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Q#1:
a) Discuss the strategy of Pavement Milling Operation in detail? Also discuss the
problems associated with wrong Milling?

Solution#1 (a)

Pavement milling is the method of removal of the warn out upper layer of Paved surface of roadway
either wearing course or asphaltic course. This process is used for improvement of surface of
pavement to ensure smooth travel. It is an important part of roadway construction. Milling removes
the weary surface of already paved surface which has patches that need to be replaced for smooth ride
and increased surface friction. The asphalt milling machine known as pavement miller or pavement
recycler remove the bituminous layer or asphalt concrete layer from roadways that are uneven in ride.
In starting the milling there are number of items that need to be taken into account, besides a well-
maintained milling machine.
Milling depth Selection: the depth of milling is selected by taking into account the visual cracks and
tears in the pavement. The core cutting machine test is carried out to know the depth of the road layers
and the material used. The depth of cracks is measured with a scale. These test and information are
analyzed and the depth of milling is selected
Sweeping the Milling Surface: After milling and removing the surface, the dust remains on the
milled portion is removed with a machine called Road Sweeper.
Surface smoothness test: After milling and sweeping of milled area, the next step is about the testing
smoothness compared with a simple straight edged that determines localized deviations in the surface.
Post milling survey: After the operation of milling the paved surface is completed, survey is carried
out after it to check the operations is done according to specifications and designs.
 
Problems associated with wrong milling:

1. The milling process can cause uneven and rough surface thickness of road layers during laying
pavement layers that can cause a hike in the cost of the operations.
2. If the sweeping operations is not effective the debris and dust from milling could bind with
newly paving layers and cause unevenness and even disintegration.
3. The Milling process should not overlook specification of layers that needs to be removed.
4. In the milling process if the depth is not followed according to specification and design it will
result in potholes and bumps in the paved surface which can cause uneven ride.

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 (b) Discuss various factors affecting type and degree of compaction (HMA Compaction
Strategies)?

Solution#1 (b)

Hot mixed asphalt

Hot-mix asphalt (HMA) is a generic term that includes many different types of mixtures of aggregate
and asphalt cement (binder) produced at high temperatures in asphalt plant. Typically, HMA mixtures
are divided into three mixture categories: dense-graded; open-graded; and gap-graded as a function of
the aggregate gradation used in the mix. There are many, many factors that can affect the compaction
of HMA. Mix characteristics such as gradation, nominal maximum aggregate size (NMAS), asphalt
binder stiffness, etc. can all affect the ability to achieve adequate in-place density.

It is administered by some key point such as

1. Type of mix:  type of Mix design for asphalt is key element in Highway. The mix should not
distort or displace under traffic loading. The true test will come during high summer
temperatures under slow or standing truck traffic that soften the binder and, as a result, the
loads will be predominantly carried by the aggregate structure. It should can well graded and
uniform mix according to required specifications.
2. Lift Thickness: A “lift” refers to a layer of pavement as placed by the asphalt paver. In order
to avoid tearing, the depth of the compacted lift should be at least twice the maximum
aggregate size and three times the nominal maximum aggregate size. Asphalt compacts by 25
% of original depth. The minimum layer height should be 2.5 times greater than aggregate
size.
3. Weather conditions:  asphalt is more widely known for its durability. Being a hard concrete-
like surface, able to withstand tons of weight, pressure, and various elements of weathering
throughout the seasons. asphalt is greatly affected by and dependent upon the weather
conditions. Regardless of hot or frigid temperatures, the weather plays an integral role on the
conditions of asphalt. Listed below are several examples of how weather affects asphalt.

Q#2
(a) What is pavement Stiffness and Pavement design? What is the difference among Modulus,
Modulus of elasticity, Stiffness modulus and resilient modulus?

Solution#2
(a)
Pavement Stiffness:
Pavement Stiffness describes how much the pavement is displaced under the external force:
the smaller the resulting displacement, the stiffer the pavement.
Stiffness is usually characterized by the ratio of the stress (force per unit area) to the
corresponding displacement (also known as deflection). In mechanics, this ratio is called
modulus. The larger the modulus, the stiffer the pavement.
Pavement stiffness is necessary to be measured to make sure that the pavement satisfies the
specifications.
The overall stiffness can be measured directly by using a light weight deflector meter (LWD)

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 Pavement Design:
Flexible pavement design
Pavement design is the determination of the thicknesses of each superimposed layer by
keeping the other parameters of highway pavement in mind like skid resistance, riding
quality, life of the pavement and noise pollution etc
Flexible pavements are so named because the total pavement structure defects, or exes, under
loading. A flexible pavement structure is typically composed of several layers of materials.
Each layer receives loads from the above layer, spreads them out, and passes on these loads
to the next layer below. Thus, the stresses will be reduced, which are maximum at the top
layer and minimum on the top of sub grade. In order to take maximum advantage of this
property, layers are usually arranged in the order of descending load bearing capacity with
the highest load bearing capacity material (and most expensive) on the top and the lowest
load bearing capacity material (and least expensive) on the bottom.
Rigid pavement design
As the name implies, rigid pavements are rigid i.e., they do not ex much under loading like
flexible pavements. They are constructed using cement concrete. In this case, the load
carrying capacity is mainly due to the rigidity ad high modulus of elasticity of the slab (slab
action). H. M. Westergaard is considered the pioneer in providing the rational treatment of
the rigid pavement analysis.

Modulus
Modulus is the ratio of stress to induced strain. It is the slope of stress strain curve.

Modulus of Elasticity:
Modulus of Elasticity is the ratio of induced strain to applied stress supposing that the
concrete is in linearity where the material is in elastic limit.
It is used mostly for cement concrete under normal conditions.

Stiffness Modulus
Stiffness Modulus of a component is a function of both material and geometry. In the
material side, stiffness depends on the modulus of elasticity, where the Modulus of elasticity
is the ratio of stress to strain at very small strains, also known as Young’s Modulus.

Resilient Modulus
Resilient Modulus is the ratio of stress to strain for rapidly applied loads like those
experienced by pavements. It is determined for unbound pavement layers.

Solution#2

(b)
Discuss three types of overlay very briefly
There are three types of overlay
Following are the types of overlay

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 1) Heavy structural overlay
This type of overlay has thickness from 15 cm to 40 cm
Among the three types of over lay heavy structural overlay have longest expected life.
For the designing of heavy structural overlay, we need data collection of soil and also of
traffic.
The design of heavy structural overlay includes the non-destructive testing and also long-
range forecasting of traffic.
This type of overlay required plans and detailed specification.

2) Structural overlay
This type of overlay thickness ranges from 10 to 15 cm.
This type of overlay can also be based on traffic forecasting and non-destructive testing.
Structural overlay add strength to the old pavements and it lifespan is more than the
maintenance overlays.
Structural overlay may not need detailed plans.

3) Functional overlay
Function overly also known is maintenance overlay.
This type of overlay is used to restore ride quality and restore pavement sections.
This type pf overlay is dense graded and thickness ranges from 5 to 10 cm.
Prevent further pavement deterioration until a more substantial overlay is needed.

Solution#2

(c)
Differentiate between pavement evaluation and pavement maintenance in detail?

Pavement evaluations:
i. Pavement evaluations are carried out to determine the functional and structural
conditions of a highway section either for purposes of routine monitoring or planned
corrective action.
ii. At the network level, routine evaluations can be used to develop performance models
and prioritize maintenance or rehabilitation efforts and funding
iii. At the project level, evaluations are more focused on establishing the root causes of
existing distress in order to determine the best rehabilitation strategies.

Pavement maintenance:
The main function of Pavement maintenance is to upgrade or preserve the condition of a
highway segment above some minimum requirement.
Pavement maintenance concerns the action of keeping a road in a state of good repair. It
includes monitoring pavement health, addressing and fixing delamination, cracking, and
potholes, and maintaining proper pavement lane markings and striping
There are various pavement maintenance techniques either they are corrective or preventive,
these techniques include the use of overlays, seal coats, pothole repair, crack sealing, etc.

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Q#3.
a) Discuss the strategy of pavement evaluation process in detail?

Solution#3

Pavement evaluations
Pavement evaluations are conducted to determine functional and structural conditions of a
highway section either for purposes of routine monitoring or planned corrective action.
At the network level, routine evaluations can be used to develop performance models and
prioritize maintenance or rehabilitation efforts and funding.
At the project level, evaluations are more focused on establishing the root causes of
existing distress in order to determine the best rehabilitation strategies.
Road pavement performance is determined based on the requirements of:
i. Functional condition.
ii. Structural condition.

i. Functional condition.
The functional conditional is primarily concerned with the ride quality or surface texture of
a highway section and its requirements relate to roughness, pavement surface aggravation.
For functional condition the following three parameters are tested:
• Present serviceability Rating
• Roughness
• Skid resistance

ii. Structural condition

The structural condition is concerned with the structural capacity of the pavement as
measured by deflection, layer thickness, and material properties and its requirements relate
to the pavement strength or carrying capacity in serving the load and the traffic flow.
For structural condition the following tests are performed:
• Destructive testing
• Non destructive testing
visual Condition Surveys

Visual condition surveys serve both functional as well as structural pavement conditions,
but acts as qualitative indicator of overall condition of pavement. To quantify both
functional and structural properties of pavement structure, a specialized equipment is used.

For example, in visual condition surveys, the percent of surface area affected by alligator
cracking is highly dependent upon the visual acuity of the evaluator. Progress continues in
automating the mapping of common surface distress to eventually eliminate this
subjectivity.

Non-destructive Testing (NDT)

NDT is the compounded term for evaluations conducted on an existing pavement structure
that do not require subsequent maintenance work to return the pavement to its pretesting
state. It is necessary to minimize disruption to traffic, and is important as a screening tool
to determine locations where selective material sampling should be conducted to evaluate

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 other material properties in the laboratory. As such, its focus is to assess in situ properties
that can be used to evaluate the need for further destructive testing.

NDT methods can assess either functional or structural condition. For NDT, data collected
in the field is generally objective in nature, but engineer’s data analysis and interpretation
are subjective.

Destructive Testing

Destructive testing opens the door to characterization of the pavement’s constituent

materials not possible to obtain through non-destructive testing alone. Material
characterization includes:
Evaluation of mechanical, physical, and chemical properties
Visual inspection of pavement layers through coring, auguring and trenching.
Destructive Testing allows to roughly identify the mechanical properties of the adhesive
joint i.e., fracture strength, elongation, modulus of elasticity

Destructive Testing predicts and identify the approximate nature of the failure or
breakdown that may occur during the lifetime of the bonded joint in use.

b) Write short notes on Dynamic Cone Penetrometer and Road Dynaflect?

Dynamic Cone Penetrometer

Dynamic Cone Penetrometer, or DCP, is a tool used for evaluating the strength of soils on
site. It also helps with monitoring the condition of granular layers and subgrade soils in
pavement sections over time. It can be used to determine the right solutions for the sites,
especially when soft soils are involved.
It is also applied when the CBR value of compacted soil sub-grade beneath the existing
road pavement is to be determined. Continuous readings can be taken down to a depth of
800 mm or, when an extension rod is fitted, to a depth of up to 1200 mm.

The DCP is a simple and portable instrument. It consists of a hardened conical tip, standard
diameter steel rod, and a standard weight hammer(8kg), which is dropped from the top of
the rod against an anvil to advance the tip into the ground.

Apparatus for DCP

Handle
Top Rod
Hammer(8kg)
Anvil
Handguard Cursor
Bottom Rod
1m rule
60-degree Cone
Tommy bars and spanners (to ensure that the screwed joints are kept tight at all times)

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 1) After the instrument is set up, the zero reading of the apparatus is recorded. This is
done by placing the DCP on a hard surface, ensuring its verticality, and then noting
down the zero reading in the appropriate place on the proforma.
2) The instrument is held vertical, and the weight is carefully raised to the handle. The
weight should not touch the handle before it is allowed to drop, and that the operator
should let it fall freely and does not lower it with his hands.
3) It is advised that a reading should be taken at increments of penetration of about 10mm.
However, it is usually easier to take a scale reading after a set number of blows. It is,
therefore, necessary to change the number of blows between readings according to the
strength of the layer being penetrated. For good quality granular bases, readings after
every 5 or 10 blows are normally satisfactory, but for weaker sub-base layers and sub-
grades, readings after every 1 or 2 blows may be appropriate.
4) After the completion of the test, DCP is removed by gently tapping the weight upwards
against the handle. It should be done with caution as if done vigorously, the life of the
instrument will be reduced.

Road Dynaflect
DYNAFLECT deflection testing is a nondestructive physical test that is a fast and efficient
way to analyze the structural condition of any existing pavement.
Within the State of California, it is the only approved test method for overlay design and an
accurate way of getting quick reliable design results.
Because the Dynaflect is a small piece of equipment, any pavement section can easily be
tested. Combining deflection data, Traffic Index (T.I.) information and the existing
pavement thickness enables engineers to accurately design a ten-year life overlay.
Dynaflect testing will stretch your budget.
Street networks with several improvement projects competing for limited annual funding
benefit from deflection testing which provides prioritization based on structural integrity.
Dynaflect testing also can bring an awareness of hidden structural problems that were not
seen during visual condition inspections, thus taking the guesswork out of the overlay
thickness design stage.
Dynaflect testing can give specific design criteria for better-cost estimates and reduce
maintenance costs by eliminating unnecessary maintenance expenditures. It will also allow
agencies to allocate funds for roads in the future and provide an accurate time frame for
work to be completed.

Q#4:
a) What is Falling Weight Deflectometer? How it can be used to determine potential of voids
in rigid pavements?
Solution#4

Falling Weight Deflectometer

A Falling Weight Deflectometer is a device used to measure the physical characteristics of
pavement. This test is a non-destructive test and non-intrusive procedure. The test is
generally preferred over other destructive tests because falling weight deflectometer take
less time as compared to other tests. Also, it does not disturb or entail removal of materials
from the road surface.
This device was first used in United States in 1970s
The vehicle should be brought to a stop with the loading plate positioned over the desired
test location according to ASTM standards.

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 The falling weight deflectometer applies dynamic force to a pavement surface simulating
the magnitude and duration of a single heavy moving wheel load.
The peak deflections at each measured location are recorded in micrometers.
Vertical deflection response is measured the process measures the vertical deflection
response of the surface to an impulse load applied to the pavement surface.
Components of falling weight deflectometers are
1) Force-generating device
2) Guide system
3) Loading plate
4) Deflection sensor
5) Load cell
6) Data processing and Storage system

A falling weight deflectometer (FWD) shall be employed for performing void detection
testing. .
Determine potential of Void with FWD
1. The load plate shall be placed as close as possible to the outside corner of the driving
lane approach slab without passing over the joint or crack edge.
2. An approximate 9000 lbf shall be applied to the load plate five consecutive times. The
first two drops will seat the plate and their deflections will not be counted. The final three
drops will be averaged to determine the deflection under the load plate.
3. The load plate shall then be moved as close as possible to the outside corner of the
driving lane leave slab without passing over the joint or crack edge.
4. The test will proceed with load drops as in Step 2.
5. The normalized deflection (Δ) for each drop shall be calculated using the following
equation:
Δ = (D)(9000)/(P)
Where,
D = actual peak deflection (mils)
P = actual peak load (lbf)
6. The differential deflection (DD) shall be calculated using the following equation:
DD = ΔL - ΔA
Where,
ΔL = average of three normalized deflections on leave side (mils)
ΔA = average of three normalized deflections on approach side (mils)
7. The slabs at the test location shall be undersealed if one of the following occurs:
a. ΔL ≥ 20 mils
b. DD ≥ 15 mils

b) Differentiate between the following terms?

I. Emulsion and Cutback,
Cutback
Cutback is a low viscosity bitumen.
To alleviate the need for heating bitumen before use, a volatile solvent is added to
bitumen.
After application on the road surface, the volatile matter evaporates, leaving behind the
desired quantity of bitumen.
Emulsions
Emulsions is (50–70 %bitumen + 0.1–2 %emulsifying agent + water)

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 The emulsion consists of bitumen globules held in suspension in water by the
electrostatic charge provided emulsifying agents.
The emulsion doesn’t require heating before application, so it is energy-saving.

II. Tack Coat and Prime coat,

Prime coat

A prime coat is mainly responsible for protecting the substrate of a construction

project before adding additional layers. In asphalt preparation, they can also act as a
binder with secondary and tertiary compounds, creating a better adhesion between the
layers. Prime coat asphalt acts as an initial sealer in the asphalt laying process to block
the other layers from moisture, dust and debris before additional coating installations.

Tack Coat

A tack coat is applied after the prime coat, to form an adhesive bond between the tack
coat and the next layer of coating. The tack coat prevents slippage and may sometimes
function as a more long-term sealer to protect the substrate from moisture and bacteria.
For asphalt prime coat systems, the tack coat is one of the most vital parts of the
process, as it connects the subsequent layers and forms the base of those layers’
strength.

III. Flexible and Rigid Pavements,

Flexible pavements
Flexible pavement is composed of a bituminous material surface course and
underlying base and subbase courses. The bituminous material is more often asphalt
whose viscous nature allows significant plastic deformation. Most asphalt surfaces are
built on a gravel base, although some 'full depth' asphalt surfaces are built directly on
the subgrade.

The following are the differences

It consists of more than one layers with highest quality materials.
Reflects the deformation of subgrade and subsequent layers on surface.
Temperature changes in atmosphere do not induce any stresses
Load distribution through the component’s layers.
It has self-healing properties of deformation occurs due to heavy loading
Subgrade strength is important for design.

Rigid Pavements

Rigid pavements are constructed of Portland cement concrete slabs resting on a

prepared subbase of granular material or directly on a granular subgrade. Load is
transmitted through the slabs to the underlying subgrade by flexure of the slabs.
Flexible pavements are constructed of several thicknesses.

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 The following are the differences
It consists of one layer.
It is able to bridge over localized failures and area of inadequate support.
Temperature changers induce heavy stresses
It distributes load over wide area
Excessive deformation occurs due to heavy loadings are non-recoverable
Flexural strength is a major factor for design

IV. Slippage failure, Rutting.

Slippage Failure
Slippage Failure are crescent-shaped cracks or tears in the surface layer(s) of asphalt
where the new material has slipped over the underlying course. This problem is caused
by a lack of bonding between layers. This is often because a tack coat was not used to
develop a bond between the asphalt layers or because a prime coat was not used to
bond the asphalt to the underlying stone base course. The lack of bond can be also
caused by dirt, oil, or other contaminants preventing adhesion between the layers.
Rutting
Rutting in asphalt pavements are channelized depressions in the wheel-tracks. Rutting
results from consolidation or lateral movement of any of the pavement layers or the
subgrade under traffic. It is caused by insufficient pavement thickness; lack of
compaction of the asphalt, stone base or soil; weak asphalt mixes; or moisture
infiltration.

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