Soil moisture allowable depletion of most crops = 50%

Recommended pressure head variation in the lateral between the first and the last sprinkler =
20%

Small Water Impounding Management (SWIM) project

- Small water impounding dam height is not more than = 30 m

EARTH EMBANKMENTS

Types of Earth Embankments

Simple Embankment - Type of embankment constructed of relatively homogeneous soil

material and either is keyed into an impervious stratum (Fig. 10.1a), or is constructed with an
upstream blanket of impervious material (Fig. 10.2b).

 Generally, homogeneous dams should have relatively flat slopes (1:3 upstream and 1:2
downstream) as insurance against possible instability (ex. excessive seepage).

 Water levels should not be allowed to fall or rise too fast, especially if the embankment
material is impermeable. This is because a rapid lowering of the reservoir could lead to
slumping of the upstream face or, if the wall has been allowed to dry, a rapid rise in level
could lead to erosion through cracks and fissures. Both may eventually result in erosion,
loss of material and, in a worst case scenario, a breach.

 Simple Embankment type is limited to low fills and to sites having sufficient volumes of
satisfactory fill materials available.

Core or Zoned Type - The core or zone type of design places within the dam a central section
of highly impermeable or puddled soil materials extending from above the water line to an
impermeable stratum in the foundation.
The design shown in Fig. 10.2, reduce the percentage of high-grade fill materials needed for
construction.

 Compared with homogeneous embankments, costs are likely to be higher, mainly

because the earthworks material is divided into three categories: pervious for the
 downstream section, impervious for the core (or hearting) and semi-impervious for the
upstream section.
 Slopes, however, can be reduced to around 1:2 upstream and 1:1.75 downstream (or
1:2.25 upstream and 1:2 downstream for sites where only relatively poor impermeable
material is available).
 An ideal example of a zoned dam should be made of the rock toe, which may be
required for stability and to drain the downstream section (gravel drains may be
necessary) and the stone pitching on the upstream face which, in this case, is necessary
for protection of the wall from wave action.

Diaphragm Type - The diaphragm type uses a thin wall of plastic, butyl, concrete, steel or wood
to form barrier against seepage through the fill.

1. Full-diaphragm – cutoff extends from above the water line down to and sealed into
an impervious foundation stratum.
2. Partial-diaphragm – does not extend through this full range and is sometimes referred to
as a cutoff wall

The seepage line is the upper line of the seepage. It is the “line above which there is no
hydrostatic pressure and below which is hydrostatic pressure”. Some refer to it as the “phreatic
line”.
Side Slopes and Berms

 Structures less than 15 m high with average materials, the sideslopes should be no
steeper than 3:1 on the upstream face and 2:1 on the downstream face.

 Coarse, uncompactable soils may need sideslopes of 3:1 or 4:1 to ensure stability.

 In levee construction on major waterways having flood peaks of long duration that cause
maximum saturation of the levee, sideslopes ratios may range as high as 7:1.

 For some subjected to short–duration flood crest, minimum sideslopes of 2:1 may be
provided if they are properly protected at critical points.

Top Width (Crest Width)

 The minimum top width of dams up to 3.5 m in height should be 2.4 m. If the top serves
as a roadway, this minimum should be increased to 3.6 m to provide a 0.6-m shoulder to
prevent raveling.

 On levee subject to short-duration flood peaks, 1-m crowns are adequate.

 On levees subject to sustained peaks, the width usually equals twice the square root of
the height of the structure.

Top widths for dams exceeding 3.5 m in height may be designed by the empirical formula:

W = 0.4H + 1

Where:
W = top width (m)
H = maximum height of embankment (m)

Freeboard

 The distance between the maximum designed water or flood peak level in the reservoir
and the top of the settled dam or embankment constitutes the net freeboard.

 Reference is sometimes made to gross freeboard, or “surcharge”, which is the distance

between the crest of the mechanical spillway and the top of the dam.

Wave height for moderate-size reservoir areas can be determined by:

h = 0.014 (F)0.5

Where:
h = height of wave from trough to crest under maximum wind velocity (m)
F = fetch or exposure (m)

Compaction and Settlement

 Soil compaction is one of the most critical components in the construction of roads,
airfields, embankments, and foundations. The durability and stability of a structure are
related to the achievement of proper soil compaction.

 Compaction is the process of mechanically densifying a soil. Densification is

accomplished by pressing the soil particles together into a close state of contact with air
being expelled from the soil mass in the process.
The volume relationships of soil may be expressed by the formula:

V = Vs + Ve

Where:
V = total in-place volume
Vs = volume of solid particles
Ve = volume of voids, either air or water

Void ratio expressed as;

e = Ve / Vs