advantage of this system is that it requires a small battery backup
which decreases the overall cost, and that the battery is charged by regenerative braking and
while in propulsion mode. A. Al-Samari [28] studied and simulated the parallel HEV on
Autonomie software, concluded that there is an increment of 68% in the fuel economy, the
emission is decreased by 40%, and there is an improvement of 12% in engine efficiency on
real-world driving cycle. Honda Civic, General Motors Parallel Hybrid Truck are some
examples of parallel HEV.
2.2.3 Dual-mode Hybrid Electric Vehicle
Dual-mode HEV is also known as dual mode HEV or series-parallel EV or power-split HEV,
due to the integration of series and parallel hybrids. The driveline architecture of dual-mode
HEV is shown in Fig. 5.

Fig. 5. Driveline architecture of dual-mode HEV

It is usually composed of two powertrain configurations, one consists of ICE and generator
connected using a gear assembly and another of the electrical drive system which consists of
an electric motor, battery, and generator [29]. Due to which it is known as power-split
transmission because it can provide a wide range of vehicle velocity with optimal engine
speed operation [30]. The main advantage of this system is that it can operate in both series
and parallel modes. Toyota Prius is an example of a power-split HEV.
Dual-mode HEV is the most complicated and costly system for real-time application.
Therefore, parallel HEV is more popular than all other configurations of HEV, even though
HEV is 8 to 9 times costlier than BEV and it can’t be charged at the charging stations or
homes via plugging.
2.3 Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicle
Plug-in HEV can run on both battery and gasoline. These batteries can be charged at a
charging station or at home using an ordinary plug or by a regenerative braking system [31].
They don’t release any tailpipe emissions while running on battery but they release them
while generating electricity at power plant [9,18]. PHEV is mostly run on electricity, used for
short distances during the week. Only longer trips use gasoline power when the battery power
is exhausted [31]. Plug-in HEV driveline architecture is shown in Fig.6.
 Fig. 6. Driveline architecture of plug-in HEV

PHEV BEV
100%
90%
80%
70%
60%
50%
40%
30%
20%
10%
0%
2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019

PHEV can cover a good distance range but it has certain disadvantages such as:1) higher
initial cost than BEV, 2) not eco-friendly as it produces emission at generation ends. It is
because of these reasons, BEV is gaining more popularity than PHEV. Fig. 7 shows the
evolution in global sales of BEV and PHEV from the period of 2010 to 2019 [33], [34]. To
overcome all these problems researchers have been focusing on more efficient batteries and
analysing how their packaging, thermal analysis, testing and ranging, charging time, size and
weight can be improved to make it more efficient. Mitsubishi Outlander, BYD Tang, BYD
Quin are the top-selling PHEVs in 2018.
Fig. 7. Evolution in global sales of BEV and PHEV in recent years
2.4 Fuel cell Electric Vehicle
Fuel cell electric vehicle (FCEV) driveline architecture is similar to BEV but in the place of a
battery, a fuel cell (FC) is inserted and uses hydrogen as a transport fuel [35]. Fuel cell acts as
an electricity generator that powers the electric motor for traction purposes. Fuel cells are
comparatively more efficient than traditional ICE and make it more fuel economical [36].
Proton exchange membrane (PEM) fuel cell is the most widely used fuel cell because of its
zero emissions, quiet operation, high power density and flexible operating range [24,25]. In
FCEV the tank to wheel efficiency is more than 48 % while for ICE it ranges from 25 – 35 %
[39]. The main drawback of FCEV is the complex storage technology and high-end cost of
setup. Toyota Mirai II, Hyundai Nexo, Riversimple Rasa are some examples of FCEV. Table
1 describes the different features of the different types of EVs.
Table 1. Different features of the different types of EVs
BEV HEV PHEV FCEV
Traction power Electrical motor Electrical motor Electrical motor Electrical motor
ICE ICE
Energy system Battery Battery Battery FC
UC ICE ICE Battery
UC UC UC
Energy Sources Charging power Fuel pump Charging power Hydrogen fuel
stations Gasoline stations
Fuel pump
Gasoline
Advantage Zero emissions Less emissions Less emissions Zero emissions
Independence on Long-distance Long-distance High efficiency
fossil fuels covered covered
Disadvantage High initial cost Dependence on Dependence on Hydrogen fuel
Battery fossil fuels fossil fuels storage
replacement Higher cost Higher cost High cost of fuel

3 Energy storage and generation systems

Energy sources are of various types such as chemical energy storage (lead-acid battery,
lithium-ion battery, nickel-metal hydride (NiMH) battery, nickel-zinc battery, nickel-
cadmium battery), electrical energy storage (capacitor, supercapacitor), hydrogen storage,
mechanical energy storage (flywheel), generation systems (fuel cell, solar PV cell, wind
turbines, regenerative braking system) [40]. However, each of the energy sources have
different properties, size and efficiency, which makes them task specific for different types of
EVs. Based on the properties and EVs applications energy sources are listed below.
3.1 Energy storage devices
In EV application energy storage has an important role as device used should regulate and
control the flow of energy. There are various factors for selecting the appropriate energy
storage devices such as energy density (Wh/kg), power density (W/kg), cycle efficiency (%),
self-charge and discharge characteristics, and life cycles [41]. The operating range of various
energy storage devices is shown in Fig. 8 [42]. It shows that fuel cells and rechargeable
batteries can store a large amount of energy in a small amount of mass as they have high
energy density and low power density. Supercapacitors have large power density which
makes it easier to deliver a large amount of energy based on its mass.
 Fig. 8. Power - Energy relationship of various energy storages devices
3.1.1 Battery
Battery is the most widely used device in almost any of the existing technologies (mobile,
homes, towers, backup systems etc.), as it directly converts the chemical energy into
electrical energy and vice versa in rechargeable battery. Today, only some specific type of
batteries are used in EV applications such as the lead-acid battery, NiMH battery, and
Lithium-ion battery [43].

Lead-acid is the most broadly used type of battery in internal combustion based vehicular
applications [44]. Each cell is immersed in a diluted electrolytic solution of (sulphuric acid
H2SO4). Every cell has two positive and negative electrodes made up of lead dioxide (PbO 2)
and sponge lead (Pb) respectively [45]. Its nominal voltage is high at 2.00 – 2.25V, with a
specific energy of 35-40 Wh/kg, power density of 250W/kg, and cycle life of 1500 – 5000
with overall service life of 15 years [46]. O2 and H2 are released at the positive and negative
electrodes respectively, reactions are shown in equation (1) and (2) respectively:
PbO2 + H2SO4 → PbSO4 + H2O + ½O2 (1)
Pb + H2SO4 → PbSO4 + H2 (2)
M.L. Soria et al. [47] found that addition of graphite compound of 20- 24 m 2g-1 and 8-9.8 µm
to the negative active material formulation increases the state and depth of discharge and
cycling performance. S. Mithin Kumar, et al.[48] added the multi-walled carbon nanotubes
(with a diameter of ˃ 50 nm) to improve the capacitance, conductivity, and cycle life of lead-
acid battery. Z. Wu, et al. [49] added boric acid (BO33-) in the electrolyte solution to increase
the hydrogen and oxygen evolution, which exhibits longer life cycle. K. Kopczyński, et al.
[50] added protic ammonium ionic acid to the active mass of positive electrode which
improves the average capacity during charging form 3% to 13% with lower internal
resistance.
Nickel metal hydride (NiMH) are more popular for hybrid vehicles as they are capable of
high discharge capacity and safety. Nickel-cadmium battery was the widely used battery,
before the development of the NiMH battery, the main issue with this battery is that its
quality degrade due to shallow-charging cycles [51]. In nickel-metal hydride (NiMH) battery
30 wt% of KOH aqueous solution is used as an alkaline electrolyte [52]. A positive electrode
is composed of Ni(OH)2/ NiOOH and a negative electrode is composed of metal hydrides
such as nickel, vanadium, and titanium metals. Its open circuit voltage ranges from 1.20 –
1.25 V. NiMH battery have almost double the energy density as compared to the lead-acid
battery. There is an early voltage drop because of deterioration of the positive electrode, and
to avoid that Co is added to the positive electrode and the eluted Al is captured as a
precipitate, giving a better charge/discharge performance after 3000 cycles [53].
Electrochemical charge and discharge reaction of NiMH battery of positive and negative
electrode are as follows for hybrid (NiMH/H2) battery:
Ni(OH)2 + OH¯ ↔ NiOOH + H2O + e- (3)
M + H2O + e- ↔ MH + OH¯ (4)
Where M and MH are hydrogen storage alloy and the hydrogen storage alloy absorbed
hydrogen (metal hydride). Hybrid battery have almost 1.5 times of energy density than that of
the conventional battery[52].

Lithium-ion (Li-ion) battery has high energy and power densities among all other batteries
and has a long service life, low self-discharge rate, and the adequate safety requirement [54].
Li-ion battery has five distinct layers: the positive current collector, the positive electrode
(cathode), separator, negative current collector, and a negative electrode (anode). Cathode are
generally metal oxide with layered structure of LiCoO 2/LCO, LiMn2O4, LiFePO4/LPF, and
anodes are made up of graphite or a metal oxide. The electrolyte can be liquid, solid, or
polymer [55]. Cathode and anode half-reaction of Li doped cobalt oxide and graphite
respectively are as follows [56]:

CoC2 + Li + e- ↔ LiCoC2 (5)

LiC6 ↔ C6 + Li + e- (6)
Lithium manganese oxide (LiMn2O4) and lithium-ion phosphate (LiFePO4) are frequently
used in EV, their characteristics are shown in Table 2. LiFePO 4 battery has better
performance than LiMn2O4 and has 30% more cycles than lithium manganese oxide battery
[54]. Thermal management is a major issue as these have to work in a harsh environment
with less maintenance and dynamic utilization of the cells. In high-temperature surroundings,
the Li-ion battery quickly degrades and in low-temperature surroundings, the power output
and energy are reduced, which directly affects the performance of the ride of EV. A typical
range of temperature is +20oC to +40oC and an extended range is -10oC to +50oC [55].

Usually, the operating voltage range is between 1.5V to 4.2V. Extremely low voltages or
over-discharging lead to degradation of the electrolyte, and production of a gas which directly
leads to security risks. Extremely high voltages or overcharging lead to a large amount of
heat, which leads to the deposition of metallic Li on the anode surface which in-turn leads to
an internal short circuit and raises safety issues. Charging of Li-ion battery below 0 oC will
lead to the deposition of metallic Li on the anode surface and it will directly reduce the cycle
life of batteries [1].
During the charging process, the lithium ion moves from cathode to anode, passing through
electrolyte as described in equation 5 and 6 and while discharging it moves back to cathode.
The electrolyte is a mixture of organic solvent and lithium oxide, which plays a vital role in
the mobility of lithium ions and proves as an important factor of battery performance.
Common lithium salts are lithium-hexafluorophospate (LiPF6), lithium-hexafluoroarsenate
(LiAsF6), lithium-perchlorate (LiClO4) and organic solvent such as ethyl-methyl-carbonate,
dimethyl-carbonate, diethyl-carbonate and propylene-carbonate [57]. Current collector works
as a bridging component to collect the current from both of the electrodes and connect it to
the external circuit. Al and Cu foils for cathodes and anodes respectively are the most
commercially used as current collectors. These current collectors improve the overall
electrical conductivity, reduce lead resistance, and are beneficial in increasing the capacity
[58]. Lithium ion battery gives optimum performance under the temperature range of 20 -
50oC, therefore it requires a proper battery management system, for maintaining the
temperature range within the limit and avoid the failure so as to increase the overall
efficiency [59]. Thermal cooling technology based on cooling by air, liquid, phase change
material and heat pipes are used for thermal management of Li-ion battery in EVs
applications [60]. Table 3 describes three types battery technologies and their characteristics
that are available in the market and are best suited for the EVs applications.

Table 2. Characteristics of two frequently used Li-ion batteries

Properties of battery LiMn2O4 LiFePO4
Capacity (KWh) 20-24 20-24
Per cell voltage (Volts) 3.6-3.8 3.1-3.2
Energy density (Wh km-1) 100-114 90-93
Depth of discharge (%) 60-69 60-70
Temperature of working (K) 294-300 295-300
Weight (Kg) 299-350 368-400
 Type of battery Specific Specific Energy Life Efficiency Cost Application
power energy density cycle ($/KWh)
(W/kg) (Wh/kg) (Wh/L)
Lead-acid battery
Lead acid [46] 180 35 - 40 80 – 90 1500 – >82% 150 - 200 Automotive ignitions & starting,
5000 lightning
Advanced lead acid [47] 250 45 - 1500 - 200 Low cost hybrid EV
Valve regulated lead acid 240 35 86 700+ - 150 Alarm and small computer systems
(VRLA) [61] (UPS)
Metal foil lead acid 900 30 - 500+ - - Aerospace
Nickel battery
Nickel – iron [62] 100-150 19-25 30 2000 75% 150-200 Railway, EV, marine applications
Nickel – zinc [63] >3000 80-120 150 300 76% 100-200 Digital camera, electronic toys,
portable electronics
Nickel – cadmium [64] 150 40 -60 50-150 2000 75% 250-300 Wireless telephones, toys, solar
garden lights, computer memory
standby
Nickel –metal hydride [65] 250-1000 60-120 140-300 <3000 70% 200-250 Digital camera, EV, high drain
devices
Lithium battery
Lithium ion [66] 250- 430 100- 265 250-693 2000 >95% 150 Mobiles, laptops, tablets, electronic
gadgets
Lithium ion polymer [67] 260- 450 100-265 250- 750 >1200 80-85% 150 Radio control equipment, personal
electronics, EV
Lithium iron sulphide [68] 300 150 - 1000+ 80% 110 Larger application like EV
Lithium iron phosphate 2000- 90-160 325 >2000 >90% 350 EV, solar powered lightning
[69] 4500 system, industrial servo systems
Table 3. Characteristics and application of different type of batteries
3.1.2 Super-capacitor
Super-capacitor (SC) is also known as an ultra-capacitor (UC) or electrochemical capacitor
(EC). They can release large amounts of power and can be recharged in a short period of
time. Battery work on the principle of conversion of electrical energy from chemical energy
but due to the Electric Double Layer (EDL) effect SC can directly accumulate the electrical
energy. SC can be charged and discharged at a very high specific current value (A/kg), 100
times more than that of battery, without damaging the unit [70]. Carbon-based conduction
polymer and transition metals are used for electrode material as they play a vital role in
enhancing the performance of SC. Biomass-derived activated carbon electrode is an
alternative that consists of a high specific area and high electrical conductivity [71].
Classification of SC on the basis of material used for the construction of electrodes are shown

in Fig. 9 [72].

Fig. 9. Classification of SC on the basis of material

Electrical double-layer capacitance (EDLC) has gained more popularity among all other
types as, high energy density, maintenance-free life-long operation, fast charge/discharge
rate, and environment-friendly materials [73]. Each electrode is made using a porous from of
activated carbon material, which gives high energy density with an equivalent area of 2000
m2/cm3. The rated cell voltage is 2.6 V. SC can improve the life expected life cycle of the
battery, with a value of maximum effectiveness of 52 %, for driving pattern without negative
slopes [74].

The classical equivalent circuit of SC is shown in Fig. 10, it consists of equivalent series
resistance(ESR) represents charging/discharging resistance, equivalent parallel resistance
(EPR) represents self-discharging losses and capacitance (C). The voltage across the RC
circuit is expressed as [75]:
−t
V(t) = Vi e( RC ) (7)

V(t) is the SC voltage, V i is the initial voltage before charging, t is the time, and R, C are
resistance and capacitance respectively. The amount of energy released from the SC is
directly proportional to capacitance and the voltage change throughout the discharging. The
relationship of energy released is expressed as:
1
ESC = C ( v 2i −v 2f ) (8)
2

Where ESC is the energy released from capacitance and Vf is the final voltage. For the practical
applications of SC, they have to connect in series and parallel to obtain the required voltage
and energy. The terminal voltage and total capacitance is dependent on series and parallel
connections respectively. The total resistance (RSC) and total capacitance (CSC) of SC bank is
calculated as:
ESR
RSC = ns (9)
nP

C
CSC = np (10)
ns

Where ns and np are the number of capacitance connected in series and parallel respectively.

Fig. 10. Equivalent circuit representation of SC

C. Wang et. al[76] summarised the synthesis and studied the effect of modified electrode
material of SC by NiCo2O4 and its various composites with various morphologies. He stated
that NiCo2O4 material based SC is a hybrid SC or battery-type SC. Due to this material, the
energy density of SC improves but the power density decline. As performance is mainly
governed by the morphologies, so it is suitable to develop similar nanomaterial based
electrodes like NiCo2S4 based nanomaterial, in order to further enhance the performance
owint to its high conductivity property.
3.1.3 Flywheel
Flywheel stores the kinetic energy (K.E) in a high speed rotational metallic or alloy disc,
attached to the central shaft of the electrical machines. This stored energy is restored to the
system when necessary. Flywheels have a long life cycle, high power density, very little
environmental impact, long operational life and can store megajoules (MJ) of energy when
configured in banks with high cycle efficiency (85%) [77]. It stores energy on the rotating
mass principle. The whole flywheel energy storage system (FESS) consists of an electrical
machine, bi-directional converter, bearing, DC link capacitor, and a massive disk. Its high
efficiency (90-95%) is its major advantage in all ESS. In HEV and EV, the flywheel is used
to store the energy, and used when harsh acceleration is required to climb steep uphill roads
[50,51]. FESS rank better than batteries as they serve longer life cycles, high charge and
discharge rate cycles, high power density, and higher efficiency. The Porsche 918R hybrid
concept sports car with a flywheel storage system was announced in the 2010 Detroit Motor
show [77].

The FESS stores K.E from rotation, where the stored energy E n depends on the moment of
inertia (J) and the rotational speed (ω) [79]:
1
En = J ω 2 (11)
2

Flywheel can be used as a power handling device, by advancing some technologies. The
produced power P, given by [79]:

∆ E n 1 ω22−ω21
P= = J (12)
∆T 2 ∆T
where ΔT is the time during angular velocity variation, and ω 1 and ω2 are the angular
velocities before and after the variation, respectively.
The torque T for the given power output in electrical machines is calculated as[79]:
P
T= (13)
ω
Flywheel revolving speed ω allows the classification of FESS based on the speed as: low-
speed FESS (<6000 rpm) and high-speed FESS (10 4 – 105 rpm). Characteristics comparison
of low speed and high-speed FESS are shown in Table 4 [53,54].

Table 4. FESS comparison

Property Low-speed FESS High-speed FESS
Flywheel material Steel Composite material: glass &
carbon fibers
Electrical machines Induction motor, permanent Permanent magnet
magnet synchronous motor, synchronous motor, switch
switch reluctance motor reluctance motor
Bearing Mechanical and magnetic Magnetic
Application Power quality Traction and aerospace
industry
Cost Low High
Speed Less than 6000 rpm 104 – 105 rpm
Enclosure weight 2 * Flywheel weight ½ * Flywheel weight

FESS can be coupled with the mechanical transmission for brake energy recovery and
additional power in hybrid vehicle. M.G. Read et al.[82] analyzed that the two geared
transmission architecture that continues the speed ratio required by the flywheel system. The
first one is the brake controlled planter gear set for improved transmission efficiency. And the
second being automatic and dual-clutch power-split configuration for ICE. He concluded that
for urban and passenger drive cycle applications, charge-discharge cycle efficiency of 70%
has been found for the flywheel system using practical power-split configuration controlled
by a fixed gearbox ratio [82].

3.1.4 Hydrogen storage

Hydrogen can be produced on the vehicle, stored directly in the tank and utilised by the fuel
cell, by reforming the methanol or hydrocarbons fuels extracted from diesel and gasoline
[83]. Hydrogen storage can be realized via different methods: gas storage, liquid storage,
solid storage, metal hydride storage, carbon nanotubes, and metal-organic framework [84].
The storage of gaseous form of hydrogen is being used widely in technologies nowadays.
Gaseous form of storage is done at 700 bar pressure while storage in liquid form requires
cooling at a very low temperature of 5K (-268.15oC). On the other hand, storage in solid form
requires absorption in carrier material to form hydride or surface absorption [85]. The
reaction between hydrogen and metal alloy release heat (exothermic reaction) described as:
M + xH2 ↔ MH2x + Heat (14)
Heat transfer management is the major issue that arise during the hydrogen loading and
unloading times to and from the storage tank [85]. Comparison of different technologies of
hydrogen storage methods is summarised in Table 5 [86]. Hydrogen can be generated from
the economizer at the charging station and EV can fill from the respective stations.
Mehrajerdi Hasan [87] studied the off-grid solar-powered charging stations for electric and
hydrogen vehicles. It consists of a solar array, economizer, fuel cell, hydrogen storage, and
diesel generator. He used 7% of energy produced for electrical loads and 93% of energy for
the production of hydrogen.
Table 5. Comparison of different technologies used for the storage of hydrogen
Method of storage Type Pros Cons
Gas Compressed High efficient Expensive cylinder
hydrogen Lots of research Fast filling is an
Convenient issue
Liquid Liquid hydrogen High density Consume large
Storage efficiency amount of time and
energy
Low temperature
Metal hydride MgH2 High safety Absorbing
CaH2 High purity impurities
NaH Large volume of Reduce the lifetime
hydrogen density of the tank and
reduce the capacity
Carbon nanotubes Gaseous hydrogen Highly porous Hydrogen capacity
structure depends on many
Interaction between factors and
carbon atom and gas immature
molecules technology
Metal-organic Porous coordinated Highly porous Storage at very low
framework network High specific temperature far
surface area below operating
 temperature

3.2 Energy generation systems

3.2.1 Fuel cell
A Fuel cell is an electrochemical device that directly converts the fuel from an external
source into electricity through chemical reaction on the electrode surfaces submerged in the
electrolyte for the transportation of ions [88]. Fuel cells can initiate its working without any
intermediate step of heat generation as were used in other ICE and other heat engines. Fuel
cell operates at the highest efficiency ranges from 40 – 85% in comparison to all other power
generation systems[89]. At the anode, hydrogen is oxidized into protons and electrons
whereas at the cathode oxygen is reduced to oxide species and reacts to form water as residue
output, their reactions are as follows (15) and (16):
2H2 → 4H+ + 4e- (15)
O2 + 4e- + 4H+ → H2O (16)
Protons and oxide ions travel through a conducting electrolyte and the electrons flow through
an external circuit to deliver power [90]. Fuel cells are classified based on the electrolyte used
for ion-conducting. These are: alkaline fuel cells, phosphoric acid fuel cell, solid oxide fuel
cell, molten carbonate fuel cell, proton exchange membrane fuel cell (PEMFC), and direct
methanol fuel cell. Among all, alkaline fuel cells give 60% power efficiency while the proton
exchange membrane gives 58% and molten carbonate gives 47%. PEMFC is ideal for
transport applications like automotive, trains, buses [90], because of its advantages such as
low operating temperature, quick start-up, and rapid load with low voltage and high current,
which make it most suitable for transport applications [91]. The output voltage of PEMFC is
defined as equation (17):

1
PO 2

( { ( ) } )
2
PH 2
RT Pstd (17)
V =N V o + ln −V L
nF P H 2 Oc

Where V is the output voltage, N is the no of stacks of fuel cell, Vo is the open-circuit
voltage, RT/nF is the Tafel Slope ranges from 0.03 to 0.12V, P H2 is the partial pressure of
hydrogen inside the cell, PO2 is the partial pressure of oxygen inside the cell, P H2Oc is the
partial pressure of gas water, Pstd is the standard pressure and V L is the voltage loss. Voltage
loss consists of activation losses, internal current losses, resistive losses, and mass transport
or concentration losses [92].

There are certain disadvantages of fuel cells having lower power density and slower power
response, which can be reduced by the integration of SC and batteries energy storage
systems. In order to reduce these disadvantages, a robust control strategy is required.
Equivalent consumption minimization strategy (ECMS) is the most preferred control strategy
among other such as: peaking power strategy, operational mode control strategy, and fuzzy
logic control strategy. ECMS helps in keeping the level of hydrogen in the tank at a minimum
level, where it is simplest to control and apply to the EV and help in keeping the performance
of vehicle at maximum level [93]. H. Zhang, et al. [94] studied the modified PHEV having
three fuel stacks to enhance the durability and performance through proper power
management using hysteresis control strategy . The fuel cell stacks have to operate for a fixed
operating time slot with constant power output, at a reduced active time, having active time
uniformly distributed, and having a limited number of on-off switching for each fuel cell
stacks. The results indicated that the durability of the fuel cell can be increased by 11.8 times
for urban, 4.8 times for highway, and 6.8 times for combined urban-highway driving cycle.
This method improves the durability of the fuel cell, reduces the average power demand of
the real-time driving cycle, which in turn reduces the over design and ultimately reduce the
cost of fuel cells.
3.2.2 Photovoltaic cell system
Electrification of vehicles gives an opportunity to switch over to renewable energy sources
like photovoltaic (PV) for charging or providing energy [95]. There are certain benefits of
charging EV with a solar-powered system. First, the EV charging profile match the
generation profile of the PV system. Secondly, the solar PV system can be installed at a very
remote location, and can be installed near the charging station. Third, the solar PV system can
be equipped with the grid system with the help of inverters to improve the load profile,
reactive power demand and thus keep the power quality of undisturbed form large and
unevenly distributed charging demands [96]. Constructing a PV system for the support of EV
charging leads to a promising solution to the eliminating of carbon emissions from the
transport system. Charging of 50,000 EVs through renewable energy sources leads to a
decrement of 400 Mtons per year of GHG emissions from the atmosphere [97]. PV system
efficiency ranges from 10 to 20 % as they convert only the visible wavelength of sun
radiation ranges from 300nm to 1100nm (nanometres) to generate electricity [98]. PV system
is composed of a PV panel connected in series and parallel [99], and each panel is made of a
series-connected photovoltaic cell made up of a p-n junction semiconductor diode which is
exposed to sun-light as shown in Fig. 11. The practical circuit diagram consists of series and
parallel resistance.

Fig. 11. Single diode model of PV cell equivalent circuit

PV module output current can be expressed as in equation (18) [72,73]:

q ( V + RS I )
[ (
I =I PV + I O exp
N s KTa )
−1 −
V +RS I
RP ] (18)
where, IPV and Io is the PV current and the saturation current of the module; q refers the
charge; RS and RP are the series and parallel resistance; Ns, K, T, and a refer to the no of cells
connected in series, Boltzmann constant, temperature and ideality factor of the diode
respectively.
The use of PV charging for EV leads to minimal energy exchange with the grid. The energy
demand from the grid supply is reduced as the energy is locally generated from the PV in day
time in a ‘green’ manner. EV battery can be used as an excess energy storage, that is
generated from the large scale PV system [102]. PV based smart charging reduce the aging
process of distribution transformer by reducing the loading on the transformer and extending
their lifetime. Smart charging combined with vehicle-to-grid (V2G) has a dual benefit of
increasing PV self-consumption and reducing peak demand on the grid [103].

Jing Zhang et al. [104] designed a photovoltaic system installed on the rooftop of the
charging station of an area of 1,500m 2 as the power source of a fast-charging station. He
installed a total of 10 arrays of PV with a total annual average generation capacity is 262,800
kWh based on the irradiance available for 6 hr. It was assumed that the average charging time
was 30 min (20 kWh electricity for 100 km), with the total working time of DC-based fast
charger (60 kW) for 17 h, which will charge up to 701 vehicles daily. Annual revenue
generatesd due to fast charging setup under the condition of full load (55 charging piles/
chargers) operation can be up to 8.3 million yuan. With all the above all consideration fast-
charging stations will be very considerable.
M.F. Ezzat, I. Dincer [105] developed a new renewable energy-based integrated system based
on the PV system and PEMFC and Li-ion battery as an auxiliary source. The system was
analyzed thermodynamically using energy and exergy approaches. The overall exergy and
energy were found to be 56.3% and 39.46% respectively at a current density of 1150 mA/cm 2
for PEMFC and battery combination. While in the case of PEMFC + battery + PV system,
the overall exergy and energy were found to be 56.63% and 39.86% respectively at a current
density of 1150 mA/cm2. The PV system recovers 561g of hydrogen through 3h of
continuous driving at max power of 98.32 kW, which was 11.2% approx. of the hydrogen
storage tank used in the proposed system.
Integrating solar PV with EVs can reduce the overall operating cost and increase the driving
range. The harvested solar energy from vehicle integration of PV on roof sometimes on hood,
trunk or the side doors of vehicle, reduce the frequency of grid based charging and contribute
in overall increase in motion [106]. Integration of PV with PHEV led to the development of
Vehicle to Grid technology (V2G), which can receive power when parked in and can feed the
power back to the grid. It provides benefits to both the vehicle owner and the power utility
company and reduce overall emissions [107] [108].

H. Fathabadi [109] replaced the ICE with a small sized PV module mounted horizontally on
the roof of PHEV. The power source equipped with PHEV is (V2G) technology which
utilizes a 19.2 kWh Li-ion battery as the main energy storage device and a 200W PV module
as an auxiliary power source. A prototype of battery/PV hybrid power source adds 13.4 km in
cruising range with the weight of 1880 Kg in the normal operating condition of PHEV during
two sunny days, provides a maximum speed of 121 km/h with higher power efficiency of
91.1% in compare of 90.2 % with only battery as a mode of the power source.

3.2.3 Regenerative braking system

Regenerative braking works on the principle of conversion of combined kinetic energy and
potential energy of the braking system directly into the electrical energy using generator and
stores the generated energy in storage devices [110]. It can improve the efficiency of energy
conversion and increase the driving range, which is one of the key technologies of the core
competitiveness of EV [111]. Regenerative braking of EV is influenced by various factors
which include state of charge (SOC) of battery, electrical system design, and generation
ability of motor and road adherence conditions [112]. Studies revealed that the driving range
can be improved up to 8 – 25% using regenerative braking and up to 50% of the total brake
energy can be recycled in the urban driving cycle [113]. Regenerative braking is
accomplished using a DC-DC boost converter, to boost up the generated emf to an
appropriate level to charge the battery or using SC connected in series and parallel with the
batteries to set up charging voltage. It can also be accomplished using electronic gear shifting
technology, in which the gear are shift electronically forming different series and parallel
connection with the rotor winding, batteries, ultra-capacitor based on different speeds of EVs
to recover regenerative braking energy. This model required a special type of multiple
winding in the motor, with various battery connections connected with multiple switches
[114]. Alternatively driving and braking modes lead to continuous work between charge and
discharge modes. The charging current and charging time depends on the variation of braking
force applied to the driveline and the braking duration, it leads to a rise in temperature in the
battery. Therefore, charging current have to be controlled using fuzzy logic controller the
braking ratio and the heat developed in the battery. High magnitude of currents are attenuated
and small currents are magnified to a desired level of charging. It also leads to increase in
charge/discharge performance of battery [115].
In regenerative braking the main challenge is to synchronise between the friction and
regenerative braking, and to optimise the braking torque and distribute it properly in order to
optimise the braking performance and energy recovery. W. Xu, H. Chen and H. Zhao et al.
[116] proposed a model productive control (MPC) strategy to achieve better energy
efficiency and braking performance. Based on simulation on AMESim and Simulink co-
simulation platform, he found that for dry road, wet road, and snow road regenerative
efficiency was improved by 34.07 %, 13.58%, and 165% respectively in comparision of rule-
based strategies C. Qiu, G. Wang [117] designed a control of regenerative braking to improve
the EV energy efficiency. Based on the energy efficiency analyzed he concluded that
contribution ratios made by regenerative braking to energy transfer efficiency improvement
and regenerative driving range are up to 41.09 % and 24.633 % respectively, a test was
conducted under China typical city regenerative driving cycle with three different control
strategies.
4 Energy management system
The Energy Management System (EMS) in EVs plays a crucial role. It has the control over
the optimal power flow level between the energy source, converters and the other parts in the
EVs[118]. Hence, the EV’s overall performance is strongly dependent on the energy
management system. The EMS system is responsible for reducing the energy consumption or
it can be said that it is enables efficient utilization of available energy so that the drive range
of vehicle can be maximised. So, the design aspect of the EMS is very important.
In battery powered EVs, the EMS system has a goal of increasing the life of battery by
increasing the thermal stability as well as optimal distribution of the available powertrain
components [119].

In HEVs, the combination of IC engine and alternative energy source is effectively utilised
with the help energy management strategies. They are the algorithms that help in deciding the
power split in between motor and the engine so that the fuel economy can be improved and
the performance of the HEVs can be optimized [120].

In HEVs, the batteries are charged when IC engine is in operation or with the help of
regenerative breaking but the condition is its battery should operate in charge sustaining
mode (i.e., SOC of battery should be same at start and end of the trip)[121][122]. This is not
in case of PHEVs as its battery is charged though the main power supply and it can be
discharged to a minimum level at time of end of the trip. In PHEVs, the battery can be
operated as per requirement in charge depletion, charge sustaining, or combination of both.
Hence an effective energy management system has a very important role to play.
Pandey and Bansal [120] provide an in-depth review on the various control strategies for
energy management system in HEVs and PHEVs. Further it is concluded that the PHEVs
provide a better performance and reduced fuel consumption compared to conventional HEVs.
Tie and Tan [123] analysed the different low-level components control and high supervisory
algorithms used in the energy management system for EVs. The low level component control
includes power electronic converters and hybrid energy storage system. The high supervisory
algorithms provide an overall control of the low level components control which results in the
improvement of vehicle performance. The high supervisory control include rule based control
and optimization based control.
In multi-source EVs, the EMS play a crucial role in obtaining effective contribution of the
available power sources in which one could be having high specific power and other having
high specific energy. In [124], two energy management strategies for multi-source EVs
namely EMS based on multi-level energy management (using meta-heuristic optimization
approach) and EMS based on power demand frequency disaggregation are compared. The
results showed that the multi-level energy management system has better EV efficiency.
Fuel cell hybrid electric vehicle has fuel cell in combination with battery/Super capacitor or
both [125]. This is done in order to overcome the short comings of fuel cell by combining it
with battery/super capacitor or both. In [126], numerous EMS control strategies for fuel cell
HEV in combination with battery/super capacitor or both has been reviewed. It is concluded
that the optimal control strategies for EMS proved better results compared simple rule based
EMS in terms of satisfying the motive of EMS i.e. reliability, performance and efficiency.
5 Conclusion
Environmental concern, for instance, air pollution and global warming put an adverse effect
on human beings and their livelihood. Energy crises are becoming an emerging problem due
to the limited stock of conventional resources and an increase in prices. Due to all these
reasons, developing countries are focusing mainly on EV implementation and replacing the
ICEV into HEV for combating the ever-growing pollution. HEV makes an appearance in
today’s vehicular industry due to low emission, less fuel intake, low-level clangour, and low
operating expenses. This paper presents an overview of EV with a focus on possible energy
storage and generation sources and EVs types. The energy storage device is the main problem
in the development of all types of EVs. In the recent years, lots of research has been done to
promise better energy and power densities. But not any of the energy storage devices alone
have a set of combinations of features: high energy and power densities, low manufacturing
cost, and long life cycle. So the concept of a combination of energy sources (hybrid energy
sources) has emerged to obtain better performance with help of EMS to control over the
optimal power flow level between the energy source, converters and the other parts in the
EVs. With the improvement in Li-ion and NiMH battery technology, EVs systems like HEV
and PHEV can achieve the target.
Acknowledgement: -
Authors would like to thank Mr. Dhruv Srivastava for her contribution in brainstorming for
his assistance in proofreading the manuscript.
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