FLOW OF ENERGY THROUGH LIVING SYSTEMS

Ecological pyramids

⚫ Charles Elton developed the concept of ecological pyramid.

⚫ After his name these pyramids are also called as Eltonian pyramids.
⚫ It is a graphical representation or pyramid shaped diagram which depicts the number of
organisms, biomass and productivity at each trophic level.
⚫ Ecological pyramids begin with the producers at the bottom and proceed through the different
trophic level.

Types of Ecological Pyramids

Pyramid of numbers

• When plotted the relationships among the number of producers, primary consumers
(herbivores), secondary consumers (carnivore of order 1), tertiary consumers (carnivore of
order 2) and so on
• In any ecosystem, it forms a pyramidal structure called the pyramid of number.
• The shape of this pyramid varies from ecosystem to ecosystem

There are three types of pyramid of numbers

Upright
       Partly upright
          Inverted

Upright Pyramid of Number

• In aquatic and grassland ecosystem numerous small autotrophs support lesser herbivores which
support further smaller number of carnivores
• Hence the pyramidal structure is upright.
 Partly upright pyramid of Number

⚫ In forest ecosystem lesser number of producers support greater number of herbivores who in
turn support a fewer number of carnivores

Inverted Pyramid of Number

⚫ In parasitic food chain one primary producer support numerous parasites which support still
more hyperparasites.
 Pyramid of Biomass

⚫ When we plot the biomass (net dry weight) of producers, herbivores,

carnivores and so on we have a pyramid of biomass.
⚫ Two types of pyramid of biomass are found

Upright Pyramid of Biomass

⚫ When larger weight of producers support a smaller weight of consumers an upright pyramid
results. eg forest ecosystem
 Inverted Pyramid of Biomass

⚫ When smaller weight of producers supports larger weight of consumers an inverted pyramid of
biomass is formed eg aquatic ecosystem

Pyramid of Energy

• The pyramid of energy is drawn after taking into consideration the total quantity of energy
utilized by the trophic levels in an ecosystem over a period of time.
• As the quantity of energy available for utilization in successive trophic levels is always less
because there is loss of energy in each transfer, the energy pyramid will always be upright.
 Limitations of Pyramids

Pyramid of number

⚫ All organisms are equated regardless of their size for eg an oak tree is counted as one individual
in the same way an aphid
• No account is made for juveniles and other immature forms of a species whose diet and
requirements may differ from those of the adult in the population.
•
⚫ For example, if you are studying a caterpillar feeding caterpillar habit, you may not take into
butterflies that you may see, therefore a true representation would not be given.
• The number of some individuals are so great that it is impossible to represent accurately on the
same scale as other species in the food chain,
• for example 1000 black flies may feed on a single rose bush and this relationship cannot be
effectively drawn to scale on a pyramid of numbers
• All of the above limitations may create some different shaped pyramids.

Pyramid of Biomass

⚫ It is impossible to show the exact biomass of all individuals of a population.

⚫ The time at which the sample is taken may affect the result for example the figures obtained from
a tree in the summer may be different from that in the winter.

Pyramid of energy

• An energy pyramid overcomes the main drawbacks of the other forms of ecological pyramids.
• Hence the bar is drawn in proportion to the total energy utilized at each tropic level.
• The total productivity of the producers of a given area can be measured for a given period.
• From this, the proportion of it utilized by the primary consumer can be calculated.
• The pyramids produced do not show any anomalies but obtaining the necessary data can be a
complex and difficult affair.

Ecosystem

⚫ The inter-relationship of the living (biotic) and the non-living (abiotic) elements in any biological
system
⚫ There are two major factors within an ecosystem:

✔ The flow of energy through the system

✔ The cycling of matter within the system

Ecological niche

• The particular position any species occupies within its habitat.

• It represents more than a physical area within the habitat
• as it includes an organism’s behavior and interactions with its living and non living environment.

Biomes

⚫ The total volume of land, water and air around the earth’s surface is called the biosphere
⚫ It consists of two major divisions
 ⚫ The aquatic which is subdivided into freshwater, marine and estuarine
⚫ The terrestrial portion of the biosphere is subdivided into biomes which are determined by the
dominant plant plants found in them.
⚫ The climatic conditions determines the dominant plants of a region
⚫ A biome can be further divided into zones which consist of small areas called habitats
⚫ within each habitat there are populations of individuals which collectively form a community.
⚫ Individual member of the community is usually confined to a particular region of the habitat
called a microhabitat

Ecological energetics

⚫ The study of the flow of energy through the ecosystem is known as ecological energetic
⚫ All the energy utilized by living organisms is ultimately derived from the sun
⚫ but as little as 1% of its total radiant energy is actually captured by green plants for distribution
throughout the ecosystem
⚫ This relatively small amount is sufficient to support all life on earth
⚫ Because green plants manufacture sugars from simple raw materials, utilizing solar energy they
are called primary producers, all primary producers are autotrophic
⚫ There is a type of feeding hierarchy with the primary producers at the bottom and the
consumers at the top
⚫ Only a small proportion of the available energy is transferred from one trophic level to the next
⚫ Much energy is lost as heat during the respiratory processes of each organisms and this loss
limits the length of food chains

⚫ Biomass, a renewable energy source, is biological material derived from living, or recently living
organisms, such as wood, waste, and alcohol fuels. 

⚫ A standing crop is the quantity or total weight or energy content of the organisms which are in a
particular location at a particular time. 
The standing crop is the total dry weight of all organisms.  

Biodiversity and Conservation

Biological diversity means the full range of variety and variability within and among living organisms and
the ecological complexes in which they occur, and encompasses ecosystem or community diversity,
species diversity, and genetic diversity."

Genetic diversity
 • the combination of different genes found within a population of a single species, and the pattern
of variation found within different populations of the same species
• Genetic variation within and between populations of species affects their physical characteristics,
viability, productivity, resilience to stress, and adaptability to change.

Species diversity

• the variety and abundance of different types of organisms which inhabit an area
• Such diversity can be measured in many ways, and scientists have not settled on a single best
method.
• The number of species in a region -- its species "richness" -- is one often- used measure, but a
more precise measurement, "taxonomic diversity", also considers the relationship of species to
each other

For example, an island with two species of birds and one species of lizard has a greater taxonomic
diversity than an island with three species of birds but no lizards...

Ecosystem diversity

• encompasses the variety of habitats that occur within a region, or the mosaic of patches found
within a landscape
• familiar example is the variety of habitats and environmental parameters such as grasslands,
wetlands, rivers, estuaries, fresh and salt water."
• Is harder to measure than species or genetic diversity because the "boundaries" of communities
-- associations of species -- and ecosystems are elusive.
• Nevertheless, as long as a consistent set of criteria is used to define communities and ecosystems,
their numbers and distribution can be measured..."

Ecosystem components

• are the inhabiting species in all their variety and richness. Many different species, gene-pool
abundance, and unique populations are what most people think of when they hear the term
"biodiversity". But there is much more to consider.

Ecosystem structure

• refers to the physical patterns of life forms

• Ecosystem functions are hard to see in action. "You can't hug a biogeochemical cycle," says one
ecologist.
• But without the part of the carbon cycle where small invertebrates, fungi, and microorganisms
work to break down wood fiber, the downed logs in an ancient forest would never decay
• Ecosystem components, structures, and functions are all interdependent.
• To understand biodiversity, one has to think like a mountain and consider not only the biotic
elements of plants, animals, and other living beings, but also the patterns and processes that
shape volcanoes and forests."

Benefits to humans

• Direct use value = marketable commodities

– Food
– Medicine
– Raw materials
 – Recreational harvesting
– Ecotourism

Food

• About 3,000 species ( 1% of 300,000 total) of flowering plants have been used for food
• About 200 species have been domesticated
• Wild relatives source of genes for crop improvement in both plants and animals

Medicine

• About 25% of all medical prescriptions in the U.S. are based on plant or microbial products or on
derivatives or on synthetic versions
• Some medicinal products from animals (e.g., anticoagulant fromleeches)

Raw materials

• Industrial materials:
– Timber
– Fibers
– Resins, gums
– Perfumes
– Adhesives
– Dyes
– Oils, waxes, rubber
– Agricultural chemicals

• Recreational harvesting:
– Hunting
– Fishing
– Pets
– Ornamental plants

Ecotourism

• By definition based on biodiversity

• Growing portion of the tourism industry

Indirect Use Value

• services provided by biodiversity that are not normally given a market value (often regarded as
free)
• Include primarily ecosystem services: atmospheric, climatic and hydrological regulation;
photosynthesis; nutrient cycling; pollination; pest control; soil formation and maintenance

Intrinsic value

• Simply because it exists

 • Moral imperative to be good stewards, the preservation of other life for its own sake
• Supported in many different religious or cultural traditions
• Recognized in the Convention on Biodiversity
• Biophilia= the connection that human beings subconsciously seek with the rest of life (nature)
or the innate connection of humans to biodiversity

Importance of Biodiversity

Biodiversity boosts ecosystem productivity where each species, no matter how small, all have an
important role to play.

For example, a larger number of plant species means a greater variety of crops; greater species diversity
ensures natural sustainability for all life forms; and healthy ecosystems can better withstand and recover
from a variety of disasters.

And so, while we dominate this planet, we still need to preserve the diversity in wildlife.

Loss of Biodiversity and Extinctions

• It has long been feared that human activity is causing massive extinctions. Despite increased
efforts at conservation, it has not been enough and biodiversity losses continue. The costs
associated with deteriorating or vanishing ecosystems will be high. However, sustainable
development and consumption would help avert ecological problems.
• Preserving species and their habitats is important for ecosystems to self-sustain themselves.
• Yet, the pressures to destroy habitat for logging, illegal hunting, and other challenges are making
conservation a struggle.
• Rapid global warming can affect ecosystems chances to adapt naturally.
• The Arctic is very sensitive to climate change and already seeing lots of changes. Ocean
biodiversity is already being affected as are other parts of the ecosystem.
• One type of ecosystem that perhaps is neglected more than any other is perhaps also the richest
in biodiversity—the coral reefs.
• Coral reefs are useful to the environment and to people in a number of ways. However, all around
the world, much of the world’s marine biodiversity face threats from human and activities as well
as natural. It is feared that very soon, many reefs could die off.
 in Situ Conservation Methods
In-situ conservation, the conservation of species in their natural habitats, is considered the most
appropriate way of conserving biodiversity.
• Conserving the areas where populations of species exist naturally is an underlying condition for
the conservation of biodiversity. That's why protected areas form a central element of any
national strategy to conserve the areas where populations of species exist naturally is an
underlying condition for the conservation of biodiversity.
• That's why protected areas form a central element of any national strategy to conserve
biodiversity
• Many scientists and conservationists feel that until methods are available to discern easily which
of the millions of species and varieties will have economic value, in-situ conservation through the
protection of natural areas should be the primary means for the maintenance of these resources.
• However, a rigid preservation approach is virtually impossible to implement and even less likely
to be maintained over time.
• Considering trends in population growth and the urgency of economic development especially in
the developing countries
• more appropriate response would be to pursue proactive alternatives to high-impact
development activities, and to implement carefully formulated strategies for in-situ methods that
would include protected areas in the development mix.
• Unfortunately, the formulation of that development mix is not easy, because moral, as well as
technical and economic, choices are involved
• As of 1993 nearly 7, 000 parks and protected areas covering in excess of 650 million acres had
been established worldwide
• When combined with smaller areas such as state parks and private reserves, a large portion of
the planet's land surface is receiving some degree of protection
Advantages
• In-situ maintenance of biodiversity through the establishment of conservation and multiple-use
areas offers distinct advantages over off-site methods in terms of coverage, viability of the
resource, and the economic sustainability of the methods

Coverage
• A worldwide system of protected and multiple-use areas would allow a significant number of
indigenous species and systems to be protected, thus taking care of the unknowns until such time
as methods are found for their investigation and utilization
Viability
• Natural selection and community evolution continue and new communities, systems, and genetic
material are produced
• Natural selection and community evolution continue and new communities, systems, and genetic
material are produced
• Natural selection and community evolution continue and new communities, systems, and genetic
material are produced

Economic sustainability:A country that maintains specific examples of biodiversity stores up

future economic benefits.
• When the need develops and this diversity is thoroughly examined, commercially valuable
genetic and biochemical material may be found

Categories of natural risk

• Demographic uncertainty resulting from random events in the survival and reproduction of
individuals.
Environmental uncertainty due to random, or at least unpredictable, changes in weather, food
supply, and the populations of competitors, predators, parasites, etc
• Natural catastrophes such as floods, fires, or droughts, which may occur at random intervals.
• Genetic uncertainty or random changes in genetic make-up due to genetic drift or inbreeding that
alter the survival and reproductive probabilities of individuals
• Ex Situ Conservation Methods
• Ex-situ conservation is the preservation of components of biological diversity outside their
natural habitats.  This involves conservation of genetic resources, as well as wild and cultivated
or species, and draws on a diverse body of techniques and facilities.  Some of these include
• Gene banks, e.g. seed banks, sperm and ova banks, field banks;
• In vitro plant tissue and microbial culture collections;
• Captive breeding of animals and artificial propagation of plants, with possible reintroduction into
the wild; and
• Collecting living organisms for zoos, aquaria, and botanic gardens for research and public
awareness.
• Ex-situ conservation measures can be complementary to in-situ methods as they provide an
"insurance policy" against extinction. These measures also have a valuable role to play in
recovery programmes for endangered species. 

• Ex-situ conservation measures can be complementary to in-situ methods as they provide

an "insurance policy" against extinction. These measures also have a valuable role to play in
recovery programmes for endangered species.  The Kew Seed Bank in England has 1.5 per cent of
the world's flora - about 4,000 species - on deposit.
• In agriculture, ex-situ conservation measures maintain domesticated plants which cannot survive
in nature unaided.
• Ex-situ conservation provides excellent research opportunities on the components of biological
diversity. Some of these institutions also play a central role in public education and awareness
raising by bringing members of the public into contact with plants and animals they may not
normally come in contact with. It is estimated that worldwide, over 600 million people visit zoos
every year.
• Ex situ conservation measures should support in-situ conservation measures (in-situ
conservation should be the primary objective).  

Sperm banks

• Sperm banks or cryobanks are facilities that collect and stores human sperm from sperm donors,
for the purpose of achieving pregnancies through artificial insemination. Sperm donated in this
way is known as donor sperm.
• By donating sperm, thousands of women every year are able to have their own children by using
a sperm bank in circumstances where this would not otherwise be possible. Lesbian couples,
single women and women with infertile male partners all benefit from the existence of sperm
banks.
• Donating through a sperm bank means that the sperm will be frozen and used 6 months later
after all health checks, infection testing and genetic tests have been completed. Men donating
through sperm banks do not know where their sperm is being used.

Advantages of using sperm banks

• Choosing a donor through a sperm bank will mean you do not have the concern of the donor
having any involvement with the child’s upbringing until they reach 18 years and may wish to
contact the donor.
• You also have the reassurance of knowing that the donor will have no legal right over the child
and that all health screening tests are completed.

Disadvantages of sperm banks

• The main disadvantage of using a sperm bank to choose a donor is that you are not able to get
sufficient information about the donor, for example facial characteristics, personality, sense of
humour and mental capacity.
• Also a consideration for many single women and couples is that they may wish for the donor to
have some contact with the child even if they are not in a co-parenting agreement. This often has
a beneficial effect on the child’s identity.
• For the donor the disadvantage on donating directly to a sperm bank is that you are unable to
choose the woman or couple you would like to help and you are not able to keep in touch if you
choose to.

Egg freezing
• there is no guarantee that the eggs once thawed will be healthy and able to cause a pregnancy
which results in a healthy baby
• It may allow women a chance at a genetic child that they would not have had otherwise. Medical
treatments such as chemotherapy can forever damage eggs and render a woman infertile.
 Finding the man of your dreams at age 43 is great, but it may be too late to have children unless
you have eggs frozen or use donor eggs. The same can be said of waiting until you are secure in
your chosen career.
• From the moment you choose to go ahead with IVF, costs included defrosting the eggs,
fertilisation of an egg or eggs with sperm from your partner, embryo transfer and monitoring the
ensuing pregnancy, this all added up to quite a sum