Introduction to System Design Techniques for

Water Resources Management

M L KANSAL,
NEEPCO Chair Professor,
Department of Water Resources Development & Management,
Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee, ROORKEE 247 667

INTRODUTION
The root causes of water resources problems and their effects are as shown in Fig. 1.1 below

Fig. 1.1: Root causes of water resources problems and their effects.
The Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), officially known as Transforming our world: the
2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development is a set of seventeen "Global Goals" on sustainable
development issues.

The term sustainable development refers human development in terms of education, public
health, and the general standard of living.

UNESCO’s International Hydrologic Program-IHP adopted a framework in 1999 which includes

hydrology, environment, life, and policy (HELP) issues.

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For sustainable use of water resources, its use should be effective and efficient. Therefore, it is
necessary that the resources of a basin are managed in an integrated manner. The meaning of
sustainable use and integrated water resource management (IWRM) can be understood as
follows :

Fig. 1.2: Scope of sustainable and integrated water resources management (IWRM)

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In other words, it is essential to take a holistic approach to IWRM. Further, the decisions on
IWRM must be technically sound and scientific and should be participatory which are taken the
appropriate level, but within a framework of the catchment/ basin/ aquifer level which is the
natural unit for natural management of water.
Water resource management consists of following major steps:
 Assessment - Of water resources
- Uses, needs, future demands
- Disasters
- Financial capabilities and constraints
- Technical options
 Planning - Scaling, Sizing, Selecting, Sequencing, Scheduling
 Design - Structural design, costing, tender documents
 Implementation - Construction, Supervision, Enforcement of laws
 Operation - Monitoring and regulations of system performance
 Maintenance - Control, repair, replacement

CONCEPT OF SYSTEM ENGINEERING

A system may be defined as a set of objects, which interact in a regular, interdependent manner.
A system is characterised by :
(i) System boundary which is a rule that determines whether an element is to be
considered as a part of the system or of the environment;
(ii) Statement of input and output interactions with the environment; and
(iii) Statements of interrelationships between the system elements, inputs and outputs,
called feedback.
Fig. 1.3 represents a typical relationship of inputs and outputs in a feedback system.

Fig. 1.3 Concept of a System

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The objects of interest in a system are known as 'entity'. The property of 'entity' is known as
'attribute'. There can be one or more than one attributes of an entity. Any process that causes
changes in the system is called as 'activity'. The state of a system means description of all
entities, attributes, and activities as they exist at any point of time. 'Endogenous' are the
activities which occur within a system, whereas, 'exogenous' are the activities which take place
outside the system, i.e., in the environment.

System engineering is concerned with making decisions with respect to those aspects of a
system on which some control can be applied. It is concerned with only one phase of the total
task of the water resources engineer – that of decision making, whether it be in relation to
planning, design, construction, or operation. Systems engineering does not guarantee unique
answers. It is merely and aid to decision making which has examined a problem in a very broad
framework. Its aim is to examine all the alternative courses of action and to identify and evaluate
all the consequences of each for all those who are affected, both directly or indirectly. Systems
engineering as defined by Hall and Dracup (1970) is "the art and science of selecting from a
large number of feasible alternatives, involving substantial engineering content, that particular
set of actions which will best accomplish the overall objectives of the decision makers, within the
constraint of law, morality, economics, resources, political and social pressures and laws
governing the physical, life and other natural sciences". Thus systems engineering is useful in
making selections from a large number of alternatives by way of elimination. Further, the
definition provides for both an art and a science, the latter often further defined as systems
analysis or operations research. Some authors use the words "Systems engineering" and "System
analysis" as synonymous.
The concept of state is the basic concept of the systems theory. The state represents the
conditions of the system or is an indicator of the activity in the system at a given time. In case of
water resources systems, the state typically may be the volume of water in the reservoir or the
water depth in the river, or the ground water table at a particular location.

The task of water resources systems planning may be to plan new water resources projects, or to
plan enlargement of a system. The conventional methods for development and management of
water resources are often not suitable for handling complex problems of planning and
management of water resources at the river basin level. Systems engineering is a very powerful
technique for quantitative analysis of the planning and operational problems of large river basins,
since it allows consideration of complex issues in their totality.

Systems analysis, as applied to water resources, is a rational approach for arriving at the
management decisions for a particular system, based on the systematic and efficient
organisation and analysis of relevant information.

In general, a water resources system can be modelled and represented as shown in Fig. 1.4.

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Fig. 1.4 Model system & interplay of experimentation, simulation & theoretical predictions

Issues in Water Resources System Analysis

Naturally occurring water can be described in terms of the quantitative availability of water as a
function of time and location and the quality of water as a function of time and location. Thus,
time t and location x represent the independent variables and quantity Q and Quality V represent
the dependent variables. S is used to define the state of the system, which can be represented as
S = [Q (x, t), V(x,t)]

The development of water resources deal with the transformation of the natural state of the
system into a desired state S*, which is a function of the desired quantity q* and the desired
quality V*, which are both a function of the desired time t* and the desired location x*. The
desired state can then be expressed as
S* = [Q* (x*, t*), V*(x*,t*)]

Evaluation of S and S* is within the scope of water resources engineering and requires the
combined knowledge and use of hydrology and hydraulics. This involves the transformation of
S into S* using
S* = WS + E

where, W is the transfer function between the input S and output S* and E represents a waste or

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bye-product that is undesirable.

The Transformation function (W) can be divided into the physical or hardware component (W 1),
like construction of dam, etc., and the operational aspects or software component (W 2), like the
operational policy, etc.

A problem can be said to exist when (i) some objective is to be accomplished (ii) there are
alternative ways to accomplish it, and (iii) the optimal way or combination of ways is not readily
apparent. For formulating a problem, one should ask:

1. What are the objectives? While the objectives frequently undergo revision during the study,
some statements are needed at the outset. From them one can derive a measure of
performance against which alternative designs are evaluated.

2. Which aspects of the system are subject to the designer's control (controllable variables)?
The permissible ranges of control variables comprise the problem constraints.

3. Which aspects of the environment are beyond the designer's control? One must probe to
ascertain how these uncontrollable variables affect the outcomes.

One of the main task of a water resource engineer is to modify the inputs to a water system so
that desirable outputs are maximised while desirable outputs are minimised. Systems analysis
techniques do not merely deal with the engineering aspects of water resources development but
also cover a multi-disciplinary approach encompassing physical, social, economic, political,
biological and other characteristics of specific problems and situations.

Systems analysis for water resources projects planning is carried out with the basic objective of
meeting certain fundamental requirements in an optimal way, by satisfying some economic or
other criteria of optimality. The formulation of the objectives is an initial step in the planning
and developmental process. The systems approach demands an explicit articulation of the
objectives in the form of an objective function by which the output of the system can be
determined, given the policy, the initial values of the state variables, and the system parameters.
The major problems that must be solved for better management of water resources are :
1. To determine the optimal scale of the project development;
2. To determine the optimal dimensions of the system components; and
3. To suggest the optimal system operation.

Mathematical analysis of water resources problems using systems approach is one of the most
important developments in this sector. A mathematical model may be defined as a set of
equations which describes and represents a real system. It identifies the relationship between all
the system’s components and elements and its environment, establishes measures of
effectiveness and constraints and thus indicates the data requirements to deal with the problem.

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The systems models and techniques can be grouped under four major categories as follows:

a. Analytical optimization models and techniques

This group includes optimization methods – they may be based on classical calculus and
Lagrangian multipliers or mathematical programming and control theory. The mathematical
programming techniques include linear, non-linear, and dynamic programming, goal
programming, and multi-objective optimization.

b. Simulation and Search techniques

Simulation is a descriptive technique. A simulation model incorporates the quantifiable
relationships among variables and describes the outcome of operating a system under a given set
of inputs and operating conditions. Simulation models usually permit far less drastic
simplification and approximation than is required in an analytic optimization model. Often a
simulation model is run many times with various input and parameter data. The output of these
runs describes the response of the systems to variations in inputs and parameters. If the
simulation model includes an objective function, the values of the objective for the several runs
generate a response surface.
c. Probabilistic Models and Techniques
This group of techniques includes the techniques for analysing stochastic system elements with
appropriate statistical parameters. It encompasses all the descriptive techniques of stochastic
processes to study the behaviour of some aspects of the system. The important techniques in this
group are the queuing and inventory theory which are concerned with the study of queues or
waiting times and inventory stocks.
d. Statistical Techniques
This includes multivariate analysis and statistical inference. The techniques of multivariate
analysis, including regression and correlation, factor analysis, and principal component analysis
have numerous applications in the water resources area.

Operations Research (OR) gives special impetus to the development and use of techniques like
Linear, Integer, Non-Linear, Dynamic Program Theories; Decision Theory – Game, Simulation,
Waiting Line or Queuing, Inventory Control and Sequencing models, Network Scheduling –
PERT & CPM, Utility/ Value Theory, and Markov Process, etc. for system analysis or design
purposes. Hence these techniques are termed as System Design Techniques. These frequently
include common mathematical or statistical procedures, and cost analysis, etc. as well.
Operations research may be described as a scientific approach of decision making that involves
the operations of organizational system. Operations Research is concerned with decision-making
for situations which originate from real life. The OR applications occurring in various disciplines

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are characterized by the need to allocate limited resources. The OR people are involved in
following aspects of science

1. Describing the behavior of systems. This involves looking at the problem in the context
of the entire system.
2. Analyzing this behavior by constructing appropriate models. This involves structuring of
the real life situation into a mathematical model, abstracting the essential elements so that
a solution relevant to the decision-makers objectives can be sought.
3. Using these models to develop solution that yields an optimal value of the system
measure of desirability and also to predict future behavior that will be produced by
changes in the system or in the method of operations.

Optimization
The optimization approach to plan resources or a project is largely a product of operations
research. It calls for the development of mathematical model of the system being planned that
can be analyzed or simulated to determine the effect of different policies and resource allocations
on organizational performance. A general form of an optimization problem is

Optimize f(x)
Subject to
constraints
g(x) = 0
where, g(x) is a vector of m equations.
Every optimization problem has two essential parts: (i) the objective function and (ii) the set of
constraints.
The objective function describes the performance criteria of the system. Constraints describe the
system or process that is being designed or analyzed and can be of two forms: equality and
inequality.
A solution of the model is feasible if it satisfies all the constraints. It is optimal if, in addition to
being feasible, it yields the best (maximum or minimum) value of the objective function. One
should notice that the system models are designed to optimize a specific objective criterion
subject to a set of constraints, the quality of the resulting solution depends on the accuracy of the
model in representing the real system.

Classical optimization methods (e.g. Differential Calculus and Lagrange Multipliers) may be
used to solve some simple optimization models. The usefulness of classical techniques depends
upon the computational effort required for solving nonlinear system of equations. However, there
are special methods such as Linear Programming, Dynamic Programming and Non-linear
programming for efficiently solving the various optimization models.

The following are the usual phases of an operations research study.

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 (i) Formulation of the problem
(ii) Constructing a mathematical model to represent the system under study.
(iii) Deriving a solution from the model.
(iv) Testing the model and the solution derived from it.
(v) Establishing controls over the solution,
(vi) Putting the solution to work: Implementation.

ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES OF PROBLEM FORMULATION

Problem 1
City 1 produces 500 tons of waste per day, and city 2 produces 450 tons of waste per day. Waste
must be incinerated at incinerator 1 or 2, and each incinerator can process up to 500 tons of
waste per day. The cost to incinerate waste is Rs. 2000/- per ton at incinerator 1 and Rs. 1500/-
per ton at 2. Incineration reduces each ton of waste to 0.2 tons of debris, which must be dumped
at one of two landfills. Each landfill can receive at most 200 tons of debris per day. It costs
Rs. 150/- per km to transport a ton of material (either debris or waste). Distances (in km)
between locations are shown below. Formulate an LP that can be used to minimize the total cost
of disposing of the waste of both cities.

Problem 2
Consider a system consisting of a manufacturing plant and a waste treatment plant (WTP). The
manufacturing plant produces finished goods that are sold @ Rs 100/- per unit. However the
finished good’s production cost is of Rs 30/- per unit. In the manufacturing process, 2 units of
waste are generated for each unit of finished goods. In deciding about the number of goods to be
produced, the manager must also decide how much waste will be discharged without treatment
so that net benefit to the company can be maximized and the water quality requirements of
wastewater is not violated. The treatment plant has a capacity of 1000 units of waste with 80 %
waste removal efficiency at the treatment cost of Rs 6/- per unit of waste. There is also an
affluent tax imposed on the waste discharge at the rate of Rs 10/- per each unit of waste
discharge. The water pollution control authority has set up on upper limit of 4000 units on the
amount of waste that can be discharged by any manufacturer. Formulate a linear programming
model for this problem.

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Problem 3
There are 10 possible projects that are being considered as components of a river basin
development plan like reservoirs, pumping facilities, flood control, improvement & hydro
electric power plants, etc. Investment and net benefits for each project are tabulated below:

Project Investment cost (x 106 Rs) Net annual benefit (x 106 Rs)
1 120 4
2 150 3
3 90 5
4 210 9
5 160 7
6 180 6
7 90 4
8 100 5
9 80 2
10 140 7

Due to budget constraints the total investment cost for selected projects cannot exceed Rs. 750
million. Projects 2 & 3 can be implemented if project 6 is implemented. Project 10 can be
implemented if projects 8 & 9 are implemented. Project 4 cannot be selected if project 3 is
selected. At least one but not more than 3 of the following projects must be selected i.e, 5,6,7
and/or 8. Formulate this problem as Linear Programming model.

REFERENCES

1. Mays, L.W. and Tung, Y.K., 1992, ‘Hydro systems Engineering and Management’,
McGraw Hill, New Delhi.
2. James, L. D. and Lee, R. R. (1971). Economics of Water Resources Planning. McGraw-Hill
Book Co., New York.
3. Loucks, D.P., Stedinger, J.R. and Haith, D.A. (1981). Water Resources Systems Planning
and Analysis, Prentice Hall Inc., New Jersey.

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APPENDIX

Falkenmark et. al (1989) Criteria

 1700 m3 per capita per year or more, the water shortage is not common (may be local only).
 1000-1700 m3 the region may be treated as water stressed.
 500 to 1000 m3 it is considered as chronically water scarce area.

INDIA’S Water Resources at a Glance

Description Information
Population in 2017 1333 million
Rainfall 150 to 11690 mm (Rajasthan to NE area)
With average of 1190 mm (against world av.
of 1160 mm)
Annual ppt. (including snow) 4000 km3
Average Annual potential flow in rivers 1869 km3
Per capita water availability 1405 m3 per year
Utilizable water resources 1123 km3 (690 SW and 433 GW)
Water Demand 2000 – 634 km3
2017 – 1450 km3
2025 – 1093 km3
2050 – 1450 km3

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