Section 2.

Intellectual Revolutions

Copernican Revolution

 Copernican Revolution was started by Nicolaus Copernicus (mathematician and

astronomer), who was born on 19 February 1473, in Cracow, Poland.
 It is more commonly called Copernican astronomy, which challenged the Ptolemaic
model of geocentricism (earth is the center of the universe).
 Copernicus introduced the cosmologic idea of heliocentric universe (heliocentricism,
sun is the center of the universe) through his essay Commentariolus written sometime
between 1510 and 1514.
 At first, it was rejected by the public because people cling into their religious belief that
the earth is the center of the universe, since earth was the first to be created by God.
 The model had been proven to have had simplified the orbits of the planets and
answered issues that were unexplained by the geocentric model. Finally, it was
accepted by the people and had become the start or the birth of modern astronomy and
became a turning point in the study of cosmology which made a relevant intellectual
revolution.

Darwinian Revolution

 The Darwinian Revolution refers to Darwinian theory of evolution or Darwinism by

English naturalist, biologist, and geologist Charles Darwin.
 This theory of evolution completed the Copernican Revolution by drawing out for biology
the notion of nature as a lawful system of matter in motion.
 The adaptations and diversity of organisms, the origin of novel and highly organized
forms, even the origin of humanity itself could now be explained by an orderly process of
change governed by natural laws.
 It was introduced by Darwin in his book, in 1859, The Origin of Species, ushering in a
new era in the intellectual history of humanity.
 Darwin was deservedly credited for the theory of biological evolution: accumulated
evidence demonstrating that organisms evolve and discovered the process, natural
selection, by which they evolve (survival of the fittest).
 Though it became controversial for contradicting the teachings of the church about
Creation, Darwinism is undeniably a very important intellectual revolution.
 It was able to rationalize the development of organisms and the evolution of all forms of
life through a lawful and an orderly process of nature.

Freudian Revolution

 Freudian Revolution was popularized by Sigmund Freud, (born May 6, 1856,

Freiberg, Moravia, Austrian Empire [now Příbor, Czech Republic]), an Austrian
neurologist, and psychoanalyst.
 He was the founder of psychoanalysis or psychoanalytic theory that changed
people’s perception of psychology as under philosophy.
 Psychoanalysis focuses on the explanation of human behavior or personality, a product
of conflicting elements id, ego, and superego. It was at once a theory of the human
psyche, a therapy for the relief of its ills, and an optic for the interpretation of culture and
society.
 Freud contended that dreams played a fundamental role in the psychic economy.
 The mind’s energy—which Freud called libido and identified principally, but not
exclusively, with the sexual drive as a fluid and malleable force capable of excessive and
disturbing power.
 Although controversial, this theory is widely credited for its dominance in the practice of
psychotherapy during the early 20th century. Freud’s work still influences the modern
psychodynamic therapies that are used to treat a myriad of psychological disorders.
Section 2.2

Cultural Revolutions

 Chinese Cultural Revolution

 The Chinese Cultural Revolution, also called Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution,
is a sociopolitical movement in China from 1966 until 1976 launched by Mao Zedong,
then Chairman of the Communist Party of China.
 The revolution aimed to preserve the true Communist ideology in the country by
purging remnants of capitalist and traditional elements from Chinese society, and to
re-impose Mao Zedong’s thought as the dominant ideology within the Party.
 The decade was marked by Mao's return to a position of power after the Great Leap
Forward, which paralyzed China politically and negatively affected the country's
economy and society to a significant degree through a bloody and terrorizing revolt.
 It might not be a military coup but, in its aftermath, the nation came effectively under
martial law for several years because military was the only institution nationwide that
was still intact and able to carry out government responsibilities.
 The revolution had inspired other countries to stage their own version of martial law but it
primarily hindered China to emerge as world power 20 to 25 years earlier.

Iranian Cultural Revolution

 Marred by blood, the Iranian Cultural Revolution, also called Iran's Islamic Revolution,
signaled an indisputable sea of change that saw the ouster of Iran's king, Shah
Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, and the instalment of Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini as the
new supreme leader of the Islamic Republic.
 The revolution made Iran gain influence and strength and as a nation with an
ideology independent of East and West and placed political Islam at the center stage of
the Middle Eastern politics.

Sexual Revolution

 Sexual Revolution, being clearly defined by social behaviors, is characterized by the

sexual culture that showed an influential change in sexual morality and sexual
behavior throughout the Western world, mainly during the 1960s and 1970s.
 Also known as the time of sexual liberation, the revolution is a social movement that
challenged what individuals had previously seen as sexual norms.
 It pushed for social acceptance for intercourse outside of monogamous and
heterosexual relationships resulting to increased marriages and more freedom on
individuals, as well as the feeling of being less deviant.
 The revolution gave way to the birth of the first issue of Playgirl and production of new
contraceptives that hit the market, giving women power and control, which they had
never this way before (Crooks, 2011).
 In the 1960s, Intrauterine devices (IUDs) first began being manufactured and marketed
in the United states, which gave women even more options in terms of methods for birth
control (Kathleen, 2011).
 This era was mainly dedicated to women empowerment.

Section 2.3

Neolithic Revolutions

Mesoamerican Revolution

 Mesoamerican Revolution was started in the parts of Mexico and Central America by
the American Indians, the most-advanced native people in the Western Hemisphere,
who lived in small, permanent settlements, and way of life called sedentism.
 They ate different foods and obtained, processed, and stored them in new ways. They
began to domesticate wild plants and animals, a process by which human selection
causes changes in the genetic material of plants and animals.
 Mesoamerica had proven itself to be a significant agricultural region because it started
the evolution of plant domestication, the foundations of modern life, and food production
which allow for later innovations such as surplus food production, growing populations,
 class differences, the growth of religion, cities, writing, and building of complex social
organization.
 The Mesoamericans were known for the Mesoamerican Triad plants composed of
maize, squash, and beans which became the staple of their diets.
 This group of people was the first to apply light detection and ranging (LiDAR), a
laser-based remote-sensing technology in penetrating overlying vegetation and forest
canopies, which is generating a fundamental shift in Mesoamerican archaeology and
has the potential to transform research in forested areas worldwide.

Asian Revolution

 The Asian Revolution was known for its wealthy rice production and for the
domestication of root crops, known as vegeculture, that includes yams, taro,
corn, and tubers of the Araceae (carbohydrate-rich staple tropical crops.

Middle Eastern Revolution

 Middle Eastern revolution began in Abu Hureyra, an early Natufian village on the
Euphrates River. Results of excavations divulged the complexity yet the importance
of the process of domestication.
 The first settlers were sedentary foragers but, over time, they began domesticating
rye, wheat, and barley. Their reliance on hunting gazelle diminished as they became
scarce and they had to rely on domesticated sheep and goats.
 These people produced the first domesticated plants by horticulture, the growing of
domesticated plants using hand tools relying on natural sources of water and
fertilization by organic means. Eventually, the village grew and they had to intensify
their food production through agriculture, characterized mainly by the growing of
crops in permanent plots using plows, irrigation, and fertilizer.

African Revolution
 African revolution started in Sahel, the ecoclimatic and biogeographic zone of transition
in Africa between the Sahara to the north and the Sudanian Savanna to the south,
known for its lakes and abundant wild grasses and foragers.
 This had supported the emergence of pastoralism, an economic strategy in which
people rely on domesticated animals for most of their food. Millet, sorghum, and rice,
which are indigenous to Africa, are capable of thriving over drought and are planted
around lakesides at the start of the dry season.
Section 2.4

Economic Revolutions

Green Revolution

 Green revolution refers to the renovation of agricultural practices that begun in

Mexico in the 1940s.
 During this period, technologies started to spread worldwide in the 1950s and 1960s,
significantly increasing the volume of calories produced per acre of agriculture.
 Fertilizers largely what made the Green Revolution possible, but agricultural practices
were changed because the high-yield varieties developed during this time were too
dependent on fertilizers.
 Irrigation also played a large role by storing water that was used in the farms. However,
the increased amount of food production has led to overpopulation worldwide, leaving
some places like Africa not significantly benefited from the Green Revolution.
 Among the major problems surrounding the use of these technologies, though, were lack
of infrastructure, governmental corruption, and insecurity in nations. But despite these
struggles, this period had changed the way agriculture is conducted worldwide,
benefiting the people of many nations in need of increased food production.
Commercial Revolution

 Commercial revolution was a period of European economic expansion,

colonialism, and mercantilism which lasted from approximately the 16th century until
the early 18th century.
 It helped set the stage for the Industrial Revolution and was responsible for the
creation of private banking, money economy, trading organizations, and the
development of European feudal monarchies into national states.

Section 2.5

Technological Revolutions

Information Revolution

 Information revolution paved the way for the development of technologies such as computers,
digital communication, and microchips in the second half of the 20th century that has led to the
dramatic reduction in the cost of obtaining, processing, storing, and transmitting information in
all forms including texts, graphics, audios, and videos.

Industrial Revolution
 Industrial revolution is the most-known example of technological revolution.
 It was where the process of change from an agrarian and handicraft economy to one
dominated by industry and machine manufacturing.
 Began in Britain in the 18th century, it spread to the other parts of the world and first
popularized by the English economic historian Arnold Toynbee (1852–83) to describe
Britain’s economic development from 1760 to 1840.
 At this period, technological changes took place which included the following: (1) the use
of new basic materials, chiefly iron and steel,
 (2) the use of new energy sources, including both fuels and motive power, such as coal,
the steam engine, electricity, petroleum, and the internalcombustion engine,
 (3) the invention of new machines, such as the spinning jenny and the power loom that
permitted increased production with a smaller expenditure of human energy,
 (4) a new organization of work known as factory system, which entailed increased
division of labor and specialization of function,
 (5) important developments in transportation and communication, including the steam
locomotive, steamship, automobile, airplane, telegraph, and radio, and
 (6) the increasing application of science to industry. These technological changes made
possible a tremendously increased use of natural resources and the mass production of
manufactured goods.
Digital Revolution
 Digital revolution started with one fundamental idea – the Internet, which enabled the
sweeping changes brought about by computing and communication technology, starting
from circa 1950 with the creation of the first general-purpose electronic computers.
 During this time, digital computers and digital record keeping became the norm. The
introduction of digital technology also changed the way humans communicate, now via
computers, cell phones, and the internet.
 It had initially resulted in broad social impacts and widespread lifestyle changes,
which continues until at present.
 This technological advancement increased and improved the ability to communicate
and find important information.
 It also made globalization possible which has, in turn, resulted in more effective and
efficient business productivity.
 But, unfortunately, it has been believed to have decreased personal privacy, diluted
professional journalism, and made separating personal and professional life more
difficult.
 This revolution led way to the Information Age.