Professional Documents
Culture Documents
OF
AGRICULTURE & TECHNOLOGY
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Nairobi, Kenya
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E-mail: elearning@jkuat.ac.ke
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HRD 2101 Communication Skills
This presentation is intended to covered within one week.
The notes, examples and exercises should be supple-
mented with a good textbook. Most of the exercises have
solutions/answers appearing elsewhere and accessible by
clicking the green Exercise tag. To move back to the same
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page click the same tag appearing at the end of the solu-
tion/answer.
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HRD 2101 Communication Skills
LESSON 2
Verbal Communication
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2.1. Learning Outcomes
Upon completion of this topic you should be able to:
• Describe oral communication
• Highlight the forms of oral communication
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2.2. Introduction
As was unravelled in the previous lesson, there are two forms of
communicatio, namely verbal and non-verbal. Communication
by the spoken or written word, as we all may have noticed in
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2.3. Definition
This type of communication involves the use of words to con-
vey information. The following are the main forms of verbal
communication
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• Oral communication
• Written communication
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• Classroom lectures
• Meetings
• Seminars
• Conferences
• Group discussions
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• Public rallies
• Teleconferencing
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2. Telephone
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when engaging in conveying messages orally. It is imperative
to be a good and effective communicator (speaker or orator) so
that your audience can understand your message.
Exercise 1. Are good speaker/orators born or made?
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following:
1. Deletion-this refers to leaving out parts of a word, for
instance ’cause’ instead of ’because’.
2. Addition of extra parts that do not exist to a word. Take
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message at hand.
• Pronunciation; One should open and close the mouth
appropriately when speaking , use correct sounds for vow-
els and consonants and use appropriate stress in words and
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fective.
• Speed; The appropriate rate and timing of words as we
speak is important in ensuring communication is effective.
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2. Also, one can seek clarification of things not well under-
stood.
3. Oral communication also allows participation of all present.
The message is therefore all-inclusive.
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2.4.3. Disadvantages of oral communication.
1. Oral communication lacks tangible record hence cannot be
used for future reference in a legal context.
2. It can be difficult to control discussions where so many
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2.5. Written Communication
Written communication is communication whereby words are
put down using letters of the alphabet and symbols to form
documents. This type of communication takes the form of:
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• letters
• memos
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• notices
• advertisements/publicity
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• minutes
• reports
• curriculum vitae
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• newsletters
• circulars
• Statements etc
Each of the above documents are mostly used in organizations
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1. Types
2. Purposes
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3. Contents
4. Formats
5. Language used
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2.5.1. Selected Written Forms of Communication
• Letters
There are two types of letters: formal and informal letters.
Formal letters may be in the form of business letters, letters of
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5. Salutation
6. Subject
7. Body; the intended message
8. Complementary closing (yours faithfully, yours sincerely)
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9. Name
10. Designation: official position of the sender
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11. Enclosures
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Semi-blocked:
• Reports
A report is a structured written document in which a specific
issue is examined for the purpose of conveying information, in
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Figure 2.1: Semi-blocking style
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amount of detail to be contained therein. Some questions you
need to keep in mind include:
• Who is the report written for?
• How is it relevant to them?
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It’s always important to make a note on the report itself
which outlines who the report was prepared for. If it is not pos-
sible to narrow your focus, and you are required to write a report
that is accessible for differing audiences, it may be appropriate
to write several different versions of the same report.
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non-biased way.
• Persuasive reports are usually quite one sided: stressing
the benefits of one side of the argument and the pitfalls
of the other. For this reason, persuasive reports are struc-
JJ II tured quite differently.
J I Planning your report
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See fig.2.2
Research the topic
In order to produce a high quality report, it is essential to
include accurate, relevant and up to date information collected
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veys, observations, a compilation of statistics and company or
industry data – this is called primary data. You may also find
secondary data in books, theses, on the Internet, in journals or
newspapers, reports, conference papers, brochures etc.
Report writers also consult secondary sources in order to get
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that you know you need to cover. break the topics down into
subsets.
When creating an outline:
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topics you wish to cover
3. Create sub topics under your main headings
4. Arrange the topics and sub topics in a logical order
5. Add appropriate introductions and conclusions to your
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structure
6. You may wish to circulate your outline for feedback at this
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stage.
The next step is to arrange the headings into a logical sequence.
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Table 2.1:
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Impartiality is imperative in the drafting stage. As the re-
searcher and writer you must express your ideas in an objective
manner. This is why report writers often express themselves in
the third person. For example, they may write: The research
reflected. . . rather than: Our research reflected.
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Types of Reports
There are numerous types of reports that are widely used
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• SHORT INFORMAL / SEMI-FORMAL REPORT
The short report is generally less than four pages or 1200 words
in length. It has fewer parts than a longer report and may use
headings to guide the reader through the ideas being presented
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that . . . ”).
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Structure:
• Title
• Introductory statement – what the report is about and
why it is being written
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• Body of the report – findings and discussion
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• Conclusions and recommendations
Other formats may also be used for short reports. For example:
• Pre-Printed Report Form
A report form usually consists of questions to gain specific in-
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written on letterhead and includes the address of the reader,
salutation (Dear . . . ), close (Yours Sincerely/faithfully) and sig-
nature.
On the other hand, a letter report is more structured than a
normal letter. It has a subject line, which is sometimes seen in
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• Memo Report
A memo report may be written to a reader who works in the
same organisation as the writer. Because the writer is likely to
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J I level of knowledge of the subject matter, the memo report does
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not need to contain detailed background information about all
of the things to which it refers.
This report is written on memo paper and follows the memo
format. However, it is longer than the conventional memo (two
pages or more) and is therefore divided into separate, labelled
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than the short report. Headings and sub-headings are used to
guide the reader through the sections and sub-sections. Because
it is informal or semi-formal, first person and active voice are
preferred.
Structure:
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• Title page
• Summary
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• Introduction
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Figure 2.3: Layout of an Informal Report
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• FORMAL REPORT
Formal reports are rarely less than ten pages long and can often
run into hundreds of pages. They are commonly written for a
large audience who do not know the writer, and are sent outside
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Structure:
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• Cover letter/memorandum
• Cover
• Title page
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• Table of illustrations, figures, tables, etc. (if applicable)
• Introduction Body of the report – methodology, findings
and discussion
• Conclusions
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• Recommendations
• Bibliography
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• Write a cover memo if the report is to be sent to a reader
inside the organisation.
• The letter/memo should contain a salutation (“Dear . . . ”
for a letter), statement of purpose (“Here is the report on
. . . that you requested”), a brief overview or summary (“In
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• The report title should be on the cover and spine.
Title
• The title should be complete and comprehensive, without
being so long that it is difficult to grasp. E.g. “Report
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Summary
• The summary is a quick overview of the aim, conclusions
and most important aspects of the report.
• The summary is designed to be read by people who are
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Table of Contents
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the table of contents and report:
Table of Illustrations, Figures, Tables, etc. (if applica-
ble)
Include separate tables of illustrations, figures (i.e. graphs
and diagrams) and/or tables if the report is four or more pages
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• Authorisation or terms of reference: What is the problem
or issue being reported on? Who asked for the report?
• Purpose: Why is the report being written?
• Background information: What was the sequence of past
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• Outline the sources of information: Where was the infor-
mation obtained?
Findings
• Present the facts and results that were obtained through
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– Order of importance
– Order of process Parallel order.
– Discussion
• Analyse and evaluate the facts already presented.
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have attached to supplement the information in the body
of the report.
Conclusions
• Summarise the discussion.
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Recommendations
• Make recommendations based on your findings and infer-
ences.
JJ II • Be as specific as you possibly can.
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• State clearly what action should be taken as a result of
your recommendations, and by whom.
• Use subjunctive mood, e.g. “That . . . be [past tense of
verb]”
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• Don’t be afraid to recommend further investigation if you
feel you still don’t have the answer when it is time to write
the report.
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• Signature.
• Printed name.
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• Position.
• Name of organisation or committee.
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• List the sources of information alphabetically by author.
Appendices (if applicable)
• The appendices contain data (such as charts, tables, pho-
tographs, maps and statistics) that support the body of
the report. These are located in a separate section to avoid
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Index (if applicable)
• If the report is over 20 pages long, an index will help the
reader find specific information contained within the re-
port more easily than is possible with the table of contents.
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• Minutes
• Curriculum Vitae
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1. Compile accurate information about your life. Include de-
tails like age, academic qualifications, co-curricular activ-
ities, work experience„ publications, seminars attended to
and membership held.
2. Package and present the information properly to give the
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possible.
3. Trhe bio-data should be formulated impressively with mar-
gins on both the left and right hand sides of the paper.
4. First write a draft, then make the necessary corrections.
JJ II After this you can make the final draft as perfectly as
J I possible. Here is an example of a resume:
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Main points to remember in writing resume
• Use bulleted sentences, so that the employer takes just five
or si messages from your resume
• A resume must be short on words but long on facts
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Solution:
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2.6. Non-verbal Communication
Learning Outcomes
Upon completion of this topic you should be able to:
• Describe non-verbal communication
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2.7. Introduction
The statement ’...Words mean nothing without emotion...’ is
a widely asserted quote that bares a lot of truth. Interesting
to note, these feelings that give meaning to words are largely
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person to foster effective communication.
Culture and Non-Verbal Messages
Nonverbal communication has been said to have a greater
universality than language, in that ‘we can often make ourselves
known in a rudimentary way through signs and gestures when
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other culture; and especially to find out what is taboo (Goman,
2002). Be careful!
2.8. Audio
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Involves the use of sound and engages hearing senses e.g. music
(horns, trumpets, drums, alarms etc.)
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2.9. Visual
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2.10. Audio-visual
Uses both the sense of sight and hearing
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2.11. Body language
Has a lot to do with the visual aspect since observation of body
signs is used. It can be traced back to 1872 (Charles Darwin) in
the book “ Expression of emotions in Man and Animals” It may
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2. Occulesics
3. Paralanguage/Paralinguistics
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4. Proxemics
5. Artifactics; objects that people carry, wear or own e.g.
dressing style, colour of clothes, perfume, personal objects
JJ II such as briefcases, cars and pens. These describe some-
J I one’s personality and character.
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6. Chronemics; this is the study of time and its impact on
people. High-culture people are very time conscious while
low-culture people are not time conscious at all
7. Tactilics/Haptics; Refers to the language of touch e.g.
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2.12. Non-verbal Communication Skills
As well as using active listening skills to develop awareness and
monitor the non-verbal cues of others, it is important to de-
velop awareness of your own non-verbal cues and their likely
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are prepared to give you an honest response, awareness of your
own NVC and its likely impact can be gained. In conversations,
ask yourself ‘Are my non-verbal behaviours reflecting my words?
Are they reflecting the message that I want to convey?’
Exercise 3. Research and discuss the following:
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Kinesics
Proxemics
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Occulesics
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Paralanguage/ vocalics
Example . Explain the role of non-verbal communication
Solution:
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Express interpersonal attitudes
To accompany speech in managing the cues of interaction
between speakers and listeners
Self-presentation of one’s personality Rituals (greetings)
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Solutions to Exercises
Exercise 2.
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Exercise 3.
Kinesics is the study of body language, or more formally, non-
verbal behaviour related to movement, either of any part of the
body or of the body as a whole.Kinesics are an important part
of non-verbal communication behavior. the movement of the
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The extent to which people will keep out of or encroach upon
our personal space, depends on a multitude of factors including
culture, personality, age, sex, status and dominance (Hargie et
al, 2004). For example, women typically adopt closer distances
than men, particularly with other women. Similarly, extroverts
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The distance that people put between themselves and others can
also be instrumental in reflecting attitudes, creating feelings and
indicating the balance of power. Thus, we may stand away from
JJ II someone we regard as unfriendly, or whom we think is going
J I to tell us something we do not want to hear (Knapp & Hall,
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1992). Likewise, those who create a large interpersonal distance
when communicating with us, we tend to view as less friendly
and understanding (Adler & Elmhorst, 1999). The person with
the higher status in an interaction generally controls the level of
distance and degree of approach.
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Eye-movement
Pupil Dilation
Gaze Direction
JJ II It has long since been recognised that the eyes communicate
J I a great deal with expressions such as ‘the eyes are the windows
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of the soul’ in common parlance. Think about how it can be
difficult to deal with someone wearing sunglasses, for example.
Eye contact can indicate engagement or involvement with the
speaker and complete lack of eye contact can suggest detach-
ment, nervousness or that the person is hiding something. Use
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voice has different properties. These are rate, inflection and vari-
ety in the voice, volume, being loud or soft, and articulation and
pronunciation, or how correctly and clearly the person speaks.
the voice will also develop physiological properties termed as
voice qualities such as breathiness, raspiness or hoarseness, and
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ple that twopeople are arguing when you can hear the sound of
their voices but not their words. To illustrate this further, think
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with the work’ or ‘I’m very sorry’ etc. In a very general sense,
varying the tone, pitch, rate and other vocal features can com-
municate enthusiasm and can create a sense of interest in the
listener. This can be of importance when giving a presentation
). However, sometimes paralinguistic cues are difficult to de-
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code and are ambiguous. For example, is the student who talks
very quickly nervous, eager to get away, under pressure or is this
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