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CELL
STRUCTURE
SEELEY'S ESSENTIALS OF ANATOMY AND
PHYSIOLOGY, 9TH EDITION.

Created by: Johmel De Ocampo

 Created by: Johmel De Ocampo

CELL STRUCTURE
The cell is the basic living unit of all organisms.

CELL
The simplest organisms consist of single
cells, whereas humans are composed of
multiple cells. THREE MAIN PARTS OF THE
An average-sized cell is one-fifth the size CELL
of the smallest dot you can make on a Plasma Membrane
sheet of paper with a sharp pencil! Cytoplasm
Cell was discovered in late 1600’s by Nucleus
Robert Hooke through dead plant.
Cells was named after the long rows of
monk’s rooms (or cells) at the monastery.
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CELL STRUCTURE
FUNCTIONS OF THE CELL
Cells are the smallest units that have all the characteristics of life. Our body cells
perform several important functions:

Cell metabolism and energy use.

The chemical reactions that occur within cells are collectively called cell
metabolism. Energy released during metabolism is used for cell activities, such as
the synthesis of new molecules, muscle contraction, and heat production, which
helps maintain body temperature.
Synthesis of molecules.
Cells synthesize various types of molecules, including proteins, nucleic acids, and
lipids. The different cells of the body do not all produce the same molecules.
Therefore, the structural and functional characteristics of cells are determined
by the types of molecules they produce.
Communication.
Cells produce and receive chemical and electrical signals that allow them to
communicate with one another. For example, nerve cells communicate with one
another and with muscle cells, causing muscle cells to contract.
Reproduction and inheritance.
Each cell contains a copy of the genetic information of the individual. Specialized
cells (sperm cells and oocytes) transmit that genetic information to the next
generation.
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CELL STRUCTURE
Plasma Cell membrane is a
double layer of
Membrane phospholipid
molecules.

Also known as CELL

MEMBRANE.
The outermost component of
a cell.
A fragile, transparent barrier
that contains the cell
contents and separates them
from the surrounding
environment.

EXTRACELLULAR SUBSTANCES
Substances outside the cell
Na + and Cl- are found in greater concentrations and extracellularly.
INTRACELLULAR SUBSTANCES
Substances inside the cell.
Substances such as glycogen, and potassium ions (K+) are found at
higher concentrations intracellularly.
 Created by: Johmel De Ocampo

CELL STRUCTURE
The "HEADQUARTERS" or the
CONTROL CENTER of the cell.
A large organelle that houses most of
Nucleus a cell's deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA).
The site of ribosome formation.

NUCLEAR ENVELOPE
A double semipermeable membrane barrier.
Allows some but not all substances to pass through it.
NUCLEAR PORE
Opening that is made up of fused nuclear membrane.
NUCLEOLUS
One or more small, dark staining, essentially round
bodies called NUCLEOLI.
Site where cell structures called ribosomes are
assembled.
The nuclei of human cell contain 23 PAIR OF
CHROMOSOMES.
CHROMATIN
Tangled spread out form of DNA inside nuclear
membrane.
Threads coil and condense to form dense, rod-like
bodies called CHROMOSOMES during CELL
DIVISION.
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CELL STRUCTURE

The cellular material outside the

Cytoplasm nucleus and inside the plasma
membrane.
Gel-like fluid inside the cell.

TWO MAJOR COMPONENTS

CYTOSOL
also known as INTRACELLULAR FLUID
The fluid portion of cytoplasm surrounding the organelles
Constitutes about 55% of total cell volume.
75-90% water plus various dissolved and suspended components

ORGANELLES
also known as LITTLE ORGANS
specialized structures within the cell that have characteristic and
shape and perform specific functions.
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ORGANELLES
Mitochondria
Rod-like, double membrane structures
The POWERHOUSE of the cell.
Inner membrane fold into projections called
CRISTAE.
Site of aerobic respiration (the "burning" of
glucose)
Site for ATP synthesis.

Ribosomes
Dense particles consisting of two subunits, each
composed of ribosomal RNA and protein
The sites for protein synthesis.
Found at two locations:
Free in the cytoplasm
Attached to rough endoplasmic reticulum
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ORGANELLES
Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum
Membranous network of flattened sacs or tubules.
Externally studded with ribosomes
Site where building materials of cellular
membrane are formed
Site of protein synthesis

Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum

Membranous system of tunnels and sacs
Free of ribosomes
Functions:
Lipid synthesis
Fat metabolism
Detoxificationof chemicals within cells
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ORGANELLES
Vesicle
Fluid-filled sacs inside the cell, digest subcellular
material, transport material out of the cell and
carry on enzymatic activities.
Vesicles protect the integrity of the plasma
membrane.
Secretory vesicles pinch off from the Golgi
apparatus and move to the cell membrane
The membrane of a secretory vesicle then fuses
with the cell membrane, and the contents of the
vesicle are released to the exterior of the cell.

Peroxisome
Peroxisomes are small, membrane-bound vesicles
containing enzymes that break down fatty acids,
amino acids, and hydrogen peroxide (H2O2).
Hydrogen peroxide is a by-product of fatty acid
and amino acid breakdown and can be toxic to a
cell.
The enzymes in peroxisomes break down
hydrogen peroxide to water and O2.
Cells active in detoxification, such as liver and
kidney cells, have many peroxisomes.

Cilia, Flagella, and Microvilli

Cilia project from the surface of cells. They vary in number from none to
thousands per cell and are capable of moving. Cilia are cylindrical
structures that extend from the cell. Cilia are composed of microtubules,
organized in a pattern similar to that of centrioles, which are enclosed by
the cell membrane.
Flagella have a structure similar to that of cilia but are much longer, and
they usually occur only one per cell. Sperm cells each have one flagellum,
which propels the sperm cell.
Microvilli are specialized extensions of the cell membrane that are
supported by microfilaments, but they do not actively move as cilia and
flagella do.
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ORGANELLES
Golgi Apparatus
A stack of flattened membranes and associated
vesicles close to the ER.
Packages, modifies, and segregates proteins for
secretion from the cell
Forms new cell membrane components
Packages Lysosomes
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ORGANELLES
Lysosomes
Membranous sacs containing acid hydrolases
(powerful digestive enzymes).
Vesicle formed from Golgi complex.
Sites of intracellular digestion
The stomach of the cell
Responsible for autolysis of injured cells

Centrioles
Paired cylindrical bodies, each composed of NINE
TRIPLETS OF MICROTUBULES
Also known as CENTROSOME
A specialized zone of cytoplasm close to the
nucleus, where microtubule formation occurs.
Also knwon for directing the formation of the
chromosomes during cell division.
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ORGANELLES
Cytoskeleton
Acts as a cell's "bones and
muscles"
Determines cell shapes,
supports organelles, and
provides the machinery for
intracellular transport and
various types of cellular
movements.

MICROFILAMENTS
Small fibrils formed from protein
subunits that structurally support
the cytoplasm.
Most involved in cell motility and in
producing changes in cell shape
INTERMEDIATE FILAMENTS
Smaller in diameter than
microtubules but larger in diameter
than microfilaments.
Strong, stable, rope-like made up of
fibrous subunits.
Provides mechanical support to the
cell.
MICROTUBULES
Made up of repeating subunits of
protein tubulin.
Determines te overall shape of a cell
and the distribution of organelles.
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CELL LIFE CYCLE

TWO MAJOR PERIODS
1. INTERPHASE (METABOLIC)
Cell grows and carries on
its usual metabolic
activities.
The longer phase of the cell
cycle
Consists of three phases
G1, S and G2

G1 PHASE
The interval between the MITOTIC PHASE and the S PHASE.
Lasts 8-10 hours
Cell is metabolically active
Replicates most of its organelles and cytosolic components including
centrosomes but not its DNA.
G0 PHASE
Cells that remain in G1 for a very long time
Perhaps destined never to divide again
Most nerve cells are in the G0 phase
S PHASE
The interval between G1 and G2
Lasts about 8 hours
DNA replication occurs
G2 PHASE
The interval between the S phase and the mitotic phase
Lasts 4-6 hours
Cell growth continues
Enzymes and other proteins are synthesized in preparation of cell
division
Replication of centrosomes is completed.
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CELL LIFE CYCLE

TWO MAJOR PERIODS

2. CELL DIVISION
Period where cell
reproduces itself.

MITOTIC PHASE
Formation of TWO IDENTICAL CELLS
Consists of a NUCLEAR DIVISON
(mitosis) and CYTOPLASMIC DIVISION
(cytokinesis) to form identical cells.
Mitosis is divided into four stages:
PROHPASE, METAPHASE,
ANAPHASE, and TELOPHASE
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CELL LIFE CYCLE

PROPHASE
The chromatin condenses to frm visible
chromosomes.
The centrioles divide and migrate to each
pole of the cell.
In late prophase, the nucleolus and nuclear
evelope disappear.

METAPHASE
The chromosomes align in the center of the
cell in association with the spindle fibers.
 Created by: Johmel De Ocampo

CELL LIFE CYCLE

ANAPHASE
EARLY PHASE
The chromatids separate and was called
CHROMOSOME.

LATE PHASE
Each set of chromosomes has reached
an opposite pole of the cell and the
cytoplasm begins to divide.

TELOPHASE
The chromosomes in each of the daughter
cells become organized to form two
separate nuclei.
The nuclear envelopes and the nucleoli
form
The cytoplasm continues to divide to form
two cells.

CYTOKINESIS
The division of the cytoplasm
Usually begins during LATE ANAPHASE
and completes during TELOPHASE
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CELL LIFE CYCLE

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MOVEMENT THROUGH THE CELL MEMBRANE

Cell membranes are selectively permeable, meaning that they allow some
substances, but not others, to pass into or out of the cells.
Intracellular material has a different composition than extracellular
material, and the cell’s survival depends on maintaining the difference.
Substances such as enzymes, glycogen, and potassium ions (K+) are found
at higher concentrations intracellularly, whereas Na+, Ca2+, and Cl− are
found in greater concentrations extracellularly.
In addition, nutrients must enter cells continually, and waste products
must exit. Because of the permeability characteristics of cell membranes
and their ability to transport certain molecules, cells are able to maintain
proper intracellular concentrations of molecules. Rupture of the
membrane, alteration of its permeability characteristics, or inhibition of
transport processes can disrupt the normal intracellular concentration of
molecules and lead to cell death.
Movement through the cell membrane may be passive or active.
PASSIVE MEMBRANE transport does not require the cell to expend
energy. Passive membrane transport mechanisms include diffusion,
osmosis, and facilitated diffusion.
ACTIVE MEMBRANE transport does require the cell to expend energy,
usually in the form of ATP. Active membrane transport mechanisms
include active transport, secondary active transport, endocytosis, and
exocytosis.
 Created by: Johmel De Ocampo

MOVEMENT THROUGH THE CELL MEMBRANE

DIFFUSION
A solution is generally composed of one or more substances, called
solutes, dissolved in the predominant liquid or gas, which is called the
solvent. Solutes, such as ions or molecules, tend to move from an area of
higher concentration of a solute to an area of lower concentration of
that same solute in solution.
In the body, diffusion is an important means of transporting substances
through the extracellular and intracellular fluids. In addition,
substances, such as nutrients and some waste products, can diffuse into
and out of the cell. The normal intracellular concentrations of many
substances depend on diffusion. For example, if the extracellular
concentration of O2 is reduced, not enough O2 diffuses into the cell, and
the cell cannot function normally.

A CONCENTRATION GRADIENT is the difference in the concentration of a

solute in a solvent between two points divided by the distance between the
two points.
The concentration gradient is said to be steeper when the concentration
difference is large and/or the distance is small.
When we say that a substance moves down (or with) the concentration
gradient, we mean that solutes are diffusing from a higher toward a lower
concentration of solutes.
When we say that a solute moves up (or against) its concentration
gradient, this means that the substance moves from an area of lower solute
concentration to an area of higher solute concentration.
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MOVEMENT THROUGH THE CELL MEMBRANE

The phospholipid bilayer acts as a

barrier to most water-soluble
substances. However, certain small,
water-soluble substances can diffuse
between the phospholipid molecules
of cell membranes. Other water-
soluble substances can diffuse across
the cell membrane only by passing
through cell membrane channels
(figure 3.4).

Cell membrane channels consist of

large protein molecules that extend
from one surface of cell membranes to
the other (figure 3.5). There are several
channel types, each of which allows
only certain substances to pass
through. The size, shape, and charge of
a molecule all determine whether it can
pass through each kind of channel. For
example, Na+ passes through Na+
channels, and K+ and Cl− pass through
K+ and Cl− channels, respectively.
Rapid movement of water across the
cell membrane also occurs through
membrane channels.

In addition, cell membrane channels differ in the degree to which ions pass
through them. Some channels constantly allow ions to pass through. These
channels are called leak channels. Other channels limit the movement of
ions across the membrane by opening and closing. These channels are
called gated channels (figure 3.5).
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MOVEMENT THROUGH THE CELL MEMBRANE

OSMOSIS
Osmosis is the diffusion of water (a solvent) across a selectively permeable
membrane, such as the cell membrane, from a region of higher water
concentration to one of lower water concentration.
OSMOTIC PRESSURE is the force required to prevent the movement of
water across a selectively permeable membrane. Thus, osmotic pressure is
a measure of the tendency of water to move by osmosis across a selectively
permeable membrane. It can be measured by placing a solution into a tube
that is closed at one end by a selectively permeable membrane and
immersing the tube in distilled water
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MOVEMENT THROUGH THE CELL MEMBRANE

CARRIER-MEDIATED TRANSPORT MECHANISMS

Many nutrient molecules, such as amino acids and glucose, cannot enter
the cell by diffusion. Likewise, many substances produced in cells, such as
proteins, cannot leave the cell by diffusion.
CARRIER MOLECULES, which are proteins within the cell membrane, are
involved in carrier-mediated transport mechanisms, which move large,
water-soluble molecules or electrically charged ions across the cell
membrane. A molecule to be transported binds to a specific carrier
molecule on one side of the membrane. The binding of the molecule to the
carrier molecule in the cell membrane causes the three-dimensional shape
of the carrier molecule to change, and the transported molecule is moved to
the opposite side of the cell membrane. The transported molecule is then
released by the carrier molecule, which resumes its original shape and is
available to transport another molecule. Carrier-mediated transport
mechanisms exhibit specificity; that is, only specific molecules are
transported by the carriers.
There are three kinds of carrier- mediated transport: facilitated diffusion,
active transport, and secondary active transport.
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MOVEMENT THROUGH THE CELL MEMBRANE

FACILITATED DIFFUSION
Facilitated diffusion is a carrier-
mediated transport process that
moves substances across the cell
membrane from an area of higher
concentration to an area of lower
concentration of that substance
(figure 3.8; see table 3.2). Because
movement is with the concentration
gradient, metabolic energy in the
form of ATP is not required.

ACTIVE TRANSPORT
Active transport is a carrier-
mediated process that moves
substances across the cell membrane
from regions of lower concentration
to those of higher concentration
The malfunction of active
against a concentration gradient (see
transport can lead to serious
table 3.2).
health conditions.
Consequently, active transport
Cystic fibrosis is a genetic
processes accumulate substances on
disorder that affects the
one side of the cell membrane at
active transport of Cl− into
concentrations many times greater
cells.
than those on the other side. These
The active transport
dramatic concentration differences
mechanism can exchange
are important for normal cell
one substance for another.
activity.
For example, the sodium-
Active transport requires energy in
potassium pump moves Na+
the form of ATP; if ATP is not
out of cells and K+ into cells
available, active transport stops. One
(figure 3.9).
example of active transport is the
movement of various amino acids
from the small intestine into the
blood.
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MOVEMENT THROUGH THE CELL MEMBRANE

K+, established by the sodium-potassium pump, are essential in maintaining

concentration of K+ inside the cell. The concentration gradients for Na+ and
The result is a higher concentration of Na+ outside the cell and a higher

the resting membrane potential

ENDOCYTOSIS & EXOCYTOSIS

Endocytosis is the movement of materials into cells by the formation of a
vesicle. Receptor-mediated endocytosis involves cell receptors attaching to
molecules, which are then transported into the cell. Phagocytosis is the
movement of solid material into cells. Pinocytosis is similar to phagocytosis,
except that the material ingested is much smaller and is in solution.
Exocytosis is the secretion of materials from cells by vesicle formation.
 Created by: Johmel De Ocampo

MOVEMENT THROUGH THE CELL MEMBRANE

SECONDARY ACTIVE TRANSPORT

Secondary active transport involves the
active transport of one substance, such as
Na+, across the cell membrane, establishing
a concentration gradient. The diffusion of
that transported substance down its
concentration gradient provides the energy
to transport a second substance, such as
glucose, across the cell membrane (figure
3.10).
In cotransport, the diffusing substance
moves in the same direction as the
transported substance; in countertransport,
the diffusing substance moves in a direction
opposite to that of the transported substance
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GENE EXPRESSION
GENE EXPRESSION
DNA contains the information that directs protein synthesis.
This process is called gene expression.
The proteins produced in a cell include those that serve as structural
components inside the cell, proteins secreted to the outside of the cell, and
enzymes that regulate chemical reactions in the cell.
DNA influences the structural and functional characteristics of the entire
organism because it directs protein synthesis. Whether an individual has
blue eyes, brown hair, or other inherited traits is determined ultimately by
DNA.
A DNA molecule consists of nucleotides joined together to form two
nucleotide strands. The two strands are connected and resemble a ladder
that is twisted around its long axis. The nucleotides function as chemical
“letters” that form chemical “words.” A gene is a sequence of nucleotides
(making a word) that provides a chemical set of instructions for making a
specific protein. Each DNA molecule contains many different genes.
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TRANSCRIPTION
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TRANSLATION
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REPLICATION
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DIFFERENTIATION
A sperm cell and an oocyte unite to form a single cell, and a new individual
begins. The single cell formed during fertilization divides by mitosis to
form two cells, which divide to form four cells, and so on. The trillions of
cells that ultimately make up the body of an adult, as a result, stem from
that single cell. Therefore, all the cells in an individual’s body contain the
same amount and type of DNA. But even though the genetic information
contained in cells is identical, not all cells look and function alike. Bone
cells, for example, do not look like or function the same as muscle cells,
nerve cells, or red blood cells (figure 3.27).

The process by which cells develop with specialized structures and

functions is called differentiation. During differentiation of a cell, some
portions of DNA are active, but others are inactive. The active and inactive
sections of DNA differ with each cell type.
For example, the portion of DNA responsible for the structure and function
of a bone cell is different from that responsible for the structure and
function of a muscle cell. Differentiation, then, results from the selective
activation and inactivation of segments of DNA. The mechanisms that
determine which portions of DNA are active in any one cell type are not
fully understood, but the resulting differentiation produces the many cell
types that function together to make a person. Eventually, as cells
differentiate and mature, the rate at which they divide slows or even stops.
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APOPTOSIS
Apoptosis, or programmed cell death, is a normal process by which cell numbers within
various tissues are adjusted and controlled. In the developing fetus, apoptosis removes
extra tissue, such as cells between the developing fingers and toes. In some adult
tissues, apoptosis eliminates excess cells to maintain a constant number of cells within
the tissue. Damaged or potentially dangerous cells, virus-infected cells, and potential
cancer cells are also eliminated by apoptosis.
Apoptosis is regulated by specific genes. The proteins coded for by those genes initiate
events within the cell that ultimately lead to the cell’s death. As apoptosis begins, the
chromatin within the nucleus condenses and fragments. This is followed by
fragmentation of the nucleus and finally by death and fragmentation of the cell.
Specialized cells called macrophages phagocytize the cell fragments.

CELLULAR ASPECTS OF AGING

We are all familiar with the outward signs of aging, such as wrinkled skin, gray
hair, and reduced vision. A number of cellular structures or events appear to be
involved in causing these effects. The major hypotheses that attempt to explain
how aging occurs concentrate on molecules within the cell, such as lipids,
proteins, and nucleic acids. It is estimated that at least 35% of the factors
affecting aging are genetic.
1.Cellular clock. One hypothesis of aging suggests the existence of a cellular
clock that, after a certain passage of time or a certain number of cell divisions,
results in the death of a given cell line.
2. Death genes. Another hypothesis suggests that there are “death genes,”
which turn on late in life, or sometimes prematurely, causing cells to
deteriorate and die.
3. DNA damage. Other hypotheses suggest that, through time, DNA is
damaged, resulting in cell degeneration and death.
4. Free radicals. DNA is also susceptible to direct damage, resulting in
mutations that may result in cellular dysfunction and, ultimately, cell death.
One of the major sources of DNA damage is apparently free radicals, which are
atoms or molecules with an unpaired electron.
5. Mitochondrial damage. Mitochondrial DNA may be more sensitive to free-
radical damage than is nuclear DNA. Mitochondrial DNA damage may result
in loss of proteins critical to mitochondrial function. Because the mitochondria
are the primary source of ATP, loss of mitochondrial function could lead to the
loss of energy critical to cell function and, ultimately, to cell death. One
proposal suggests that reduced caloric intake may reduce free-radical damage
to mitochondria.
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SUMMARY
CELL STRUCTURE
1. Cells are highly organized units containing organelles, which perform specific functions.
2. The nucleus contains genetic material, and cytoplasm is the living material between the
nucleus and the cell membrane.

FUNCTIONS OF THE CELL

1. Cells are the basic unit of life.
2. Cells protect and support the body, as well as provide for cell metabolism,
communication, and inheritance.

CELL MEMBRANE
1. The cell membrane forms the outer boundary of the cell. It determines what enters and
leaves the cell.
2. The cell membrane is composed of a double layer of phospholipid molecules in which
proteins float. The proteins function as membrane channels, carrier molecules, receptor
molecules, enzymes, and structural components of the membrane.

MOVEMENT THROUGH THE CELL MEMBRANE

DIFFUSION
1. Diffusion is the movement of a solute from an area of higher concentration to an area of
lower concentration within a solvent. At equilibrium, the distribution of molecules is
uniform.
2. A concentration gradient is the concentration of a solute at one point in a solvent minus
the concentration of that solute at another point in the solvent divided by the distance
between the points.
3. Lipid-soluble molecules pass through the cell membrane readily by dissolving in the lipid
portion of the membrane. Small molecules and ions can pass through membrane
channels.

OSMOSIS
1. Osmosis is the diffusion of water across a selectively permeable membrane.
2. Osmotic pressure is the force required to prevent movement of water across a selectively
permeable membrane.
3. In a hypotonic solution, cells swell (and can undergo lysis); in an isotonic solution, cells
neither swell nor shrink; in a hypertonic solution, cells shrink and undergo crenation.

CARRIER-MEDIATED TRANSPORT MECHANISM

1. Carrier-mediated transport is the movement of a substance across a membrane by
means of a carrier molecule. The substances transported tend to be large, water-soluble
molecules or ions.
2. Facilitated diffusion moves substances from a higher to a lower concentration and does
not require energy in the form of ATP.
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SUMMARY
3. Active transport can move substances from a lower to a higher concentration and
requires ATP.
4. Secondary active transport uses the energy of one substance moving down its
concentration gradient to move another substance across the cell membrane. In
cotransport, both substances move in the same direction; in countertransport, they move
in opposite directions.

ENDOCYTOSIS & EXOCYTOSIS

1. Endocytosis is the movement of materials into cells by the formation of a vesicle.
Receptor-mediated endocytosis involves cell receptors attaching to molecules, which are
then transported into the cell. Phagocytosis is the movement of solid material into cells.
Pinocytosis is similar to phagocytosis, except that the material ingested is much smaller
and is in solution.
2. Exocytosis is the secretion of materials from cells by vesicle formation.

ORGANELLES
NUCLEUS
The nuclear envelope consists of two separate membranes that form nuclear pores at
many points on the surface of the nucleus.
DNA and associated proteins are found inside the nucleus as chromatin. DNA is the
hereditary material of the cell and controls cell activities.
Nucleoli consist of RNA and proteins and are the sites of ribosomal subunit assembly.

RIBOSOMES
Ribosomes are the sites of protein synthesis. A ribosome is composed of one large and
one small subunit.

ROUGH & SMOOTH ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM

Rough ER is ER with ribosomes attached. It is a major site of protein synthesis.
Smooth ER does not have ribosomes attached and is a major site of lipid synthesis.

GOLGI APPARATUS
The Golgi apparatus is a series of closely packed membrane sacs that collect, modify,
package, and distribute proteins and lipids produced by the ER.

SECRETORY VESICLES
Secretory vesicles are membrane-bound sacs that carry substances from the Golgi
apparatus to the cell membrane, where the vesicle contents are released.

LYSOSOMES & PEROXISOMES

Lysosomes and peroxisomes are membrane-bound sacs containing enzymes. Within the
cell, lysosomes break down phagocytized material.
Peroxisomes break down fatty acids, amino acids, and hydrogen peroxide.
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SUMMARY
MITOCHONDRION
Mitochondria are the major sites for the production of ATP, which cells use as an energy
source. Mitochondria carry out aerobic respiration (requires O2).

CYTOSKELETON
The cytoskeleton supports the cytoplasm and organelles and is involved with cell
movements.
The cytoskeleton is composed of microtubules, microfilaments, and intermediate
filaments.

CENTRIOLES
Centrioles, located in the centrosome, are made of microtubules. They facilitate
chromosome movement during cell division.

CILIA, FLAGELLA & MICROVILLI

1. Cilia move substances over the surface of cells.
2. Flagella are much longer than cilia and propel sperm cells.
3. Microvilli increase the surface area of cells and thus aid in absorption.

WHOLE CELL ACTIVITY

A cell’s characteristics are ultimately determined by the types of proteins it produces,
which are determined by the genetic information in the nucleus.
Understanding how genetic information is used in the cell and distributed to daughter
cells is important for understanding basic cellular activity.

GENE EXPRESSION
Cell activity is regulated by enzymes (proteins), and DNA controls enzyme production.
During transcription, the sequence of nucleotides in DNA (a gene) determines the
sequence of nucleotides in mRNA; the mRNA moves through the nuclear pores to
ribosomes.
During translation, the sequence of codons in mRNA is used at ribosomes to produce
proteins. Anticodons of tRNA bind to the codons of mRNA, and the amino acids carried
by tRNA are joined to form a protein.

CELL LIFE CYCLE

The life cycle of a cell consists of a series of events that produce new cells for growth and
for tissue repair.
The two phases of the cell life cycle are interphase and cell division.
DNA replicates during interphase, the nondividing phase of the cell cycle.
Cell division occurs through mitosis, which is divided into four stages:
Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, Telophase
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SUMMARY
DIFFERENTIATION
Differentiation, the process by which cells develop specialized structures and functions,
results from the selective activation and inactivation of DNA sections.

APOPTOSIS
Apoptosis is the programmed death of cells. Apoptosis regulates the number of cells
within various tissues of the body.

CELLULAR ASPECTS OF AGING

Aging may be due to the presence of “cellular clocks,” the function of “death genes,” DNA
damage, free radicals, or mitochondrial damage.

REFERENCE

Seeley's Essentials of Anatomy and Physiology, 9th Edition.

No Copyright Intended.