Fuels Secondary Fuels: The fuels which are derived from the

primary fuels by further chemical processing are called

Fuel is a combustible substance which during combustion secondary fuels. E,g., coke, charcoal, kerosene, coal gas,
gives large amount of heat. producer gas etc.
There are chemical fuels, nuclear fuels and fossil fuels.
Classification of Fuels (II) On the basis of physical state these may be
classified as:
These can be classified on the basis of their occurrence
and physical state Solid Fuels
(I) On the basis of occurrence they are of two types: Liquid Fuels
Primary Fuels: Fuels which occur in nature as such are Gaseous Fuels
called primary fuels. E.g., wood, peat, coal, petroleum,
and natural gas.

Fuels Classification- Physical State

Coal Formation Oil and Gas Formation

 Classification of Fuel Fundamental Definitions
Calorific value: It is defined as the total quantity of heat
Fuels can also be classified into four general classes liberated when a unit mass of a fuel is burnt completely.
• Fossil fuels: Derived from fossil remains of plants and Units of Calorific value:
animal life, found in the crust of earth (Ex. Coal,
petroleum, natural gas) System Solid/Liquid Gaseous
Fuels Fuels
• By product fuel : Co product of some regular
CGS Calories/gm Calories/cm3
manufacturing process (Ex. coke oven gas –process of
MKS k cal/kg k cal/m3
coke, blast furnace gas – process of iron making)
B.T.U BTU/lb BTU/ft3
• Chemical Fuel : Exotic nature and normally not used
in conventional processes (Ex. Hydrazine, ammonium The quantity of heat can be measured in the following units:
nitrate, fluorine)
(i) Calorie: It is defined as the amount of heat required to
• Nuclear fuel : Ex. Uranium, plutonium (release heat by raise the temperature of 1gm of water by 1oC
fission), deuterium, tritium (release heat by fusion) 1 calorie = 4.184 Joules

(ii) Kilo Calorie: 1 k cal = 1000 cal

(iii) British thermal unit: (B. T. U.) It is defined as the
amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 1
pound of water through 1oF.
1 B.T.U. = 252 Cal = 0.252 k cal
(IV) Centigrade heat unit (C.H.U): It is defined as the
amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 1
pound of water through 1oC.
1k cal = 3.968 B.T.U.
= 2.2 C.H.U.
Characteristics of Good Fuel
(i) Suitability: The fuel selected should be most suitable for
the process. E.g., coke made out of bituminous coal is
most suitable for blast furnace.
(ii) High Calorific value
(iii) Ignition Temperature: A good fuel should have moderate
ignition temperature.
(iv) Moisture content: Should be low
(v) low Non combustible matter content
(vi) Velocity of combustion: It should be moderate
(vii) Nature of the products
(viii) Cost of fuel, (ix) Smoke, (x) Control of the process

Characteristics (Drawbacks) of Solid Characteristics of Liquid Fuels

Fuels
• High ash content • High calorific value
• Low thermal efficiency • No dust ash or clinker
• Form clinker • Less furnace air
• Low calorific value • Less furnace space
• Require large excess air • Used in IC engines
• Cost
• Not suitable for IC engines (Can we consider it as clean fuel?)
 Characteristics of Gaseous fuel Characteristics of a Good fuel
• High calorific value
• Have high heat content • Moderate ignition temperature
• Low moisture content
• No ash or smoke
• Low NOx
• Moderate velocity of combustion
• Products of combustion not harmful
• Low cost
• Easy to transport
• Combustion should be controllable
• No spontaneous combustion
• Low storage cost
Need very large storage space • Should burn in air with high efficiency

Future of Coal Industry in India Oil reserves in India

 Coal is responsible for 40% of carbon dioxide
emissions from fossil fuels. Mining coal wreaks havoc
on the environment and on the people who live
there. Besides CO2, burning coal produces pollutants
like mercury, sulfur dioxide, which is linked to acid
rain, and particulate matter, which causes respiratory
illnesses.
 GSI, CMPDI (central mine planning and design
institute), SCCL (Singareni collieries company ltd),
MECL (mineral exploration corp. ltd) etc. made a
survey up to the maximum depth of 1200 metre to
estimate the reserve of coal in India and the report
says that there is a cumulative total of 2,93,497
million tonnes of geological resources of coal in the
country as on 1.4.2012.
 Coal-fired plants generate 72% of India’s
electricity. India’s Nationally Determined India had estimated crude oil reserves of
Contribution (NDC) under the Paris Agreement states 594.49 million tonnes (MT) and natural gas
that India would achieve 40 per cent installed reserves of 1339.57 billion cubic meters
capacity of power from non-fossil fuels by 2030. (BCM). India accounted for 0.92% of world oil
 According to BP Energy Outlook 2019, coal’s share in production in 2016–18. Production of crude
http://petroleum.nic.in/sites/default/files/pngstat1516.pdf
India’s primary energy consumption will decline from petroleum in India had a CAGR of 0.63%
56% in 2017 to 48% in 2040. Even the NITI Aayog, between 2008–09 and 2017–18.
which replaced the Planning Commission, in a 2017
report estimated the share of coal in the energy mix https://www.statista.com/chart/16274/oil-productin-countries/
in 2040 to be at to be at least 44%.

Future of Natural Gas Industry in India Natural Gas Reserves (World & India)
 The Indian government aims to increase the share of natural gas in the country’s energy
mix to 15% by 2030, from 6% 2020.
 The IEA welcomes this ambition, which would allow India to improve the environmental
sustainability and flexibility of its energy system.
 Increasing domestic gas production has been a key government priority, as output has
unexpectedly come in below forecast levels over the past few years.
 India has five operating terminals for liquefied natural gas. Projects under construction
could result in up to 11 additional terminals over the next seven years.
 The discovery of massive (Second largest in the world) methane hydrate reserve in India
has the potential to change the landscape of our energy sector. As per the US geological
survey, Krishna and Godavari (KG), Cauveri and Kerala basin hold approximately 100-
130 trillion cubic feet of gas hydrate and capable of quenching our hydrocarbon need https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/natural-gas-proved-reserves https://twitter.com/gailindia/status/916641265780850690
for 300 years.
 Gas Hydrate Reserves

Clathrate hydrates, or gas hydrates, are

https://ktwop.com/2013/03/17/fire-ice-methane-hydrate-success-
in-japan-gets-india-all-excited/
crystalline water-based solids physically
resembling ice, in which small non-polar
molecules or polar molecules with large
hydrophobic moieties are trapped inside
"cages" of hydrogen bonded, frozen water
molecules.

Rank of Coal

Type of Percentage (dry, mineral matter % calorific

coal free basis) moist value Uses of Coal
ure
C H O N VM • Electricity generation
• Steel production
Wood 45-50 5-6 20-40 0-0.5 - 70-90 4000- • Cement manufacturing
•
4500
Liquid fuel
4125-
Peat 45-60 3.5-6.5 20-45 0.75-3 45-75 70-90
5280 • Paper production
6600- • Activated carbon used in filters for water
Brown 60-75 4.5-5.5 17-35 0.75-2 45-60 30-50
Coal/lignite 7100 • Carbon fibre as light weight reinforcement material
6600- for construction
75-90 4.0-5.5 20-30 0.75-2 11-50 10-20 8800
Bituminous • Silicon metal used to produce silicones
coal
8470-
90-95 3-4 2-3 0.5-2 3.8-10 1.5-3.5 8800
Anthracite
 Analysis of Coal Analysis of Coal (Proximate Analysis)
Coal is analyzed in two ways: The results of analysis are generally reported in the following ways:
• Proximate analysis:
The proximate analysis of a fuel indicates the moisture, volatile matter, fixed carbon, and • As received basis
ash content of the fuel in terms of percentage by weight. • Air dried basis
Moisture means the water expelled from the fuel by specified methods without causing • Moisture free basis (oven dried)
any chemical change to the fuel.
Volatile matter is the total loss in weight minus the moisture when the fuel is heated • Moisture and ash free basis
out of contact with air to a sufficiently high temperature under specified conditions. Proximate Analysis
Ash is the inorganic residue left when the fuel is completely burnt in air under specified
conditions. It is different from the original mineral matter associated with the coal The data varies with the procedure adopted and hence it is called proximate
because of changes that take place during incineration. analysis. It gives information about the practical utility of coal.
Fixed Carbon is the residue obtained by subtracting the sum of the percentages by
weight of moisture, volatile matter, and ash from 100. It is essentially carbon with trace Moisture Content: Air dried moisture is determined by heating a known amount of
amounts of nitrogen, Sulphur, oxygen and hydrogen.
• Ultimate analysis: coal to 105-110 oC in an electric hot air oven for about one hour. After one hour, it
The ultimate analysis of a fuel gives its elementary composition. It is the analysis in
terms of the percentage by weight of the elements: carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen is taken out from the oven and cooled in a desiccator and weighed.
and Sulphur which constitute the pure fuel, free from moisture and inorganic 𝑳𝒐𝒔𝒔 𝒊𝒏 𝒘𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 × 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝑷𝒆𝒓𝒄𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝑴𝒐𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒆 =
constituents. 𝑾𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒄𝒐𝒂𝒍 𝒕𝒂𝒌𝒆𝒏

Proximate Analysis (Contd.) Proximate Analysis (Contd.)

Volatile Matter: It consists of a complex mixture of gaseous and liquid products resulting Ash : Coal contains inorganic mineral substances which are converted into ash by
chemical reactions during the combustion of coal.
from the thermal decomposition of the coal.
Ash usually consists of silica, alumina, iron oxide and small quantities of lime, magnesia
It is determined by heating a known weight of moisture free coal sample in a covered etc.
platinum crucible at 950 ± 20oC for 7 minutes. Ash content is determined by heating the residue left after the removal of volatile
𝑷𝒆𝒓𝒄𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒍𝒆 𝑴𝒂𝒕𝒕𝒆𝒓 matter at 700 ± 50oC for ½ an hour without covering
𝑳𝒐𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒘𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒅𝒖𝒆 𝒕𝒐 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒍𝒆 𝒎𝒂𝒕𝒕𝒆𝒓 × 𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝑾𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒊𝒅𝒖𝒆 𝒍𝒆𝒇𝒕 × 𝟏𝟎𝟎
= 𝑷𝒆𝒓𝒄𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝑨𝒔𝒉 =
𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒘𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒄𝒐𝒂𝒍 𝒔𝒂𝒎𝒑𝒍𝒆 𝒕𝒂𝒌𝒆𝒏 𝑾𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒄𝒐𝒂𝒍
Significance Ash can be classified as intrinsic ash and extrinsic ash. The mineral matter originally
• A high percent of volatile matter indicates that a large proportion of fuel is burnt as a present in vegetable matter from which the coal was formed is called intrinsic ash. It
consists of oxides of Na, K, Mg, Ca and Si.
gas.
The mineral matter like clay, gypsum, dirt which gets mixed up during mining and
• The high volatile content gives long flames, high smoke and relatively low heating handling of coal constitute the extrinsic ash which remains as a residue after the
values. combustion. E.g., CaSO4, CaCO3, Fe2O3 etc.
The high percentage of ash is undesirable. It reduces the calorific value of coal. In
• High volatile matter content is desirable in coal gas manufacture because volatile matter
furnace grate, the ash may restrict the passage of air and lower the rate of combustion.
in a coal denotes the proportion of the coal which will be converted into gas and tar
products by heat.

Proximate Analysis (Contd.)

High ash leads to large heat losses and leads to formation of ash lumps. The
composition of ash and fusion range also influences the efficiency of coal.
When coal is used in boiler, the fusion temperature of ash is very significant. Ash
having fusion temperature below 1200oC is called fusible ash and above 1430oC is
called refractory ash.
Fixed Carbon: Fixed carbon content increases from lignite to anthracite. Higher the
percentage of fixed carbon greater is its calorific value and better is the quality of
coal.
The percentage of fixed carbon is given by:
𝑷𝒆𝒓𝒄𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒇𝒊𝒙𝒆𝒅 𝒄𝒂𝒓𝒃𝒐𝒏
= 𝟏𝟎𝟎 − %𝑴𝒐𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒆 + %𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒍𝒆 𝑴𝒂𝒕𝒕𝒆𝒓 + %𝑨𝒔𝒉
Significance:
• Higher the percentage of fixed carbon, greater its calorific value.
• The percentage of fixed carbon helps in designing the furnace and shape of the
fire-box because it is the fixed carbon that burns in the solid state.

1. A coal from the bararee colliery gave the following proximate
analysis:
Moisture : 16%, ash 15.7%, volatile matter 27.8 % and fixed
carbon 54.9% on air dried basis.
Calculate its ash on a dry basis and volatile matter, fixed carbon on
d.a.f and d.m.m.f.
The proximate analysis of coal is: Moisture 2.4%, Volatile
Matter 29.4%, Fixed Carbon 58%, Ash 9.7% and Sulphur 0.5%.
Its gross calorific value is 7650 Kcal/Kg. Calculate proximate
analysis on
a) Moisture free basis
b) Dry ash free basis

Ultimate Analysis
Ultimate analysis:
It is carried out to ascertain the composition of coal.
Ultimate analysis includes the estimation of carbon, hydrogen,
sulphur, nitrogen and oxygen.
1. Carbon and Hydrogen: A known amount of coal is taken in a
combustion tube and is burnt in excess of pure oxygen.
𝑔𝑚 𝑔𝑚 44 gm CO2 contains = 12 gm of carbon
𝐶 12 + 𝑂2 → 𝐶𝑂2 (44 )
𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑚𝑜𝑙 1 gm of CO2 contains = (12/44) gm of C
𝑔𝑚 1 𝑔𝑚
Y gm of CO2 contains = (12/44)×Y gm of
𝐻2 2 + 𝑂2 → 𝐻2 𝑂 (18 ) carbon
𝑚𝑜𝑙 2 𝑚𝑜𝑙
18 gm H2O contains = 2 gm of Hydrogen
1 gm of H2O contains = (2/18) gm of Hydrogen
Z gm of H2O contains = (12/44)×Z gm of
Hydrogen
 Ultimate Analysis Ultimate Analysis
12 𝐼𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝐾𝑂𝐻 𝑡𝑢𝑏𝑒 × 100
Percentage of carbon = ×
44 weight of coal taken

Estimation of carbon and
hydrogen
2KOH + CO2 → K 2 CO3 + H2 O anhydrous CaCl , Z gm increase weight of
CaCl2 + 7H2 O → CaCl2 . 7H2 O
Percentage of hydrogen
2 𝐼𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝐶𝑎𝐶𝑙2 𝑡𝑢𝑏𝑒 × 100
= ×
18 weight of coal taken
Significance:
Calorific value of a fuel is directly related to its carbon content.
In first U-Tube, H2O gets captured in
A higher percentage of carbon reduces the size of the combustion
2 chamber.
Anhydrous CaCl2 containing tube.
In second U-Tube, CO2 gets captured in KOH High percentage of hydrogen also increases the calorific value of
solution, Y gm increase weight of KOH coal. The content of hydrogen in coals varies between 4.5 to 6.5
solution containing tube. percent from peat to bituminous stage.

Ultimate Analysis Ultimate Analysis

2. Nitrogen: Nitrogen present in coal sample can be estimated by
Kjeldahl’s method.

The contents are then transferred to a round bottomed flask and

solution is heated with excess of NaOH.
The ammonia gas thus liberated is absorbed in a known volume of a
standard solution of acid used.
It is determined by digesting 1g of coal sample in Kjeldahl flask(long
necked flask) with conc. H2SO4 along with CuSO4. After the solution
becomes clear, it is treated with excess of NaOH and the liberated
ammonia is distilled over and absorbed in a known volume of
standard acid solution. The unused acid is then determined by back
Estimation of nitrogen by
titration with standard NaOH. From the volume of acid used by Kjeldahl’s method
ammonia liberated, the % of N in coal is calculated as follows.

Ultimate Analysis Ultimate Analysis

 2𝑁𝑎𝑂𝐻 
(𝑁𝐻4 )2 𝑆𝑂4 𝑁𝑎2 𝑆𝑂4 + 2𝑁𝐻3 + 2𝐻2 𝑂
Determination of Sulphur:
2 𝑁𝐻3 + 𝐻2 𝑆𝑂4 → (𝑁𝐻4 )2 𝑆𝑂4 Bomb calorimeter is used to determine the Sulphur. A known mass
Let, weight of coal taken = W gm of coal sample is taken in calorimeter. If Sulphur is burnt with
Vol. of N/10 NaOH required for blank reading = y ml
oxygen, Sulphur is converted to Sulphate. The washing are treated
with Barrium chloride (BaCl2) solution.
Vol. of N/10 NaOH required = x ml (to titrate unreacted acid),
When Barrium sulphate (BaSO4) is precipitated the precipitate is
Vol. of N/10 acid reacted with ammonia = (y-x) ml =Vol. of acid used,
filtered, washed and heated to constant weight.
Vol. of N/10 ammonia solution = (y-x) ml % 𝒐𝒇 𝑵
Vol. of acid used × Normality of Acid × 1.4 BaSO4 Molar Mass = 233.38 gm/mol
1000 ml of 1N ammonia (NH3) solution= 17 gm of NH3= Weight of coal taken
1000 ml of 1 N ammonia (NH3) solution = 14 gm of N 233.38 gm BaSO4 contains = 32.06 gm of Sulphur
% 𝒐𝒇 𝑵
1000 ml of 0.1 N ammonia (NH3) solution = 1.4 gm of N 1.4(y − x) 1 gm of BaSO4 contains = (32.06/233.38) gm of Sulphur
=
10W
1.4 𝑦−𝑥
(y-x) ml of 0.1 N NH3 solution =
1000
𝑔𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑁 Y gm of BaSO4 contains = (32.06/233.38)×Y gm of Sulphur
1.4(𝑦−𝑥)
1 gm of coal contains = 1000𝑊
gm of N, 100 gm of coal contains = (1.4(𝑦−𝑥))/10𝑊 gm of % Sulphur = ( Weight of BaSO4 obtained x 32.06 x 100)/(weight of
N coal x 233.38)
 Bomb Calorimeter Ultimate Analysis and Significance
Determination of Oxygen:
Four essential parts are required in any Oxygen is determined by difference
bomb
calorimeter: % oxygen = 100 - % (C + H +S + N)
1. A bomb or vessel in which the
combustible C and H: Greater the % of C and H, better is the coal in quality and
charges can be burned.
2. A bucket or container for holding the calorific value. However, H is mostly associated with volatile matter
bomb in a measured quantity of water,
together with a stirring mechanism. and hence it influences the use of coal. Since H is mainly present in
3. An insulating jacket to protect the
combination with O as water it lowers the calorific value of fuel, so
bucket from transient thermal stresses
during the combustion process. lesser the percentage of H better is the quality of coal.
4. A thermometer or other sensor for
measuring temperature changes within N: N is an inert and incombustible gas and doesn't contribute any
the bucket.
useful property. It is generally found in small amounts (around 1%).

Significance of Ultimate Analysis Calorific value (CV)

S: S present in metallurgical coal is harmful for use in metallurgy as it Calorific value: It is defined as the total quantity of heat liberated
when a unit mass of a fuel is burnt completely.
transfers to the metal and adversely affects the properties of metal.
• Units of Calorific value:
Oxidation products of S (SO2 and SO3) especially formed in presence of
Unit System Solid/Liquid Fuels Gaseous Fuels
moisture, have corrosive effect on the equipment and also causes
CGS Calories/gm Calories/cm3
atmospheric pollution. Hence the presence of S is undesirable.
MKS kcal/kg kcal/m3
O: O content decreases the calorific value of coal. High O content coals are BTU BTU/lb BTU/ft3
characterized by high inherent moisture, low calorific value and low coking
The quantity of heat can be measured in the following units:
power. Moreover oxygen is in combined form with hydrogen in coal and
Calorie: It is defined as the amount of heat required to raise the
thus H available for combustion is lesser than actual. An increase in 1% temperature of 1 gm of water by 1oC , 1 calorie = 4.184 Joules
oxygen content decreases the calorific value by 1.7% and hence O is
undesirable.

CV Measuring Units and GCV Gross Calorific Value (Contd.)

Kilo Calorie: 1 kcal = 1000 cal
British thermal unit (B. T. U.) It is defined as the amount of heat required to raise the
temperature of 1 pound of water by 1oF.
1 B.T.U = 252 cal = 0.252 kcal
Centigrade heat unit (C.H.U) It is defined as the amount of heat required to raise the
temperature of 1 pound of water by 1oC.
1 kcal = 3.968 B.T.U = 2.2 C.H.U
Gross Calorific Value (higher heating value) at constant volume is the quantity of
heat liberated by the combustion of a unit quantity of fuel at constant volume in
oxygen saturated with water vapor, the original materials and final products of
combustion being at a reference temperature of 25oC, and the water obtained
from the fuel being in the liquid state.
Gross Calorific Value at constant pressure is similar to the former expression
except that the combustion takes place at constant pressure instead of constant
volume. In laboratory experiments, solid and liquid fuels are burnt at constant
volume whereas gaseous fuels are burnt at constant pressure. In furnace, the
combustion takes place at constant pressure. For coal, the calorific value at
constant pressure exceeds the calorific value at constant volume by 5.5 kcal/kg.
• Gross Calorific Value: It is the total amount of heat
generated when a unit quantity of fuel is completely burnt
in oxygen and the products of combustion are cooled
down to the room temperature.
• As the products of combustion are cooled down to room
temperature, the steam gets condensed into water and
latent heat is evolved. Thus in the determination of gross
calorific value, the latent heat also gets included in the
measured heat. Therefore, gross calorific value is also
called the higher calorific value.
• The calorific value which is determined by Bomb
calorimeter gives the higher calorific value (HCV) (constant
volume)
 Net Calorific Value
• Net Calorific Value (NCV) It is defined as the net heat produced when a
unit quantity of fuel is completely burnt and the products of combustion
are allowed to escape.
• The water vapor do not condense and escape with hot combustion
gases. Hence, lesser amount than gross calorific value is available. It is
also known as lower calorific value (LCV).
LCV=HCV - Latent heat of water vapor formed ……….(1)
• The net calorific value is, therefore less than gross calorific value by an
amount corresponding to the heat of condensation of water vapor,
which is at 25oC is 583.5 kcal/kg. For hydrogen, this is equal to 5252
kcal/kg. Approximately, the following formula is used to calculate the net
calorific value(CN) from gross caloric value (CG) of solid and liquid fuels:
CN= CG-52.5H……….(2)
LCV= (HCV-0.09H×587)………..3)
• where, CN and CG are NCV and GCV in in kcal/kg, respectively, H is the
percentage of hydrogen in the fuel, including hydrogen present in
moisture and in water of hydration of minerals for fuels like coal.
Net Calorific Value (Contd.)
• For gaseous fuels, the formula is
CN= CG-4.7V (4)
where, CN and CG are NCV and GCV in kcal/Nm3, respectively,
V is the volume percentage of total hydrogen of the gaseous
fuel, including hydrogen obtainable from water vapor in the
gas and other combustible components.
Dulong Formula for Calorific Value Calculation
If C, H, O and S are the percentage of Carbon, Hydrogen,
Oxygen and Sulphur by weight respectively present in a fuel
then the higher calorific value of fuel can be calculated from
the following formula known as Dulong’s formula.
H.C.V.= (80.8 C +344 (H - O/8)) kcal/kg (5) (Without Sulphur)
HCV= 1/100(8080C+34500(H-O/8)+2240S) kcal/kg (6)

Fire Point and Ignition Point of Liquid

Flash Point of Liquid Fuel
Fuel
1. Flash point is the lowest temperature corrected to a barometric
Fire point is the lowest temperature corrected to a barometric
pressure of 101.3 kPa (760 mm Hg), at which application of an
pressure of 101.3 kPa (760 mm Hg), at which application of an
ignition source causes the vapors of a specimen of the sample to
ignition source causes the vapors of a test specimen of the sample to
ignite under specified conditions of test (ASTM D92)
ignite and sustain burning for a minimum of 5 s under specified
2. The flash point is one measure of the tendency of the test conditions of test.
specimen to form a flammable mixture with air under controlled
Fire point temperature is higher than the flash point. Both the
laboratory conditions. It is only one of a number of properties that
temperature indicate the fire risk of a liquid fuel. For highly volatile
should be considered in assessing the overall flammability hazard of
fuels, the flash point and fire points are much lower than the ignition
a material.
point.
3. Flash point is used in shipping and safety regulations to define
Ignition point or ignition temperature or spontaneous ignition
flammable and combustible materials.
temperature is the minimum temperature at which a fuel ignites in
4. Flash point can indicate the possible presence of highly volatile an oxidising atmosphere without the help of any external source of
and flammable materials in a relatively nonvolatile or nonflammable fire. It is a characteristics properties of fuel and also depends upon
material. For example, an abnormally low flash point on a test other factors like atmosphere (oxygen or air), method of heating and
specimen of engine oil can indicate gasoline contamination. nature of container.

Bomb Calorimeter Bomb Calorimeter

• Calorific value of coal is determined by Bomb calorimeter. It is a thick walled
steel cylindrical vessel with lid which is called Bomb. Two electrodes are Four essential parts are required in any
inserted through the lid which are in contact with fuse and fuel sample of bomb
known weight. An oxygen inlet valve is provided with the lid through which calorimeter:
1. A bomb or vessel in which the
high pressure oxygen gas (at about 25 to 30 atm) is supplied. Entire
combustible
arrangement is held in a calorimeter containing known weight of water and charges can be burned.
a mechanical stirrer is provided to stir the water for uniform heating. A 2. A bucket or container for holding the
thermometer is also provided to measure the change in temperature of bomb in a measured quantity of water,
water due to combustion of fuel. The gross calorific value is calculated by together with a stirring mechanism.
the following formula, 3. An insulating jacket to protect the
bucket from transient thermal stresses
𝐶. 𝑉 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 = 𝑚1 + 𝑚2 𝑇𝑐 + 𝑇1 − 𝑇2 𝐶𝑤 /𝑚𝑓
during the combustion process.
• Where, m1 and m2 are mass of water in calorimeter and water equivalent of 4. A thermometer or other sensor for
bomb calorimeter, respectively. mf is mass of fuel sample whose calorific measuring temperature changes within
value is to be determined. T1 and T2 are final and initial temperature of the bucket.
water sample. Tc is temperature correction for radiation losses. Cw is specific
heat of water.