CHAPTER IV

1. The magnitude and distribution of the earth pressure acting on a retaining structure or
foundation depends largely upon the relative lateral strain of the soil behind the structure.
Lateral strain.
2. When the soil is prevented from lateral strain (expansion or contraction) by an unyielding
retaining structure of great rigidity, the pressure is known as. Earth pressure at rest
3. If the retaining structure is permitted to move away from the soil allowing a lateral expansion of
the soil, the earth pressure decreases with the increasing expansion. This minimum pressure is
known as. Active earth pressure.
4. If the retaining structure is forced to move backward toward the soil causing a lateral
contraction of the soil, the force required to start the movement is greater than the earth
pressure against a rigid and unyielding wall. At this state of failures, the earth pressure is at a
maximum value known as. Passive earth pressure
5. If the retaining structure is permitted outward movement but is held rigidly to prevent
downward movement, there is a relative vertical movement between the back of the wall and
the soil. Wall friction and adhesion
6. When a part or the entire depth of soil behind the retaining structure is submerged, the lateral
pressure is considered to comprise of two components: one due to the hydrostatic pressure and
the other due to the buoyant weight of soil.
7. Commonly used to calculate the vertical and lateral pressures within a mass of soil due to
surcharge loads. The theory of Elasticity
8. Was utilized in the Rankine theory. The theory of plasticity.
9. First developed by Coulomb and later extended to more general conditions. Wedge Theory
10. Derived for the design of highly indeterminate substructures such as anchored sheet piles and
open cut bracings. Empirical Rules
11. Considers the soil behind the wall as a whole rather than as a single part. Coulomb’s Wedge
Theory
12. The triangular mass of soil between this plane of failure and the back of the wall. The ‘Sliding
Wedge’
13. He developed a general method to account for the various types of possible movement of
retaining structures. He has proved by theory and experiments that the correct earth pressure
can be determined if a compatible sliding wedge or rupture surface is used in the computation.

J. Brinch Hansen

14. The values for the unit weight y, the unit cohesion c, and the angle of internal friction g , to be
used in earth pressure computation should be determined by tests carried out on representative
samples of the material corresponding to the conditions which will exist after construction.
15. The values of c and p may be determined by shear tests or triaxial tests for predominantly
granular soils and may be used directly in the earth pressure computation.
16. Tests have indicated that against a rigid wall the lateral pressure due to an over compacted
backfill may be several times that due to a loose backfill (Sowers et al., 1957). For this reason,
over compaction by heavy equipment should be avoided within the area approximately equal to
the sliding wedge.
 17. When the ground surface is subjected to a uniformly distributed load, the earth pressure
computation is often made by substituting the load by an equivalent surcharge layer. Uniform
load
18. Strip load highways, railroads and continuous wall footings are strip loads when they are parallel
to the retaining structure.
19. A continuous wall footing of narrow width may be taken as a line load when located parallel to
the retaining structure. Line Load
20. A wheel load concentrated on a small area may be treated as a point load. The intensity of
lateral pressure in this case varies not only with the depth but also with the horizontal distance
from the load. Point load
21. Caused by the volume expansion of ice upon change in temperature. Lateral thrust
22. Subjected to ice thrust where the ground water or capillary water is above the frost (depth of
frost penetration) Substructures
23. Usually generated by wind, and occasionally by moving vessels, earthquakes, tides, and
barometric changes. Waves
24. Any structure that retains an expensive clay may be subject to a large swelling pressure when
the upper layer of the clay absorbs water. Swelling pressure
25. When the structure expands or contracts as a result of temperature fluctuation, the
substructure or foundation may be subjected to a lateral movement or a lateral thrust. Thrust
due to thermal expansion
26. Traction forces due to moving railway and highway traffic and due to hoist and crane wheels are
transmitted to the substructure and foundation.
27. Provided with mooring posts for anchoring boats. Moring pull dock structures
28. Ship impact the direct impact of a ship collision against a dock or other water front structure is
usually too large to be taken into account in the design.

ENUMERATION

RANKINE THEORY

1. The ground surface is a straight line (horizontal or sloping surface)

2. The soil mass is in the so-called Rankine state.

 During a rain storm the soil behind the retaining structures contains a large amount of water. If
no drainage is provided in the backfill, the water percolates through the backfill in a downward
direction, continues under the base of the retaining and rises through the soil in front.

THE SEEPAGE WATER AFFECTS A RETAINING STRUCTURE IN SEVERAL WAYS:

1. Increase in weight of soil due to saturation or partial saturation.

2. Uplift on the surface of sliding.
3. Uplift against the base of retaining wall.
4. Reduction in passive resistance. The seepage, pressure exerted by the rising water in front of
the retaining structure tends to uplift the soil grains and hence reduce the passive resistance.
 THE LATERAL PRESSURE INTRODUCED ON A RETAINING STRUCTURE MAY BE CLASSIFIED INTO FOUR
TYPES FOR CONVENIENCE OF COMPUTATION:

a. Uniform Load
b. Strip Load
c. Line Load
d. Point Load

CHAPTER 5

ENUMERATION

PROBLEMS ENCOUNTERED IF THE GROUND WATER IS HIGH:

1. Dewatering the site during construction

2. Foundation Drainage

3. Waterproofing or damp proofing

PURPOSES OF DEWATERING

1. To provide a suitable working surface at the bottom of the excavation.

2. To stabilize the banks of the excavation thus avoiding the hazards of slides and sloughing.
3. To prevent disturbance of the soil at the bottom of excavation caused by boils or piping. Such
disturbance may reduce the bearing power of the soil.

SHEET-PILLING WALL IS USED WHERE:

1. The amount of water inflow in the excavation may be reduced by sheet-piling walls or grout-
curtains
2. The excavation is made in open water, as in the case of bridge piers and abutments
3. The lowering of water level in the surrounding area may damage the foundations of adjacent
structures
4. The space is not sufficient for open excavation

METHODS TO KEEP FLOOR AREA DRY

1. Foundation drainage. The water level is lowered to a depth below the floor elevation
2. Waterproofing. The substructure is made watertight by waterproofing.

PURPOSE OF FILTER MATERIAL

1. Protect the surrounding soil from being carried away through the drain pipe.
2. Prevent clogging the perforations in the drain pipe or openings in the drain tiles.

EMPIRICAL RULES FOR THE SELECTION OF THE FILTER MATERIAL

1. To prevent the movement of particles from the protected soil into or through the filter material
2. To prevent clogging the pipe with filter material moving through the perforation or opening
IMPORTANCE OF WATERPROOFING

1. Protects any substructure from water ingress.

2. To resist the hydrostatic pressure.
3. To reduce the risk of water damage.

THREE METHODS OF WATERPROOFING

1. Hydrolithic Waterproofing
2. Integral Waterproofing
3. Membrane Waterproofing

THREE CATEGORIES OF WATERSTOPS

1. METAL WATERSTOPS
2. RUBBER-TYPE WATERSTOPS
3. MASTIC-TYPE WATERSTOPS

IDENTIFICATION

1. A hole in the ground from which water is being pumped for the purpose of removing water from
the adjoining area. Sumps
2. A two to three-inch diameter pipe two to four feet long which is perforated and covered with a
screen. Well- point
3. A pump designed for pumping water from wells with water levels more than about twenty-five
feet below the pump location. Deep Well Pump
4. It is based on the principle that if positive and negative electrodes are installed in the ground,
and an electric potential is set up, the water molecules will move toward the negative
electrodes (cathode). ELECTROOSMOSIS
5. In this methods of dewatering, a wall of frozen clay is made by, freezing the moist soil of the
area where the excavation is to be carried out. Freezing Method
6. May be driven into the ground to form cofferdams to aid in dewatering. Sheet-piling walls
7. The amount of seepage water entering the excavation can often be cut off or greatly reduced by
a grout curtain wall around the site. Small holes are bored in the ground and grout mix is
injected in the holes. Grout curtain walls
8. Cement, clay, asphalt, chemicals or a combination of two of these materials may be used as
grout material.
9. Generally accomplished by installation of drain tiles or drain pipes adjacent to footings and, if
necessary, under the floor slabs. Foundation Drainage
10. Made of clay or concrete, and the sections are placed butting each other with open joints to
permit the water entering them. Grain tiles
11. It is a continuous barrier for preventing passage of water. This barrier is known as membrane
which is made of two or more layers of bitumen-treated cotton fabrics, or two or more layers of
bitumen treated felth with a middle layer of bitumen-treated cotton fabric. Waterproofing
membrane
12. The purpose of application of waterproofing is to prevent the water to percolate.
 13. This method consists of applications of coats of cement plasters containing iron filling to the
inside face of the substructure after the shrinkage cracks have developed. Hydrolithic
Waterproofing
14. A concrete admixture is used to produce a more watertight concrete. There are variety of
admixtures, ranging from lime to commercially made compounds of undefined composition.
Integral Waterproofing
15. To prevent accumulation of surface moisture from condensation. PURPOSE OF DAMPPROOFING
16. Is used on the exterior surface of substructures above the high water level. It is not effective in
preventing free water under a head, nor effective in preventing moisture from entering cracks
and openings. Damp proofing
17. To prevent water leakage caused by construction joints, contraction, and expansion of joints.
PURPOSE OF WATERSTOPS
18. Made of stainless steel, copper, copperbearing steel, or other durable, corrosion-resisting
material. METAL WATERSTOPS
19. Are available in dumbbell (two-bulb), centerbulb (three-bulb), labyrinth, or similar forms, and
may be made of rubber, neoprene, or some forms of plastic materials. RUBBER-TYPE
WATERSTOPS
20. Made of preformed or poured-in-place mastic material composed of commercially made
compounds. MASTIC-TYPE WATERSTOPS

CHAPTER VI

1. The most common type of foundation constructed in the world as a shallow foundation
especially in the buildings and their related construction works. Spread footing
2. Also called a spread foundation or spread footing foundation. Spread footing
3. It is a type of foundation designed and constructed to support superstructure elements such as
steel or concrete columns, walls, etc. It is the most common type of construction done to rest
the structure on the ground. Spread footing
4. The minimum depth of footings should be one foot for one and two storey dwellings and stores,
two feet for heavier construction.
5. Footings on sloping ground should have sufficient edge distance (minimum 2 to 3 ft) as
protection againts erosion.
6. The ultimate bearing capacity of clay and clayey soils depends primarily upon its consistency (or
shear strength).
7. Determined by allowable bearing pressures are usually satisfactory provided that a settlement
analysis is made and that the footing sizes are revised if the analysis indicates excessive
settlement. Footing Sizes
8. It is the actual load expected to act on the foundation during the normal service of the
structure. The service load
BEARING CAPACITY OF GRANULAR SOILS.

1. The allowable bearing pressure based on ultimate capacity.

This allowable pressure is equal to the ultimate bearing capacity divided by an appropriate factor of
safety. A factor of safety of 3 is usually used under normal loading conditions and a factor of safety
of 2 under combined maximum load.

2. The allowable bearing pressure based on tolerable settlement.

ENUMERATION

TYPES OF FOOTING

 Wall Footing
 Spread Footing
 Steel Grillage
 Monolithic Footing
 Combined Footing
 Strap Footing
 Mat Footing

FOOTINGS MAY BE DESIGNED BY THE FOLLOWING PROCEDURE

1. Calculate the loads applied at top of footings.

2. Sketch a soil profile or soil profiles showing the soil stratification at the site.

3. Establish the maximum water level.

4. Determine the minimum depth of footings.

5. Determine the bearing capacity of the supporting stratum.

6. Proportion the footing sizes.

7. Check for danger of overstressing the soil strata at greater depths.

8. Predict the total and differential settlements

9. Check stability against horizontal forces.

10. Check uplift on individual footings and basement slab.

11. Design the footings.

12. Check the need for foundation drains, waterproofing or damproofing