81 Part1 PathPlanning

Robotics 13.
01 Path Planning
13. Path Planning
HCM City Univ. of Technology, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering Phung Tri Cong
Robotics 13.02 Path Planning
Path Planning includes 3 tasks

1. Defining a geometric curve for the end-effector between two points
2. Defining a rotational motion between two orientations
3. Defining a time function for variation of a coordinate between two
given values
All of 3 definitions are called path planning
A path of tip point of 2R

manipulator to avoid 2
obstacles
I. CUBIC PATH
• A cubic function is the simplest polynomial to determine the time
behavior of a variable between two given values
• A cubic path in joint space or in Cartesian space for a variable q(t),
between two points 𝑞 𝑡𝑜 and 𝑞 𝑡𝑓 is
𝑞 𝑡 = 𝑎𝑜 + 𝑎1 𝑡 + 𝑎2 𝑡 2 + 𝑎3 𝑡 3
With some constraints
𝑞 𝑡0 = 𝑞0 𝑞 𝑡0 = 𝑞0′
𝑞 𝑡𝑓 = 𝑞𝑓 𝑞 𝑡𝑓 = 𝑞𝑓′
So we have
𝑞𝑓 𝑡02 𝑡0 − 3𝑡𝑓 + 𝑞0 𝑡𝑓2 3𝑡0 − 𝑡𝑓 𝑞0′ 𝑡𝑓 + 𝑞𝑓′ 𝑡0
𝑎0 = − 3 − 𝑡0 𝑡𝑓 2
𝑡𝑓 − 𝑡0 𝑡𝑓 − 𝑡0
I. CUBIC PATH
𝑞0 − 𝑞𝑓 𝑞0′ 𝑡𝑓 𝑡𝑓2 + 𝑡0 𝑡𝑓 − 2𝑡02 + 𝑞𝑓′ 𝑡0 2𝑡𝑓2 − 𝑡02 − 𝑡0 𝑡𝑓

𝑎1 = 6𝑡0 𝑡𝑓 3 + 3
𝑡𝑓 − 𝑡0 𝑡𝑓 − 𝑡0
𝑞0 3𝑡0 + 3𝑡𝑓 + 𝑞𝑓 −3𝑡0 − 3𝑡𝑓

𝑎2 = − 3
𝑡𝑓 − 𝑡0
𝑞𝑓′ 𝑡0 𝑡𝑓 − 2𝑡02 + 𝑡𝑓2 + 𝑞0′ 2𝑡𝑓2 − 𝑡02 − 𝑡0 𝑡𝑓
− 3
𝑡𝑓 − 𝑡0
2𝑞0 − 2𝑞𝑓 + 𝑞0′ 𝑡𝑓 − 𝑡0 + 𝑞𝑓′ 𝑡𝑓 − 𝑡0

𝑎3 = 3
𝑡𝑓 − 𝑡0
I. CUBIC PATH
In case that 𝑡0 = 0, the coefficients simplify to
𝑎0 = 𝑞0
𝑎1 = 𝑞0′
3 𝑞𝑓 − 𝑞0 − 2𝑞0′ + 𝑞𝑓′ 𝑡𝑓
𝑎2 =
𝑡𝑓2
−2 𝑞𝑓 − 𝑞0 + 𝑞0′ + 𝑞𝑓′ 𝑡𝑓
𝑎3 =
𝑡𝑓3
I. CUBIC PATH
Example 348: (Rest-to-rest cubic path)
Assume 𝑞 0 = 10 deg, 𝑞 1 = 45 deg, and 𝑞 0 = 𝑞 1 = 0
The coefficients of the cubic path are
𝑎0 = 10, 𝑎1 = 0, 𝑎2 = 105, 𝑎3 = −70
That generate a path for the variable as
𝑞 𝑡 = 10 + 105𝑡 2 − 70𝑡 3 deg
I. CUBIC PATH
Example 349: (To-rest cubic path)
Assume the angle of a joint starts from 𝜃 0 = 10 deg, 𝜃 0 = 12 deg/s,
and ends at 𝜃 2 = 45 deg, 𝜃 2 = 0
The coefficients of a cubic path for this motion are
81 29
𝑎0 = 10, 𝑎1 = 12, 𝑎2 = , 𝑎3 = −
2 2
The kinematics of this path are
𝜃 𝑡 = 10 + 12𝑡 + 40.5𝑡 2 − 14.5𝑡 3
𝜃 𝑡 = 12 + 81𝑡 − 43.5𝑡 2 𝑑𝑒𝑔/𝑠
𝜃 𝑡 = 81 − 87𝑡 𝑑𝑒𝑔/𝑠 2
II. POLINOMIAL PATH

• The number of required conditions determines the degree of the
polynomial for 𝑞 = 𝑞(𝑡)
• In general, a polynomial path of degree n need n+1 condition
𝑞 𝑡 = 𝑎0 + 𝑎1 𝑡 + 𝑎2 𝑡 2 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛 𝑡 𝑛
• The conditions may be of two types:

+ Positions at a series of points, so that the trajectory will pass through all
specified points
+ Position, velocity, acceleration, and jerk at two points, so that the
smoothness of the path can be controlled
II. POLINOMIAL PATH

• The problem of searching for the coefficients of a polynomial reduces to
a set of linear algebraic equations and may be solved numerically
• However, the path planning can be simplified by splitting the whole

path into a series of segments and utilizing combinations of lower
order polynomials for different segments of the path
• The polynomials must then be joined together to satisfy all the required
boundary conditions
II. POLINOMIAL PATH

Example 352: (Quintic path)
Forcing a variable to have specific position, velocity, and acceleration at
boundaries introduces six conditions
𝑞 𝑡0 = 𝑞0 , 𝑞 𝑡0 = 𝑞0′ , 𝑞 𝑡0 = 𝑞0′′
𝑞 𝑡𝑓 = 𝑞𝑓 , 𝑞 𝑡𝑓 = 𝑞𝑓′ , 𝑞 𝑡𝑓 = 𝑞𝑓′′
A five degree polynomial can satisfy these conditions
𝑞 𝑡 = 𝑎0 + 𝑎1 𝑡 + 𝑎2 𝑡 2 + 𝑎3 𝑡 3 + 𝑎4 𝑡 4 + 𝑎5 𝑡 5
1 𝑡0 𝑡02 𝑡03 𝑡04 𝑡05 𝑞0
𝑎0
0 1 2𝑡0 3𝑡02 4𝑡03 5𝑡04 𝑞 ′
𝑎1 0
0 0 2 6𝑡0 12𝑡02 20𝑡03 𝑎2 𝑞0′′
Generate a set of 6 equations: 𝑡𝑓3 𝑡𝑓4 𝑡𝑓5 𝑎3 = 𝑞𝑓
1 𝑡𝑓 𝑡𝑓2
𝑎4 𝑞𝑓′
0 1 2𝑡𝑓 3𝑡𝑓2 4𝑡𝑓3 5𝑡𝑓4
𝑎5 𝑞𝑓′′
0 0 2 6𝑡𝑓 12𝑡𝑓2 20𝑡𝑓3
II. POLINOMIAL PATH

A rest-to-rest path with no acceleration and no velocity at the rest position
with the following conditions
𝑞 0 = 10 deg, 𝑞 0 = 0, 𝑞0 0 = 0
𝑞 1 = 45 deg, 𝑞 1 = 0, 𝑞0 1 = 0
The coefficients of the polynomial are
𝑎0 10
𝑎1 0
𝑎2 0
𝑎3 =
350
𝑎4 −525
𝑎5 210
The path equation is then equal to
𝑞 𝑡 = 10 + 350𝑡 3 − 525𝑡 4 + 210𝑡 5
III. NON-POLYNOMIAL PATH PLANNING

• A path of motion in either joint or Cartesian spaces may be defined based
on different mathematical functions
• Harmonic and cycloid functions are the most common paths
𝑞 𝑡 = 𝑎0 + 𝑎1 cos 𝑎2 𝑡 + 𝑎3 sin 𝑎2 𝑡
𝑞 𝑡 = 𝑎0 + 𝑎1 𝑡 − 𝑎2 sin 𝑎3 𝑡
• However, we may also use other function approximate methods such as
Fourier
∞
𝐴0
𝑞 𝑡 = + 𝐴𝑛 cos 𝑛𝑥 + 𝐵𝑛 sin 𝑛𝑥
2
𝑛=1
𝜋
1
𝐴0 = 𝑞 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝜋 −𝜋
𝜋 𝜋
1 1
𝐴𝑛 = 𝑞 𝑡 cos 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑡 𝐵𝑛 = 𝑞 𝑡 sin 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑡
𝜋 −𝜋 𝜋 −𝜋

Legendre
𝑛
𝑞𝑛 𝑡 = 𝐿𝑖 𝑡 𝑞 𝑡𝑖
𝑖=0
𝑛
𝑡 − 𝑡𝑗
𝐿𝑖 𝑡 = 𝑖 = 0,1,2, ⋯ , 𝑛
𝑡𝑖 − 𝑡𝑗
𝑗=0,𝑗≠𝑖
Chebyshev
𝑞𝑛+1 𝑡 = 2𝑡𝑞𝑛 𝑡 − 𝑞𝑛−1 𝑡
𝑞0 𝑡 = 1 𝑞1 𝑡 = 𝑡

Example 358: (Harmonic path)
Consider a harmonic path between two points 𝑞(𝑡0 ) and 𝑞(𝑡𝑓 )
𝑞 𝑡 = 𝑎0 + 𝑎1 cos 𝑎2 𝑡 + 𝑎3 sin 𝑎2 𝑡
With the rest-to-rest boundary conditions
𝑞 𝑡0 = 𝑞0 𝑞 𝑡0 = 0
𝑞 𝑡𝑓 = 𝑞𝑓 𝑞 𝑡𝑓 = 0
Applying the conditions to the harmonic equation provides the following
solution
1 𝜋 𝑡 − 𝑡0
𝑞 𝑡 = 𝑞𝑓 + 𝑞0 − 𝑞𝑓 − 𝑞0 cos
2 𝑡𝑓 − 𝑡0

A plot of the solution is depicted for following numerical values
𝑡0 = 0, 𝑡𝑓 = 1, 𝑞0 = 10 𝑑𝑒𝑔, 𝑞𝑓 = 45 𝑑𝑒𝑔, 𝑞0′ =𝑞𝑓′ = 0
IV. MANIPULATOR MOTION BY JOINT PATH

• Having the joint variables as functions of time
• Employing the forward kinematics of manipulators
 Allow us to calculate the path of motion for the end-effector

Example 360: (2R manipulator motion based on joints’ path)
Assume that we have calculated the paths of the two joints of a 2R planar
manipulator according to cubic & quintic functions, and they are
𝜃1 𝑡 = 10 + 105𝑡 2 − 70𝑡 3 deg
𝜃2 𝑡 = 10 + 350𝑡 3 − 525𝑡 4 + 210𝑡 5 deg
The joints’ paths satisfy the following conditions

Cubic path:
𝜃1 0 = 10 𝑑𝑒𝑔 𝜃1 1 = 45 𝑑𝑒𝑔 𝜃1 0 = 𝜃1 1 = 0
Quintic path:
𝜃2 0 = 10 𝑑𝑒𝑔 𝜃2 0 = 0 𝜃2 0 = 0
𝜃2 1 = 45 𝑑𝑒𝑔 𝜃2 1 = 0 𝜃2 1 = 0

The X and Y components of the tip point are
𝑋 = 𝑙1 cos 𝜃1 + 𝑙2 cos 𝜃1 + 𝜃2
𝑌 = 𝑙1 sin 𝜃1 + 𝑙2 sin 𝜃1 + 𝜃2
V. CARTESIAN PATH
• Cartesian path planning is mathematically similar to joint space path
planning
• Having the coordinates of the start and stop point of the end-effector in
Cartesian space as
𝑷0 = 𝑷0 𝑋0 , 𝑌0 , 𝑍0 𝑷1 = 𝑷1 𝑋1 , 𝑌1 , 𝑍1
 How we can design a curve that go from 𝑷0 to 𝑷1
V. CARTESIAN PATH
We can connect the points by a geometric space curve
𝑍=𝑍 𝑋 𝑌 = 𝑌(𝑋)
Where
𝑋 𝑡0 = 𝑋0 𝑋 𝑡𝑓 = 𝑋𝑓
Then, we define a time path for the coordinate 𝑋 between 𝑷0 and 𝑷𝑓 to

determine the kinematic behavior of other coordinates
A point-to-point path can also be planned by connecting the points, or

designing a path to pass close to but not necessarily through the points
V. CARTESIAN PATH
• A practical method is to design a path utilizing straight lines with
constant velocity, and deform the corners to have a smooth transition
• The path connecting points 𝐫0 to 𝐫𝟐 , and passing close to the corner 𝐫𝟏 on
a transition curve, can be designed by a piecewise motion
𝑡1 −𝑡
𝒓 𝑡 = 𝐫1 − 𝐫𝟏 − 𝐫0 𝑡0 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 𝑡1 − 𝑡′
𝑡1 −𝑡0
2 2
𝑡−𝑡 ′ −𝑡1 𝑡+𝑡 ′ −𝑡1
𝒓 𝑡 = 𝐫𝟏 − 𝐫𝟏 − 𝐫0 + 𝐫𝟐 − 𝐫1
4𝑡 ′ (𝑡1 −𝑡0 ) 4𝑡 ′ 𝑡2 −𝑡1
𝑡1 − 𝑡 ′ ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 𝑡1 + 𝑡′
𝑡1 −𝑡
𝒓 𝑡 = 𝐫1 − 𝐫2 − 𝐫1 𝑡1 + 𝑡′ ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 𝑡2
𝑡2 −𝑡1
V. CARTESIAN PATH
• Transition parabola between two line segments as a path in Cartesian-
space is shown in the figure schematically
V. CARTESIAN PATH
Example 362: (A path in 2D Cartesian space)
Consider a line in the XY plane connecting (1,0) and (1,1), and another line
connecting (1,1) and (0,1).
Assume that time is zero at (1,0), is t=1 sec at (1,1), and is t=2 sec at (0,1)
For an interval time 𝑡 ′ = 0.1 𝑠𝑒𝑐, the position vector at control points are
𝐫𝟎 = 𝒊, 𝐫𝟏 = 𝒊 + 𝒋, 𝐫𝟐 = 𝒋
𝑡′ 𝑡′
𝐫 𝑡1 − 𝑡′ = 𝐫1 − 𝛅1 = 𝒊 + 1 − 𝒋
𝑡1 𝑡1
𝑡′ 𝑡′
𝐫 𝑡1 + 𝑡′ = 𝐫1 + 𝛅2 = 1 − 𝒊+𝒋
𝑡2 𝑡2
Where 𝛅𝟏 = 𝐫1 − 𝐫0 = 𝒋
𝛅2 = 𝐫2 − 𝐫1 = −𝒊
V. CARTESIAN PATH
The path of motion is then expressed by following piecewise functions
𝒊 + 𝑡𝒋 0 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 0.9
𝑡 − 0.9 2 𝑡 − 1.1 2
𝐫 𝑡 = 1− 𝒊+ 1− 𝒋 0.9 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 1.1
0.4 0.4
2−𝑡 𝒊+𝒋 1.1 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 2
V. CARTESIAN PATH
Example 363: (A 2R manipulator following a line)
Assume the 2R manipulator has 𝑙1 = 𝑙2 = 0.25
And its tip point is supposed to move on a given line 𝑌 = 𝑓(𝑋)
𝑌 = −0.25988 𝑋 + 0.3705
The manipulator moves from 𝑷1 to 𝑷2 in 10 sec
𝑋𝑃1 = 0.41122
𝑌𝑃1 = 0.26359
𝑋𝑃2 = −2.8188 × 10−2
𝑌𝑃2 = 0.37783
V. CARTESIAN PATH
Let us define a rest-to-rest cubic path for X
𝑋 = 0.41122 − 0.01149096𝑡 2 + 0.000766064𝑡 3
We determine the equation of Y as a function of t by substituting

𝑋 = 𝑋(𝑡) in the line equation
𝑌 = −1.9916 × 10−4 𝑡 3 + 2.9874 × 10−3 𝑡 2 + 0.26359
VI. ROTATIONAL PATH

• Consider an end-effector frame to have a rotation matrix 𝐺 𝑹0 at an initial
orientation at time 𝑡0
• The end-effector must be at a final orientation 𝐺 𝑹𝑓 at time 𝑡𝑓
• The rotational path is defined by the angle-axis rotation matrix 𝑹𝑢,𝜙

𝑹0𝑢,𝜙 = 0𝑹𝑓 = 𝐺 𝑹𝑇0 𝐺 𝑹𝑓
that transforms the end-effector frame from the final orientation 𝐺 𝑹𝑓 to the
initial orientation 𝐺 𝑹0
Keeping 0𝒖 constant, we can define an angular path for 𝜙 to vary 𝑹𝑇0𝑢,𝜙

from 𝐺 𝑹0 to 𝐺 𝑹𝑓 at 𝑡𝑓
VI. ROTATIONAL PATH

• To control a rotation, we may define a series of control orientations
𝐺 𝑹 , 𝐺 𝑹 , …, 𝐺 𝑹 between the initial and final orientations, and rotate
1 2 𝑛
the end-effector frame through the control orientations
• When there is a control orientation 𝐺 𝑹1 between the initial and final

orientations, then the initial orientation 𝐺 𝑹0 transforms to the control
orientation 𝐺 𝑹1 using an angle axis rotation 𝑹0𝑢,𝜙0
• And then it transforms from the control orientation 𝐺𝑹 to the final

1
orientation using a second-angle axis rotation 𝑹 1𝑢,𝜙1
𝑹 0𝑢,𝜙0 = 𝐺 𝑹𝑇0 𝐺 𝑹1
𝑹 1𝑢,𝜙1 = 𝐺 𝑹1𝑇 𝐺 𝑹𝑓
VI. ROTATIONAL PATH

Example 364: (Rotation about Z-axis)
Consider a body B which is initially coincident with the global coordinate
frame G at t=0. So, its initial transformation matrix is an identity
𝐺𝑹 = 𝑰
1
B is suppose to be at 𝐺 𝑹2 after 10 sec
−1 0 0
𝐺𝑹 =
2 0 −1 0
0 0 1
The axis of rotation 𝐺 𝑹2 is the Z-axis, and the angle of rotation is 𝜋
The transformation matrix between the initial and final orientations of 𝑩1
and 𝑩2 is
−1 0 0
1𝑹 = 𝐺 𝑹𝑇 𝐺 𝑹 =
2 1 2 0 −1 0
0 0 1
VI. ROTATIONAL PATH

Let us define a cubic rets-to-rest path for the angle of rotation 𝛼
3𝜋 2 𝜋 3
𝛼= 𝑡 − 𝑡
100 500
The angular path of B between 𝑩1 and 𝑩2 is

cos 𝛼 − sin 𝛼 0
2𝑹 =
1 sin 𝛼 cos 𝛼 0
0 0 1
3𝜋 2 𝜋 3 3𝜋 2 𝜋 3
cos( 𝑡 − 𝑡 ) −sin( 𝑡 − 𝑡 ) 0
100 500 100 500
= 3𝜋 2 𝜋 3 3𝜋 2 𝜋 3
sin( 𝑡 − 𝑡 ) cos( 𝑡 − 𝑡 ) 0
100 500 100 500
0 0 1
VII. MANIPULATOR MOTION BY END-EFFECTOR PATH

• Cartesian path planning is the most natural application of path
planning
• Considering pick and place motions, we have to determine a desired

geometric path for end-effector in 3D Cartesian space
• We may define a time path for one coordinate (X), and determine the time
history of the other coordinates by using geometric path
• Having time functions of coordinates of end-effector, we can determine

the velocity, acceleration, and jerk behavior of end-effector

• Inverse kinematic determine the kinematics of joint variables
• Substituting position, velocity, acceleration in the dynamic equation of

motion provide required actuators’ torque or force to move end-
effector on the desired path with planned kinematics

• The geometric Cartesian path is an applied method of path planning in
robotics
• It can control the level of force and jerk inserted by the hand of a robot
to the carrying object
• Path planning in Cartesian space also determines the geometric

constraints of the external world
• However, a Cartesian path need inverse kinematics to determine the time

history of the joint variables

Example 366: (Joint path for a designed Cartesian path)
Consider a rets-to-rest Cartesian path from point (1, 1.5) to point (-1, 1.5)
on a straight line Y=1.5
A cubic polynomial can satisfy the position and velocity constraints at
initial and final points
𝑋 0 = 𝑋0 = 1 𝑋 0 = 𝑋0 = 0
𝑋 1 = 𝑋𝑓 = −1 𝑋 1 = 𝑋𝑓 = 0
The coefficients of the polynomial are
𝑎0 = 1, 𝑎1 = 0, 𝑎2 = −6, 𝑎3 = 4
And the Cartesian path is
𝑋 = 1 − 6𝑡 2 + 4𝑡 3
𝑌 = 1.5

The inverse kinematics of a 2R manipulator is
𝑙1 + 𝑙2 2 − 4𝑡 3 − 6𝑡 2 + 2.5 2
𝜃2 = ±2 𝑎𝑡𝑎𝑛
4𝑡 3 − 6𝑡 2 + 1 2 − 𝑙1 − 𝑙2 2
1 − 6𝑡 2 + 4𝑡 3 𝑙1 + 𝑙2 cos 𝜃2 + 1.5𝑙2 sin 𝜃2
𝜃1 = 𝑎𝑡𝑎𝑛
1.5 𝑙1 + 𝑙2 cos 𝜃2 − 1 − 6𝑡 2 + 4𝑡 3 𝑙2 sin 𝜃2

81 Part1 PathPlanning

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81 Part1 PathPlanning

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Robotics 13.

13. Path Planning

Path Planning includes 3 tasks

A path of tip point of 2R

𝑞0 − 𝑞𝑓 𝑞0′ 𝑡𝑓 𝑡𝑓2 + 𝑡0 𝑡𝑓 − 2𝑡02 + 𝑞𝑓′ 𝑡0 2𝑡𝑓2 − 𝑡02 − 𝑡0 𝑡𝑓

𝑞0 3𝑡0 + 3𝑡𝑓 + 𝑞𝑓 −3𝑡0 − 3𝑡𝑓

2𝑞0 − 2𝑞𝑓 + 𝑞0′ 𝑡𝑓 − 𝑡0 + 𝑞𝑓′ 𝑡𝑓 − 𝑡0

II. POLINOMIAL PATH

• The conditions may be of two types:

II. POLINOMIAL PATH

• However, the path planning can be simplified by splitting the whole

II. POLINOMIAL PATH

II. POLINOMIAL PATH

III. NON-POLYNOMIAL PATH PLANNING

III. NON-POLYNOMIAL PATH PLANNING

III. NON-POLYNOMIAL PATH PLANNING

III. NON-POLYNOMIAL PATH PLANNING

IV. MANIPULATOR MOTION BY JOINT PATH

• Employing the forward kinematics of manipulators

 Allow us to calculate the path of motion for the end-effector

IV. MANIPULATOR MOTION BY JOINT PATH

The joints’ paths satisfy the following conditions

IV. MANIPULATOR MOTION BY JOINT PATH

 How we can design a curve that go from 𝑷0 to 𝑷1

Then, we define a time path for the coordinate 𝑋 between 𝑷0 and 𝑷𝑓 to

A point-to-point path can also be planned by connecting the points, or

We determine the equation of Y as a function of t by substituting

VI. ROTATIONAL PATH

• The rotational path is defined by the angle-axis rotation matrix 𝑹𝑢,𝜙

Keeping 0𝒖 constant, we can define an angular path for 𝜙 to vary 𝑹𝑇0𝑢,𝜙

VI. ROTATIONAL PATH

• When there is a control orientation 𝐺 𝑹1 between the initial and final

• And then it transforms from the control orientation 𝐺𝑹 to the final

VI. ROTATIONAL PATH

VI. ROTATIONAL PATH

The angular path of B between 𝑩1 and 𝑩2 is

VII. MANIPULATOR MOTION BY END-EFFECTOR PATH

• Considering pick and place motions, we have to determine a desired

• Having time functions of coordinates of end-effector, we can determine

VII. MANIPULATOR MOTION BY END-EFFECTOR PATH

• Substituting position, velocity, acceleration in the dynamic equation of

VII. MANIPULATOR MOTION BY END-EFFECTOR PATH

• Path planning in Cartesian space also determines the geometric

• However, a Cartesian path need inverse kinematics to determine the time

VII. MANIPULATOR MOTION BY END-EFFECTOR PATH

VII. MANIPULATOR MOTION BY END-EFFECTOR PATH

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