Sustainability 11 03696

sustainability
Article
A Demountable Connection for Low-Rise Precast
Concrete Structures with DfD for Construction
Sustainability-A Preliminary Test under Cyclic Loads
Gaochuang Cai 2,3 , Feng Xiong 1, *, Yong Xu 4 , Amir Si Larbi 3 , Yang Lu 1 and Mikio Yoshizawa 2
1 Key Laboratory of Deep Underground Science and Engineering (Ministry of Education),
College of Architecture and Environment, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610065, China
2 Department of Architecture, Faculty of Engineering, Fukuoka University, Fukuoka 814-0180, Japan
3 Univ Lyon, Ecole Nationale d’Ingénieurs de Saint-Etienne (ENISE), Laboratoire de Tribologie et de
Dynamique des Systèmes (LTDS), UMR 5513, 58 Rue Jean Parot, 42023 Saint-Etienne Cedex 2, France
4 School of Civil Engineering, Architecture & Environment, Xihua University, Chengdu 610039, China
* Correspondence: fxiong@scu.edu.cn

Received: 11 May 2019; Accepted: 3 July 2019; Published: 5 July 2019
Abstract: As a demountable structure, the structure with design for deconstruction (DfD) is considered
as a key contribution on the promotion of current construction sustainability by directly reusing
valuable components from old structures. As a preliminary study, this paper investigated the cyclic
behavior of bolted joints consisting of three reinforced concrete blocks bolted by steel bolts under
axial compressive, focusing on the damage and failure modes, resistance mechanism and stiffness
development of the joints. Results showed that the number of steel bolts, the tightening process of
the bolts and concrete compressive strength all had a significant effect on the overall performance
and capacity of the joints. The failure mode of most of tested joints was considered as fracture of
stirrups and steel bolts in the tested joints. According to the investigation of this study, several
recommendations on the design of the joints were provided.
Keywords: design for deconstruction (DfD); construction sustainability; bolted joints; component
reusing; demountable components; cyclic behavior; seismic design
1. Introduction
Precast concrete (PcaC) structures play a significant role on modern construction industries, which
can be simply divided into three types for building structures, i.e., PcaC wall-based structures, PcaC
frame structures and PcaC frame-wall combined structures [1–4]. Regardless of which type, however,
the key technology of the PcaC structures is the connection between components, usually including
the connections of column-wall, beam-wall, column-beam, wall-floor, etc. To be specified, the overall
performance of the connections, energy-consuming capacity and economic performance play a leading
role for the PcaC structures. Generally, according to previous research, there were two connection
methods applied widely for the joints, wet joints and dry joints.
Wet-joint is a connection method using re-casting concrete or grouting on the site by working
together with steel bars at the edge of the members, while dry connection is the method of welding or
bolting at the joints. For the wet joints, there may be less secondary concrete placement on site during
assembling. The overall performance of the wet joints is good and can be regarded as equivalent to
that of the cast-in-place connections, but the joint construction may be complicated and the quality
is not easy to guarantee, as well as the cost is high. The construction of dry joints is quick and is
convenient to be constructed, reduces secondary watering on the site and is easy to be maintained and
reused. It can truly reflect the advantages of modern construction industrialization and development
Sustainability 2019, 11, 3696; doi:10.3390/su11133696 www.mdpi.com/journal/sustainability

Sustainability 2019, 11, 3696 2 of 16
Sustainability 2019, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 16

of prefabricated structures. Dry connection has certain application in Europe and other countries,
but it is limited
especially to be usedstructures.
for high-rise in earthquake-prone
The important zones such as Japan
constraint factorand China,
is that the especially for high-riseof
seismic performance
structures. The important
the joints needs constraintto
to be strengthened factor
meetisthethat the seismic of
requirements performance
the structures of the joints
in the needs to be
zones.
strengthened to meet the requirements of the structures in the zones.
On the other hand, as a demountable connection, dry connection is a key technology for the
On the with
structures otherdesign
hand, foras adeconstruction
demountable connection,
(DfD), whichdry canconnection
significantly is apromote
key technology for the
the construction
structures withfor
sustainability design for deconstruction
the reuse of the components (DfD), which can
connected significantly
by the promote
joints, including the construction
almost all structures
sustainability
such as steel and reinforced concrete (RC) structures. The direct reuse of valuableallcomponents
for the reuse of the components connected by the joints, including almost structures
such as steelfrom
obtained and reinforced concrete
old structures (RC) structures.
is being attracted by The direct reuse
engineers andofresearchers
valuable components
worldwide, obtained
for the
from old structures is being attracted by engineers and researchers worldwide,
process of reuse can effectively control the pollution of construction and demolition wastes well, for the process of reuse
can
can effectively control the pollution of construction and demolition wastes
reduce the use amount of raw construction materials for new structures, can consume less energy well, can reduce the use
for
amount of rawofconstruction
the process materials
the construction, for new
which structures,
all can promote canthe
consume less energy
construction for the process
sustainability. of the
Comparing
construction, which of
with the recycling all construction
can promoteand the demolition
construction sustainability.
wastes, the reuse Comparing
of the wasteswith
showstheits
recycling of
superiority,
construction and demolition
as shown in Figure 1. wastes, the reuse of the wastes shows its superiority, as shown in Figure 1.
Figure 1. Roles of reduction, recycling and reuse of wastes in construction sustainability.

Figure 1. Roles of reduction, recycling and reuse of wastes in construction sustainability.
According to the literature, dry connection and wet connection including seaming of fabricated
members According
such astoshearthe literature,
walls have drybeen
connection and wet
researched wellconnection
in the past including
50 years. seaming
In theof1980sfabricated
and
members such as shear walls have been researched well in the past
1990s, Wan et al. [5–8] studied the performance of the wet joints of prefabricated slab structures,50 years. In the 1980s and 1990s,
Wan et al.
including the[5–8] studied
influence ofthe performance
shear span ratio,of the pressure,
axial wet jointsreinforced
of prefabricated
concrete slab
and structures,
joint types including
on the
the influence of shear span ratio, axial pressure, reinforced concrete
joints of large-slab structures was considered. Their results have been compiled into the “Design and joint types on the joints of
large-slab
and Construction structures was considered.
Regulations Their results
for Prefabricated Large-Span have Residential
been compiled into the
Buildings” “Design
[9] and and
are still
Construction Regulations for Prefabricated Large-Span Residential
in use today. In 1989, Rizkalla et al. proposed a keyway-type wet joint to connecting shear walls Buildings” [9] and are still in use
today. In 1989, Rizkalla et al. proposed a keyway-type wet joint to
through for PcaC shear wall systems [10]. The wet joint form of PcaC shear walls was an early and connecting shear walls through
for PcaC shear
extremely simplewallform.systems [10]. the
However, Theoverall
wet joint form of PcaC
performance shear
of the walls
joints was was
muchan early
lowerand than extremely
that of
the cast-in-place joints in the structures, indicating that the joints should be strengthened further.cast-in-
simple form. However, the overall performance of the joints was much lower than that of the After
place
that, manyjoints in the structures,
researchers indicating
[11–17] proposed thatenhancement
some the joints should methodsbe strengthened
to improve the further. After that,
joints proposed
bymany researchers
Rizkalla et al. such[11–17] proposedsteel
as increasing some enhancementand
reinforcement methods to improve
steel plate. In 1996,theseveral
joints proposed
professors by
Rizkalla et al. such as increasing steel reinforcement and steel plate. In
such as Khaled in Canada proposed several types of precast concrete wall joints connected by steel bars, 1996, several professors such
as Khaled
and conducted in Canada proposedtest
a pseudo-static several
on thetypes of precast
precast concrete concrete
walls withwallsteel
joints connected
bars [18–21]. by steel bars,
Among the
andjoints
wall conducted
proposed,a pseudo-static
the methodstest on the precast
connecting concrete
the upper walls with
and lower steel steel
bars bybars [18–21].and
welding Among
bolting the
wall joints proposed, the methods connecting the upper and lower steel
reduced the secondary concrete pouring at the joints. The core ideal of the proposals can be considered bars by welding and bolting
asreduced the secondary
a dry connection concrete
at that time, pouring
already. Afteratthat,
thethe joints.
researchTheon core
dry ideal of thebegan
connection proposals
to appear can inbe
considered
large numbers. as a dry connection at that time, already. After that, the research on dry connection began
to appear in large numbers.
In 2008, Crisafulli and Restrepo [22] proposed a dry connection method referring to the welded
In 2008,
joints for Crisafulli and
steel structures. TheRestrepo
connection [22]method
proposed a dry connection
is simple and convenient,method referring
however, thetoapplication
the welded
joints for steel structures. The connection method is simple and convenient,
to the concrete structure system needs further study. In China, the Ye team [23–26] introduced a however, the application
to the concrete
German composite structure systemand
panel design needs further study.
production In China,
technology, and the Ye teamthe
improved [23–26]
seismic introduced
design of a
German composite
laminated plate shearpanel wallsdesign
[24] andandstudied
production technology,
the shear behavior andofimproved
the joints.theInseismic2010, Henrydesignetof
al. [27–29] proposed a dry joint based on using bolting and welding and then performed et
laminated plate shear walls [24] and studied the shear behavior of the joints. In 2010, Henry al. [27–
a series
of29] proposed
finite element a dry joint and
analyses based on using bolting
experiments of the and welding
dry joints. Inand then
Japan, theperformed
early-age amain series of finite
research
element analyses and experiments of the dry joints. In Japan, the early-age main research findings of
prefabricated shear walls have been published by Architecture institute of Japan, such as Ref. [30].
Takagi et al. and Nagae et al. [31–33] proposed a steel rebar-steel plate welding method for
findings of prefabricated shear walls have been published by Architecture institute of Japan, such as
Ref. [30]. Takagi et al. and Nagae et al. [31–33] proposed a steel rebar-steel plate welding method for
prefabricated shear walls. In this joint, the floor slab is placed on the lower shear wall, the root of the
upper shear wall is designed with an open connected by a wielded steel plate, and then the steel bars
of the upper and lower shear walls are welded on the steel plates. Finally, the opening is closed with a
non-shrinking high-strength mortar. Jiang et al. [34–38] also carried out many studies on assembled
RC shear walls, and first proposed the "inserted reserved hole grouting steel lap joint members” for the
wet joints [36]. The connection method used simple and effective spiral reinforcement stirrups inside,
which strengthened the ferrule effect on the concrete and enhanced the anchoring performance of the
steel inside the concrete [37,38]. The research teams of Qian et al. [39–41] proposed a vertical steel
sleeve slurry anchor connection for PcaC shear walls, a single row steel bar indirect overlap method.
Its failure mode, energy consumption capacity, stiffness, etc. was proved to be basically the same as
the cast-in-place structure, and can be used as a joint connection for fabricated structures [42].
In recent years, Sun et al. [43] proposed a new fully assembled RC shear wall (IPSW) structure
connected by high-strength bolts. Their core idea was: the horizontal joints were welded to an inset
frame, which was first placed on PcaC wall panels and the lower edge, by connecting the end of the
vertical reinforcing bar ends. The adjacent walls were connected by means of connecting steel frames
and high-strength bolts for transferring the forces between adjacent wall panels. Since that, more
domestic studies on dry nodes started to be presented in China, but the main research direction was
focused on the form and behavior of dry-type joints, and the research on the overall performance and
stress analysis of dry-type nodes is limited.
In summary, the form of previous proposed wet connections is usually complex comparing with
dry connection. Since the wet joint solution has the ability to be equivalent to cast-in-place, early
studies on the joints have focused on wet joints. The research on the wet connection joints of fabricated
concrete structure has achieved a series of considerable results, however, the joints have the following
problems: (1) The wet connection method can only increase the speed of construction to a certain extent,
for secondary casting processes of concrete usually is necessary; (2) the construction quality of the wet
connections is not easy to guarantee [33,34,40]; (3) the wet connection is costly [35]. Compared with
wet connection solutions, dry connection solutions can effectively overcome the above problems, and
have the advantages of reducing pollution on the site, reducing resource waste, and simplifying the
construction process. In recent years, the research trend of fabricated shear wall joints has begun to
shift to dry connection. In China, a variety of fabricated shear wall structure joints based on reserved
holes and sleeve grouting have been proposed. With the improvement of construction quality and the
requirements of construction speed, the research of dry joints began popular. At present, the research
on dry joints mainly focuses on the verification of dry connection, the research on the resistance
mechanism of dry joints is limited. The main objective of the study is to investigate the structural
behavior of demountable bolted joints under cyclic loads to analyze the resistance mechanism of the
joints under cyclic shear loading, to study the feasibility and overall performance of the joints for the
low-rise structures in earthquake-prone zones.
2. Proposal of a Prefabricated Shear Wall System with DfD for Low-Rise Buildings
The study proposed a prefabricated shear wall system with DfD for low-rise buildings in
earthquake zones with low and moderate seismic intensity. The horizontal and vertical components
of the buildings are connected by demountable joint zones consisting of steel bolts and steel plates.
The system can be assembled fast and easily, and be deconstructed when necessary, which is easy
to reuse for next service life. Figure 2 elaborates the construction and deconstruction process of the
system. After or during the deconstruction phage, the valuable and reusable components or elements
in the structures first will be collected, and then their various performances such as structural capacity
will be evaluated and improved if necessary. The components or elements will appear in a construction
site of a new structure, as new components for the structure. This process extends the lifespan of the
elements and saves the raw materials needed for construction industries, which both promote the
construction sustainability. The main components and their features of the prefabricated shear wall
systems with DfD for low-rise buildings are summarized as:
1) Prefabricated corner members. The members work as tie columns in frame structures, which are
1) Prefabricated corner members.
divided into T-shaped, L-shapedThe
or members work
cross-shaped as tie columns
members in frameofstructures,
at the corners which are
the structures.
2) divided into T-shaped, L-shaped or cross-shaped members at the corners of
Prefabricated wall panels. The panels are connected with their surrounding members by dry the structures.
2) Prefabricated
nodes around thewallpanels.
panels. The
The panels
joints are horizontal
include connected andwithvertical
their surrounding membersbetween
type joints connected by dry
nodes around the panels. The joints include horizontal and vertical type
the panels and corner members. The horizontal joints could be more complex for they are formedjoints connected
between the panels
by connecting and corner
the lower members.
wall panel, floorThe
slabhorizontal joints could
and the upper be more
wall panel complex
at the same for
timethey
in
are
someformed
cases. by connecting the lower wall panel, floor slab and the upper wall panel at the same
3) time in some cases.
Prefabricated slabs (roof panels). The elements are similar to the prefabricated wall panels
3) Prefabricated
described above. slabsThe(roof
fourpanels).
corners The
of theelements are similar
prefabricated slab areto recessed
the prefabricated
inwardly to wall panels
allow the
described above. The four corners of the prefabricated slab are recessed inwardly
prefabricated corner members to pass through. The edges of the slab are made as invisible beams to allow the
prefabricated corner members to pass through. The edges of the slab are made
to reinforce the joint zone and protrude 100 mm to overlap surrounding wall panels. Finally, as invisible beams
to
thereinforce
wall panelthepasses
joint zone and protrude
through 100 mm to overlap surrounding wall panels. Finally, the
the dry connection.
wall panel passes through the dry connection.
Figure 2.2. Construction and deconstruction of precast concrete (PcaC)

Figure (PcaC) structures
structures with
with design
design for
for
deconstruction(DfD)
deconstruction (DfD)for
forlow-rise
low-risebuildings.
buildings.
As
As shown
shown inin Figure
Figure 2,
2, the
the installation
installation and
and construction
construction processes
processes of
of the
the proposed
proposed structures
structures are
are
summarized
summarized as:
as:
1)
1) Leveling the site and pouring foundation
foundation beams at the the prefabricated
prefabricated corner
corner members
members and and the
the
bottom surface of prefabricated wallboard, and pre-burying dry joints in the foundation
pre-burying dry joints in the foundation beams. beams.
2)
2) Positioning the prefabricated columns members. The prefabricated members are bolted bolted toto the
the
dry joints of the foundation beams by connecting steel plates.plates.
3)
3) The prefabricated wall panels are connected
connected with
with the
the foundation
foundation beams
beams and
and the
the prefabricated
prefabricated
columns by bolting dry joints to make the walls and the foundation
foundation beams
beams become
become aa whole.
whole.
4)
4) PcaC floor slabs are overlapped at the reserved
reserved groove
groove of of wall
wall panels
panels and
and prefabricated
prefabricated column
column
members, and the positions are determined, and and then
then the
the dry
dry connections
connections are
are bolted
bolted to
to the
the wall
wall
panels to form a layer of the structures.
structures.
5)
5) Repeat the above
Repeat the above steps
steps to
to complete
complete the
the installation
installation of
of the
the structure.
structure.
As the
As the key
key points
points of
of the
the systems
systems withwith DfD,
DfD, referring
referring to
to the
the bolt
boltconnection
connection method
method applied
applied inin
steel structures,
steel structures, the
the proposed
proposed steel-bolted
steel-bolted connection
connection consists
consists ofof steel
steel bolts
bolts and
and steel
steel plate.
plate. Firstly,
Firstly,
the bolt holes are reserved and set in the invisible beam and column zones of the
the bolt holes are reserved and set in the invisible beam and column zones of the components usingcomponents using
Polyvinylchloride
Polyvinyl chloride (PVC)
(PVC) pipes.
pipes. AfterAfter aligning
aligning the components
the components accordingaccording to the
to the holes, thecomponents
holes, the
components are connected by the bolts and steel plates,
are connected by the bolts and steel plates, as shown in Figure 3. as shown in Figure 3.
Sustainability
Sustainability 2019,
2019, 11,11,
x xFOR
FORPEER
PEER REVIEW
REVIEW 5 of 16 5 of 16
Figure 3. The bolted connection for the proposed PcaC wall-based system.
3. Experimental
3. Experimental Investigation
Investigation
This section
3. Experimental studied the connection method proposed through experimentally investigating the
Investigation
This section studied the connection method proposed through experimentally investigating the
vertical bolted joints consisting of three reinforced concrete blocks, demountable steel bolts and steel
vertical This
plate. Itsection
boltedshould studied
joints noticedthethat
beconsisting connection
ofthe
three method
reinforced
specimens proposed
used concrete through
blocks, experimentally
for the preliminary demountable
study were of steel investigating
small scale andthe
bolts steel
vertical
plate. bolted
It should
meaning thatjoints
be consisting
the noticed
effect thatof
of geometrythe threethereinforced
specimens
of specimensusedconcrete
for be
should blocks,
the demountable
preliminary
taken into accountstudy steel
were
in future bolts
of and
studies.smallsteel
scale
plate. Itthat
meaning should be noticed
the effect that theofspecimens
of geometry the specimensused for the preliminary
should be taken intostudyaccountwereinof smallstudies.
future scale
3.1. Details
meaning thatofthe
Test Specimens
effect of geometry of the specimens should be taken into account in future studies.
3.1. Details of Test
Figure Specimens
4 shows the details of the specimens. Before casting the concrete blocks, 25 mm diameter
3.1.PVC
Details of Test
pipes wereSpecimens
used to set the positions of bolt holes. A gap of 10 mm was reserved between the
Figure 4 shows the details of the specimens. Before casting the concrete blocks, 25 mm diameter
concrete blocks when assembling. The steel bolts and steel plates were paved and the concrete blocks
PVC were Figure
pipes 4 shows
were used the
to details
set the of the specimens. boltBefore casting the concrete blocks, 25 mmbetween
diameterthe
connected by fastened boltspositions
to form theof vertical holes. A gap
bolted joint of 10
specimens. mm was
A total reserved
of five specimens
PVC
concrete pipes
wereblocks
were
made,when
used to set
whoseassembling.
the
main study The
positions of bolt
steel bolts
parameters
holes.
are and
listedsteel
A gap of 10
plates1. were
in Table
mm was reserved
pavedvariables
The main
between
and theinclude the
concrete blocks
concrete blocks
were compressive
connected by when assembling.
fastened
strength bolts tothe
of concrete, The
form steel bolts
the of
number and
vertical
bolts and steel
bolted plates were paved
joint specimens.
the arrangement and
of boltsA the
in total concrete
of five
the joints. blocks
Thespecimens
were
were M20connected
made, steel boltsby
whose fastened
were
main studybolts
adopted for to
theform
parameters the
joints. The
are vertical inbolted
Table joint
reinforcement
listed 1.and specimens.
steel
The plate
main A totalinclude
diagram
variables ofofthe
five specimens
joints
compressive
wereare shown in Figure 4 and Table 1. In addition, the basic material properties are shown in Table 2. include
made, whose main study parameters are listed in Table 1. The main variables
strength of concrete, the number of bolts and the arrangement of bolts in the joints. The M20 steel
compressive strength of concrete, the number of bolts and the arrangement of bolts in the joints. The
bolts were adopted for the joints. The reinforcement and steel plate diagram of the joints are shown in
M20 steel bolts were adopted for the joints. The reinforcement and steel plate diagram of the joints
Figure 4 and Table 1. In addition, the basic material properties are shown in Table 2.
are shown in Figure 4 and Table 1. In addition, the basic material properties are shown in Table 2.
Figure 4. Details of joint specimens.
Figure 4.
Figure 4. Details
Details of
ofjoint
jointspecimens.
specimens.

Table 1. Details of specimens.
Table 1. Details of specimens.
Size of Blocks Stirrups #of bolts / Line# Steel Plate (Length ×
# 3)
(mm33) Stirrups(D@
(D@ Spacing)
#of bolts / Line#of
ofBolts Steel Width × Thickness;
Plate (Length × Width mm
×
# Size of Blocks (mm )
Spacing) Bolts Thickness; mm3)
LSSZ4,LSSZ4,
5 5 200 ××950
860 × 860 200 × 950 D8@150 D8@150 4/2 Lines 4/2 Lines 140×× 140
240 ×240 8 ×8
LSSZ11LSSZ11 200 ××950
880 × 880 200 × 950 D8@150 +
D8@150 + D8@100 4/2 Lines 4/2 Lines 140×× 140
220 ×220 8 ×8
LSSZ12LSSZ12 880 × 200
880 × 200 × 950 × 950 D8@100(joint zone) 6/3 Lines 6/3 Lines 220 × 200 × 8 × 8
220 × 200
LSSZ13LSSZ13 880 × 200
880 × 200 × 950 × 950 (joint zone) 6/3 Lines
6/3 Lines (staggered) 200×× 200
280 ×280 8 ×8
(staggered)
Table 2. Material properties.
Table 2. Material properties.
Concrete Materials Steel Materials fy (MPa)/ fu (MPa)/εy (10-6)
Specimens -6 )
fcuConcrete
(MPa) Materials
Ec (MPa) εy (10 ) Steel
-6 fy (MPa)/Q235B
C8MaterialsC12 fu (MPa)/εy (10Bolts
Specimens
LSSZ4 fcu (MPa)24.6 Ec (MPa) 28117
εy (10 )
-6 262C8 438.4/ C12 459.3/ 283.3/
Q235B 320.0/Bolts
LSSZ4 24.6 22.7 28117 262 619.1/ 639.9/ 399.8/ 407.1/
LSSZ5 23779 286
438.4/619.1/2192 459.3/639.9/2297 283.3/399.8/1417 320.0/407.1/1600
LSSZ5 22.7 23779 286 2192 2297 1417 1600
LSSZ11
LSSZ11 50.4 50.4 34622 34622
292 292
420.9/ 420.9/ 447.6/ 447.6/ 291.4/
291.4/ 320.0/320.0/
LSSZ12
LSSZ12 50.4 50.4 34622 292
34622 595.0/ 595.0/ 623.3/
292 623.3/ 397.5/
397.5/ 407.1/407.1/
LSSZ13 35.7 31525 340 2105 2238 1457 1600
LSSZ13 35.7 31525 340 2105 2238 1457 1600
3.2.3.2. Loading
Loading Method
Method andand Measurement
Measurement
TheThe loading
loading methodapplied
method applied inin the
the current
currentstudy
studywas wasas as
perper
“Standard
“Standardfor test
for method of concrete
test method of
concrete structures” [44] and “Specification for seismic test of buildings” [45]. The controllingloading
structures” [44] and “Specification for seismic test of buildings” [45]. The controlling of the of the of
the specimens
loading was loading-control
of the specimens at the first
was loading-control atstage, andstage,
the first then was
and changed
then wasaschanged
a load-displacement
as a load-
controlling method after the specimens yielded. The details of the loading history
displacement controlling method after the specimens yielded. The details of the loading history are shown in Figure
are 5.
When the bearing capacity of the specimens dropped below 85% of
shown in Figure 5. When the bearing capacity of the specimens dropped below 85% of theirtheir corresponding maximum
load or the specimen
corresponding maximum was damaged
load heavily, the
or the specimen wastests were stopped.
damaged During
heavily, the tests the
were tests, whenDuring
stopped. the strain
of reinforcement, or steel plate or concrete reached their yield levels or when the specimens
the tests, when the strain of reinforcement, or steel plate or concrete reached their yield levels or when presented
thean obvious plastic
specimens deformation,
presented an obviousthe specimens
plastic were considered
deformation, the specimens reaching
were their yield status.
considered reachingThe
observations and records of the test include mainly: (a) Damage of the
their yield status. The observations and records of the test include mainly: (a) Damage ofspecimens, including cracking,
the
concrete crushing, etc., which all were recorded at the corresponding positions;
specimens, including cracking, concrete crushing, etc., which all were recorded at the corresponding (b) compressive load
and vertical
positions; displacement load
(b) compressive and (c)andstress and strain
vertical history of and
displacement reinforcements,
(c) stress and concrete
strainand steel plates.
history of
It should be noticed that the condition of the applied hydraulic jack was abnormal
reinforcements, concrete and steel plates. It should be noticed that the condition of the applied at the early stage
of loading
hydraulic jackduring the testing
was abnormal of early
at the the specimen LSSZ11.during
stage of loading In thisthe
study, therefore,
testing the behavior
of the specimen of the
LSSZ11.
specimen
In this study,was presented
therefore, as a referring.
the behavior of the specimen was presented as a referring.
Increment = 40kN
Cycle of each level: 2
Yield displacement (Δy)
Applied loads (kN)
4Δy
Py (yield load)
3Δy
Preloading
1Δy
1 11 21 31 41 51 61 71
Loading steps
Figure
Figure 5. Load
5. Load history.
history.
4. Results
4.1. Damage Observation

4. Results
Sustainability
4.1. Damage2019, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW
Observation 7 of 16
The
The failure process of
failure process of the
the bolted
boltedjoint
jointspecimens
specimensLSSZ4 LSSZ4and andLSSZ5
LSSZ5 was
was basically
basically thethe same,
same, as
as shown in Figure 6. The deformation and damage process of the specimens
shown in Figure 6. The deformation and damage process of the specimens was: (1) The initial test was: (1) The initial test
phase,
phase,thethe specimens
specimensremained
remainedintact.
intact. (2)
(2) When
When thethe load
load reached
reached about
about 80 80 kN,
kN, the
the concrete
concrete crackcrack first
first
appeared
appearedaroundaroundthe theright
rightbolt
bolt#4#4
of of
thethecentral block
central andand
block developed
developed obliquely downward.
obliquely downward. AfterAfter
that,
the
that,concrete around
the concrete the bolts
around the #1 and#1#4and
bolts presented obliqueoblique
#4 presented cracks.cracks.
(3) After
(3) the load
After thereached
load reachedabout
180 kN,180
about thekN,concrete around around
the concrete the boltsthe #1 bolts
and #4#1was
andcrushed
#4 was and the inner
crushed and thereinforcements of the block
inner reinforcements of
were gradually
the block exposed. At
were gradually this time,
exposed. the time,
At this steel plate began
the steel plateto began
show signs
to showof asigns
rotation
of a with
rotation the with
bolt
#3
thearound
bolt #3 the side the
around blocks. The rotation
side blocks. of the steel
The rotation of the plate
steelcaused the concrete
plate caused aroundaround
the concrete the bolt thetobolt
be
crushed under under
to be crushed pressure, and theand
pressure, boltsthe
#1,bolts
#4 and
#1,the
#4 surrounding concrete or
and the surrounding steel bars
concrete were bars
or steel squeezed
were
to cause the surrounding concretes to be crushed, the longitudinal rib and
squeezed to cause the surrounding concretes to be crushed, the longitudinal rib and the hoop of the the hoop of the blocks
started to yield.
blocks started to After
yield. that,
Afterthe concrete
that, around
the concrete the bolts
around the #2 and
bolts #2#3andwas#3 cracked
was crackedfurther. AfterAfter
further. the
concrete
the concretearound the bolts
around the #2 and #2
bolts #3 was
and crushed,
#3 was the steel plate
crushed, rotated
the steel greatly
plate and the
rotated surrounding
greatly and the
concrete was damaged heavily. The central block lost its restraint and the
surrounding concrete was damaged heavily. The central block lost its restraint and the specimens specimens were destroyed.
In summary,
were destroyed.when Inthe specimens
summary, whenLSSZ4 the and LSSZ5 were
specimens LSSZ4 destroyed
and LSSZ5 heavily,
werethe concreteheavily,
destroyed in the joint the
zone wasin
concrete seriously
the jointdamaged. The longitudinal
zone was seriously damaged. steel
Therebars inside the
longitudinal blocks
steel hadinside
rebars reached
the yield
blockslevel.
had
The steel yield
reached plate level.
rotatedThearound the side
steel plate bolt #3
rotated in thethe
around sideside
blocks,
bolt and
#3 inthe
thebolts
sidewere lessand
blocks, damaged
the bolts in
the
weretwolessspecimens.
damaged in the two specimens.
Figure 6.
Figure 6. Damage
Damage of
of the
the bolted
bolted joint
joint LSSZ4
LSSZ4
Figure 7 shows the damage and deformation of the specimen LSSZ11. The specimen used more
Figure 7 shows the damage and deformation of the specimen LSSZ11. The specimen used more
stirrups in its joint zone compared to the specimens LSSZ4 and LSSZ5, but using the same number
stirrups in its joint zone compared to the specimens LSSZ4 and LSSZ5, but using the same number of
of bolts in all the three joints. The first crack was found when the loading reached about 120 kN and
bolts in all the three joints. The first crack was found when the loading reached about 120 kN and at
at below of bolt #4 and then was developed obliquely. The damage observation in the joint was
below of bolt #4 and then was developed obliquely. The damage observation in the joint was basically
basically the same as that of the above two specimens. As the loading progressed, the oblique cracks
the same as that of the above two specimens. As the loading progressed, the oblique cracks appeared
appeared in the concrete around the bolts #1 and #4 and concrete was crushed, and the steel plate
in the concrete around the bolts #1 and #4 and concrete was crushed, and the steel plate also rotated
also rotated around the bolt #3 as the loading progressed, as shown in Figure 7c. When the load
around the bolt #3 as the loading progressed, as shown in Figure 7c. When the load reached about
reached about 400 kN, the bolt #1 in the left block was suddenly cut, and a large displacement was
400 kN, the bolt #1 in the left block was suddenly cut, and a large displacement was confirmed in the
confirmed in the central block. The steel plate rotated around the bolt #3 and immediately caused the
central block. The steel plate rotated around the bolt #3 and immediately caused the longitudinal
longitudinal reinforcement of the joint zone of the right block to be bent, the stirrup was then broken
reinforcement of the joint zone of the right block to be bent, the stirrup was then broken and the bolt #1
and the bolt #1 was pulled out. At that time, the central block lost its constraint from two side blocks,
was pulled out. At that time, the central block lost its constraint from two side blocks, the vertical
the vertical displacement was largely increased, and the test specimen was then destroyed totally
displacement was largely increased, and the test specimen was then destroyed totally (Figure 7d).
(Figure 7d). The damage characteristics of specimen LSSZ11 at an early stage were basically
The damage characteristics of specimen LSSZ11 at an early stage were basically consistent with those
consistent with those of the specimens LSSZ4 and LSSZ5, because all the specimens used the same
of the specimens LSSZ4 and LSSZ5, because all the specimens used the same number of bolts in the
number of bolts in the joints. Due to more stirrups were used in LSSZ11, the concrete cracks appeared
joints. Due to more stirrups were used in LSSZ11, the concrete cracks appeared later and the bolt
later and the bolt shearing fracture occurred for they were subjected higher resistance from the
shearing fracture occurred for they were subjected higher resistance from the stronger joint (Figure 7d).
stronger joint (Figure 7d).
Sustainability2019,
Sustainability 2019,11,
11,xxFOR
FORPEER
PEERREVIEW
REVIEW 88ofof16
16
Figure
Figure7.
Figure Damage
Damageof
7.7.Damage ofspecimen
of specimenLSSZ11.
specimen LSSZ11.
LSSZ11.
The
Thedamage
damageprocessprocessof ofthe
thespecimens
specimensLSSZ12 LSSZ12
LSSZ12and and LSSZ13
andLSSZ13
LSSZ13was was similar,
wassimilar,
similar,as as shown
asshown
shownin in Figure
inFigure
Figure8, 8,8,
The damage process of the specimens
which
whichwas was summarized
wassummarized
summarizedhere here taking
heretaking LSSZ12
takingLSSZ12
LSSZ12as as an
asan example,
anexample,
example,as as following:
asfollowing:
following:The The oblique
Theoblique cracks
obliquecracks mainly
cracksmainly
mainly
which
appeared
appeared around
around the
the bolts
bolts #1#1and
and #6
#6 when
when the
theloading
loading was
was increased
increased totoabout
about 280
280 kN.
kN. The
The vertical
vertical
appeared around the bolts #1 and #6 when the loading was increased to about 280 kN. The vertical
displacement
displacementof ofthe
thecentral
centralblocks
blocksin inboth
bothspecimens
specimenswas wassmallsmallat this
thisstage.
stage.After
Afterthat,
that,thethestrain
displacement of the central blocks in both specimens was small atatthis stage. After that, the strain
strain
value
value ofofthe
the longitudinal
longitudinal bars
bars in
in the
the joints
joints reached
reached or
or exceeded
exceeded their
their tensile
tensile yield
yield level.
level. From
From ∆Δy ytoto
value of the longitudinal bars in the joints reached or exceeded their tensile yield level. From Δy to
2∆2Δyy,y,,the
the concrete
theconcrete
concretecracks cracks developed
cracks developedaround aroundthe thebolts
bolts#1#1andand #6,#6,
andand thenthen gradually
gradually became
became longer
longer and
2Δ developed around the bolts #1 and #6, and then gradually became longer and
and
widerandwider and
andbegan began
beganto to
tospall spall
spalloff off
off(Figure (Figure
(Figure8b 8band 8b,c).
andc). After
c).After
Afterthethe concrete
theconcrete
concretearound around
aroundthe the bolts
thebolts
bolts#1 #1
#1and and
and#6 #6
#6beganbegan
beganto to
wider
tobebe crushed,
crushed, thethe concrete
concrete cracks
cracks beganbegan to to appear
appear around
around the the bolts
bolts #2 and#2 #5,andand #5, the
andsteel
the plate
steel began
plate
be crushed, the concrete cracks began to appear around the bolts #2 and #5, and the steel plate began
began
torotate
rotate to rotate
around around
thebolt the
bolt #5.bolt #5.the
Then, Then,
bolts the bolts
#1and
and#6 #1significantly
#6 and #6 significantly
offsetfrom fromoffset from
thebolt the bolt
boltholes
holes andholes
were
to around the #5. Then, the bolts #1 significantly offset the and were
and were
squeezedby squeezed
bythe by
thesurrounding the surrounding
surroundingconcreteconcreteand concrete
andsteel
steelbarsand
barsto steel
tocause bars
causethe to cause
thesurrounding the
surroundingconcrete surrounding
concretewas concrete
wascrushed,
crushed,
squeezed
was
andcrushed, and the longitudinal
thelongitudinal
longitudinal ribsandandthe ribs
thestirrups and the
stirrups were stirrups
deformed wereindeformed
theblocks.
blocks. in Subsequently,
the blocks. Subsequently,
thestirrups
stirrups
and the ribs were deformed in the Subsequently, the
the stirrups
aroundthe around
thebolts
bolts#1 the
#1and bolts
and#6 #1 and
#6fractured, #6
fractured,and fractured,
andthe theboltand
bolt#1 the
#1in bolt
inthe #1
theleft in the
leftblock
blockwasleft block
wascut. was
cut.After cut.
Afterthat, After
that,thethethat,
test
around test
the test
specimens specimens
can can
continue continue
to resistto resist
till about till about
570 kN, 570
the kN,
bolt the
#1 bolt
in the #1 in
right the right
block block
was cut, was
and cut,
the and
steel
specimens can continue to resist till about 570 kN, the bolt #1 in the right block was cut, and the steel
the
platesteel plate rotated
rotated largely.largely.
Finally,Finally,
thebolt
boltthe#6bolt
was#6 was pulled
pulled awayfrom away
fromthefrom
thebolt the hole
bolt bolt hole
andtheand the specimen
thespecimen
specimen was
plate rotated largely. Finally, the #6 was pulled away hole and was
was broken
brokentotally totally
totally(see (see
(seeFigure Figure
Figure8). 8).
8).The The
Thedamage damage
damageof of
ofLSSZ12 LSSZ12
LSSZ12was was summarized
wassummarized
summarizedas: as:Theas: The
Theconcrete concrete
concretein inthe in the
thejoint
joint
broken
joint
zone zone
was was seriously
seriously damaged,
damaged, the the longitudinalreinforcements
longitudinal reinforcementsinside insidethe the blocks
blocks were
were obviously
obviously
zone was seriously damaged, the longitudinal reinforcements inside the blocks were obviously
deformed
deformedand andthe thestirrups
stirrupswerewerefractured,
fractured,the thesteel
steelplate rotated
platerotated around
rotatedaround
aroundthe the side
theside steel
sidesteel bolts
steelbolts (bolt
bolts(bolt #5)
(bolt#5)#5)
deformed and the stirrups were fractured, the steel plate
and
andthe the bolts
thebolts in
boltsin the
inthe upper
theupper corner
uppercorner of
cornerof the two
ofthe
thetwo side
twoside blocks
sideblocks(bolt
blocks(bolt #1) also
(bolt#1)#1)alsowere
alsowere usually
wereusually cut. Compared
usuallycut. cut.Compared with
Compared
and
specimen
withspecimen LSSZ11,
specimen the specimens
LSSZ11, thespecimensLSSZ12LSSZ12
specimens and LSSZ13 have a higher
andLSSZ13
LSSZ13 bearing
haveaahigherhigherbearing capacitycapacity
bearing and more andductile
more
with LSSZ11, the LSSZ12 and have capacity and more
damage
ductiledamage characteristics.
damagecharacteristics.
characteristics.
ductile
Figure
Figure8. Damage
Damageofofspecimen
specimenLSSZ12.
Figure 8.8.Damage of specimen LSSZ12.
LSSZ12.
4.2. Load-Displacement Relationship
4.2.Load-Displacement
4.2. Load-DisplacementRelationship
Relationship
The load-displacement curves of the tested bolted joints are shown in Figure 9. The abnormal
Theload-displacement
The load-displacementcurves curvesofofthe
thetested
testedbolted
boltedjoints
jointsare
areshown
shown inFigure
Figure 9.TheTheabnormal
abnormal
behavior of the LSSZ11 was caused by the abnormal condition of hydraulic injack. The 9.
characteristics of
behaviorof
behavior of theLSSZ11
LSSZ11waswascaused
caused bythe theabnormal
abnormalcondition
conditionof ofhydraulic
hydraulicjack.
jack.The
Thecharacteristics
characteristics
the hysteresisthe
curves of the specimensby(except for LSSZ11) are as follows: (1) The residual deformation
of the
of the hysteresis
hysteresis curves
curves ofof the
the specimens
specimens (except
(except for
for LSSZ11)
LSSZ11) are as as follows:
follows: (1)
(1) The
The residual
residual
of the specimens LSSZ4 and LSSZ5 after unloading was large, and are
the smooth section caused by the
deformation
deformation of
of the
the specimens
specimens LSSZ4
LSSZ4 and
and LSSZ5
LSSZ5 after
after unloading
unloading was
was large,
large, and
and the
the smooth
smooth section
section
slippage of the bolts occurred after the load reached about 160 kN. After the peak load was reached,
causedby
caused bythe
theslippage
slippageofofthe
thebolts
boltsoccurred
occurredafter
afterthe
theload
loadreached
reachedabout
about160
160kN.
kN.After
Afterthe
thepeak
peakload
load
was reached, the load-displacement curves dropped sharply for the joints were
was reached, the load-displacement curves dropped sharply for the joints were not able to continuenot able to continue

the load-displacement curves dropped sharply for the joints were not able to continue to resist the
compressive force. (2) The deformation of the specimens LSSZ12 and LSSZ13 were less till the loading
to resist the compressive force. (2) The deformation of the specimens LSSZ12 and LSSZ13 were less
of 150 kN and was basically in their elastic phases. After that phase, the specimens shown a large
till the loading of 150 kN and was basically in their elastic phases. After that phase, the specimens
plastic deformation stage where the displacement increased rapidly but the axial load raised less,
shown a large plastic deformation stage where the displacement increased rapidly but the axial load
indicating that large damage occurred in the joint zone led to the larger slippage of the bolts. At
raised less, indicating that large damage occurred in the joint zone led to the larger slippage of the
the same time, the area of the hysteresis loop increased meaning that the energy consumption of
bolts. At the same time, the area of the hysteresis loop increased meaning that the energy
the specimens increased for their plastic damage. (3) The specimen LSSZ12 exhibited some sudden
consumption of the specimens increased for their plastic damage. (3) The specimen LSSZ12 exhibited
changes at the latter loading stage in the load-displacement curve due to the shearing fracture of
some sudden changes at the latter loading stage in the load-displacement curve due to the shearing
several bolts around 65 mm and 85 mm, while LSSZ13 also exhibited some similar drop sections at the
fracture of several bolts around 65 mm and 85 mm, while LSSZ13 also exhibited some similar drop
displacement of 23 mm, 30 mm and 78 mm. In summary, the general characteristics of the curves of the
sections at the displacement of 23 mm, 30 mm and 78 mm. In summary, the general characteristics of
bolted joints were: The load-displacement curves were not very full and the specimens owned a good
the curves of the bolted joints were: The load-displacement curves were not very full and the
ductility to absorb deformation energy. However, the large slippage of the steel bolts was observed in
specimens owned a good ductility to absorb deformation energy. However, the large slippage of the
all the bolted joints.
steel bolts was observed in all the bolted joints.
600 600 600
LSSZ4 LSSZ5 LSSZ11
500 500 500
(4)
400 400
Applied Load (kN)

400
Applied Load (kN)
Applied Load (kN)
(2) (3)
300 (3) 300 300
(1) (2)
(1) (1)
200 200 (6) 200 (6)
(6)
100 100 100
(3)
0 0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100
Displacement (mm) Displacement (mm) Displacement (mm)
600 600
LSSZ12 LSSZ13 Main observations
500 500
(3) (1) (6) (1) The main stage of slippage
(5)
400 400
Applied Load (kN)
Applied Load (kN)
(2) Steel blots heavily destoryed boles;

(4) (1) (6) (3) Concrete crushing near the holes;
300 300
(4) Shearing fracture of first blot
200 200 (5) Shearing fracture of other blots
(6) Obvious ration of joint
100 100
(4) (5)
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100
Displacement (mm) Displacement (mm)
Figure 9. Load-displacement relationship of tested specimens.

Figure 9. Load-displacement relationship of tested specimens.
4.3. Skeleton Curves
4.3. Skeleton Curves
The skeleton curves of the bolted joints are shown in Figure 10. The overall characteristics of
The skeleton
the skeleton curves curves of the bolted as:
are summarized joints
(1)are
Whenshown theinspecimens
Figure 10.LSSZ4
The overall characteristics
and LSSZ5 reachedof the
their
skeleton curves are summarized as: (1) When the specimens LSSZ4 and
peak loads, the curves both dropped rapidly indicating that the specimens quickly lost their bearing LSSZ5 reached their peak
loads, theFor
capacity. curves
this, both droppedofrapidly
the damages the twoindicating
specimens that
were theconsidered
specimensas quickly
a brittlelost their damage.
plastic bearing
capacity. For this, the damages of the two specimens were considered as
(2) The skeleton curve of the specimen LSSZ11 was basically the same as those of the specimens LSSZ4a brittle plastic damage. (2)
The LSSZ5,
and skeletonexcept
curve for of the specimen
its peak loadingLSSZ11 was basically
capacity. (3) Due tothe thesame as those
increase of number
of the the specimens
of steelLSSZ4
bolts,
and LSSZ5, except for its peak loading capacity. (3) Due to the increase
the specimens LSSZ12 and LSSZ13 presented the significantly higher peak load than other specimens. of the number of steel bolts,
thelonger
A specimens LSSZ12 and
and smoother LSSZ13stage
slippage presented the significantly
appeared after all thehigher peak load
specimens thantheir
reached otheryield
specimens.
status.
A longer andasmoother
Additionally, staggeredslippage
arrangement stageofappeared
the bolts after
in theall theLSSZ13
joint specimens reached
did not their yield
effectively enhancestatus.
the
Additionally, a staggered arrangement of the bolts in the joint LSSZ13 did not
loading capacity of the bolted joints, which was attributed to that the side bolts of the joint made the effectively enhance the
loading capacity of the bolted joints, which was attributed to that the side bolts
steel plates rotate largely. This is also because the side three bolts in the same line can make the joint of the joint made the
steel plates
more rotate
effective largely. the
to resisting Thisloading
is also because
before the theconcrete
side threewasbolts in theheavily
crushed same line
nearcanonemake
of thethe joint
corner
more effective to resisting the loading before the concrete was crushed heavily
bolts. The heavy damage of the corner bolt hole can destroy the balance of the three bolts more easily. near one of the corner
bolts. The heavy
Comparing damage
with the welded of the corner
joints [46],bolt
the hole can corresponding
stiffness destroy the balance to theofmaximum
the three load
boltsof
more easily.
the bolted
Comparing with the welded joints [46], the stiffness corresponding to the maximum
joints was much smaller, which can be attributed to the slippage of bolts caused by damage of concrete load of the bolted
joints
and was muchofsmaller,
deformation which
steel bolts. can bethe
However, attributed to the
bolted joints slippage
showed of bolts
a larger caused capacity
deformation by damage under of
concrete
such and
cyclic deformation
axial compressive of loads.
steel bolts. However, the bolted joints showed a larger deformation
capacity under such cyclic axial compressive loads.
600
600
Welded joint [46]
Welded joint [46]
500
500
400
400
(kN)
load(kN)
300
300
Appliedload
LSSZ4
Applied
200
200 LSSZ4
LSSZ5
LSSZ5
LSSZ12
100 LSSZ12
100 LSSZ13
LSSZ13
LSSZ11
0 LSSZ11
0
0 20 40 60 80 100
0 20 40 60 80 100
Displacement (mm)
Displacement (mm)
Figure 10. Skeleton curves of concrete block joint specimens.

Figure
Figure 10.10. Skeleton
Skeleton curves
curves of of concrete
concrete block
block joint
joint specimens.
specimens.
4.4.4.4.
Stiffness
StiffnessDegradation
Degradation
4.4. Stiffness Degradation
The stiffness
The stiffnessdegradation
degradation curves
curves of of
thethejoint specimens
joint specimens areare shown
shown in in
Figure
Figure 11.11.
Here, thethe
Here, stiffness
stiffness
The stiffness degradation curves of the joint specimens are shown in Figure 11. Here, the stiffness
of of
joints represented
joints represented thethe
secant
secant stiffness
stiffness of of
maximum
maximum load
load of ofeach
each cycle.
cycle.It was
It wasfound
foundthat thethe
that stiffness
stiffness
of joints represented the secant stiffness of maximum load of each cycle. It was found that the stiffness
degradation
degradation of of
all thethebolted joints could simply bebe divided into three phases: The rising phase, rapid
degradation of allall bolted
the bolted joints
joints could
could simply
simply divided
be divided into
into three
three phases:
phases: TheThe rising
rising phase,
phase, rapid
rapid
falling phase and slow-degradation phase. The first one usually was caused byby thethe
slight slippage of
falling phase and slow-degradation phase. The first one usually was caused by the slight slippage ofof
falling phase and slow-degradation phase. The first one usually was caused slight slippage
thethebolts at at
bolts thetheearly
early stage
stage ofofthe
the loading,
loading, while
while the
the rapid
rapid degradation phase phase generally
generallystarted
startedfrom
fromthe
the bolts at the early stage of the loading, while the rapid degradation phase generally started from
thedamage
damageofofconcrete
concrete oror deformation
deformation of of steel
steel bolts
bolts in the
in the joints
joints andand ended
ended at the
at the yield status of joints,
the
the damage of concrete or deformation of steel bolts in the joints and ended at yield status
the yield of the
status of the
joints,
where where
the the slow
slow degradation
degradation phasephase started
started till till
the the
end endof of the
the tests.
tests. Through
Through the
the comparisonofofthe
comparison
joints, where the slow degradation phase started till the end of the tests. Through the comparison of
thestiffness
stiffnessdegradation
degradationcurves curvesofofthethesteel
steelwelded
weldedjoint jointspecimens
specimens[46], [46],thethestiffness
stiffnessdegradation
degradationofofthe
the stiffness degradation curves of the steel welded joint specimens [46], the stiffness degradation of
thebolted
bolted specimens
specimens was was sharper
sharper than than
those those
of theof welded
the welded specimens,
specimens, and the and the diacritical
diacritical points points
between
the bolted specimens was sharper than those of the welded specimens, and the diacritical points
between the second
the second andphase
third phase
more is more obvious,
as shownas inshown
Figurein 11.Figure
At the11. At the latter phase of
between the andsecondthirdand thirdis phase obvious,
is more obvious, as shown in Figure latter
11. At phase of the
the latter loading,
phase of
thethe
loading,
welded the welded
joints joints
presented presented
the larger the larger
stiffness stiffness
than those than
of the those
boltedof the bolted
joints. joints.
the loading, the welded joints presented the larger stiffness than those of the bolted joints.
180
180
LSSZ4
160 LSSZ4
160 140 LSSZ5
140 LSSZ5
140 LSSZ11
140 LSSZ11
120 LSSZ12
120 LSSZ12
(kN/mm)
120 LSSZ13
(kN/mm)
120 LSSZ13
100
100 100
100
Stiffness
80
80
Stiffness
80
80
0 2 4
0 2 4
60
60
a well welded joint (HJSZ8) [46]
40 a well welded joint (HJSZ8) [46]
40
20
20
0
0
0 20 40 60 80 100
0 20 40
Displacement 60
(mm) 80 100
Displacement (mm)
Figure 11.11.
Stiffness degradation
Stiffness of the
degradation bolted joints.
Figure
Figure 11. Stiffness degradation ofof the
the bolted
bolted joints.
joints.
5. Discussions
5. Discussions onon Failure
Failure andand Recommendations
Recommendations forfor Design
Design of of
thethe Joints
Joints
5. Discussions on Failure and Recommendations for Design of the Joints
5.1.5.1. Deformation
Deformation andand Resistance
Resistance Mechanism
Mechanism of Joints
of Joints
5.1. Deformation and Resistance Mechanism of Joints
About
About thethe resistance
resistance and
and deformation
deformation mechanism
mechanism of of
thethe bolted
bolted joints,
joints, several
several key
key features
features areare
About
summarized the resistance
in the and
following deformation
sections. mechanism
Here, inname of
the namethe bolted joints, several key features are
summarized in the following sections. Here, in the of theofsame
the same specimens/blocks,
specimens/blocks, “1” and“1”
“2”and
summarized
“2” representin the
that following
the sections.
measured Here,
strain valuesin the
at name
the of
upper the
andsame
belowspecimens/blocks,
parts of the “1” and “2”
specimens/blocks.
represent that the measured strain values at the upper and below parts of the specimens/blocks. For
represent that the measured strain values at the upper and below parts of the specimens/blocks. For
example, LSZ1-1 and LSZ1-2 of LSSZ4 in Figure 12 mean the strain values of longitudinal rebars
example, LSZ1-1 and LSZ1-2 of LSSZ4 in Figure 12 mean the strain values of longitudinal rebars
located at the upper and below positions of the rebars in LSZ1 block of LSSZ4.
For example, LSZ1-1 and LSZ1-2 of LSSZ4 in Figure 12 mean the strain values of longitudinal 11
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rebars
11ofof16
16
Resistance
Resistanceof
Resistance ofsteel
of steelreinforcements
steel reinforcementsinin
reinforcements inthetheconcrete
the concrete
concrete block—at
block—at
block—at thethe
theinitial
initial
initialstage
stage
stage ofof
loading,
of loading,
loading, thethe
strain
the strainof
strain
the
of
of thereinforcing
the reinforcing rebars
reinforcing rebars was
rebars was small, and
was small, increased
small, and and increased sharply
increased sharply after the
sharply after displacement
after the the displacement of central
displacement of block
of central reached
central block
block
5–10
reached
reached mm5–10where
5–10 mm
mm the concrete
where
where the started
theconcrete
concrete tostarted
crack. to
started After
tocrack. the After
crack. vertical
Afterthe the displacement
vertical
verticaldisplacement reached 15reached
displacement mm, the
reached 15strain
15 mm,
mm,
of
thethe
the rebars
strain
strain of of
thethe
of the jointof
rebars
rebars zone
of the reached
the joint
joint zone
zone their yield their
reached
reached levels and the
their yield
yield levelsdeformation
levels and
and the of the rebars
the deformation
deformation ofdeveloped
of the
the rebars
rebars
till the finaltill
developed
developed fracture
till the
the final of steel
final bars.of
fracture
fracture ofBesides,
steel
steel bars.when
bars. the concretes
Besides,
Besides, when
when the of concretes
the the joints have
concretes of thestronger
of the joints
joints have compressive
have stronger
stronger
strength,
compressive
compressive the contribution
strength,
strength,the theof reinforcing of
contribution
contribution rebars in the blocks
ofreinforcing
reinforcing rebars
rebars became
in
inthe lower, became
theblocks
blocks as specimen
became lower,
lower, LSSZ13
as shown
asspecimen
specimen
in Figure
LSSZ13
LSSZ13shown 12.
shownin inFigure
Figure12. 12.
Concrete
Concrete deformation—according
Concrete deformation—according
deformation—according to to
to thethe analyses,
the analyses,
analyses, the the deformation
the deformation
deformation of of concrete
of concrete
concrete blocks blocks
blocks was was
was
concentrated
concentrated
concentrated in in the
in the joint
the joint zone
joint zonezone ofof
of the
the tested
the tested specimens,
tested specimens,
specimens, and and
and the the main
the main damages
main damages
damages of of concrete
of concrete
concrete are are
are
summarized
summarized
summarizedorderly orderly
orderlyas: as: Concrete
as:Concrete
Concretecrackingcracking
crackingoccurred occurred
occurrednear near
nearthe the
thebolt bolt
boltholes, holes,
holes,crack crack
crackrapid rapid
rapiddevelopmentdevelopment
developmentand and
and
heavy
heavy heavy
destroy
destroy destroy
of of concrete
of concrete
concrete and and concrete
and concrete
concrete spalling
spalling spalling
finally.finally.
finally. As
As shown As shown
shown inin Figure in Figure
Figure 13, the13,
13, the test
testthe testof
data
data ofdata
the
the
of the concrete
concrete
concrete strainstrain
strain proved
proved proved
above
above above
the the
the analysis analysis
analysis results,
results,
results, in in
in whichwhich
which concretestrain
concrete
concrete strainincreased
strain increased as
increased as the
as the
the
displacement
displacement
displacement up up
up to to its
to its peak
its peak strain.
peak strain.
strain. InIn addition,
In addition,
addition, the the strain
the strain development
strain development
development of of the
of the foot
the foot part
foot partpart of of concrete
of concrete
concrete
blocks
blocks
blockswas was presentedas
waspresented
presented asfollows:
as follows:The
follows: Theconcrete
The concrete
concrete strain
strain
strain increased
increased
increased slightly
slightly
slightly with
withwith applied
applied
applied loading,
loading,
loading, butbut
but the
the
the concrete
concrete
concrete strain strain
strain of of theof the
the parts parts
parts was was
was quite quite
quite small small
small and and
and was was between
was between
between 50–400 50–400
50–400 με µε when
με when
when the the specimen
the specimen
specimen was was
was
damaged.
damaged. This
damaged. Thisindicates
This indicatesthat
indicates thatthe
that thedamage
the damage
damage ofof the
of theconcrete
the concrete
concrete block
block
blockwaswas local
was for for
local
local the bolted
for the
the bolted joints
bolted in RCin
joints
joints inwall
RC
RC
structures.
wall
wall structures. Additionally,
structures. Additionally,
Additionally, the strain
the of steel
the strain
strain ofbars
of steelin
steel bars thein
bars joint
in thezone
the jointwas
joint zonemuch
zone was
was muchlargerlarger
much than those
larger than of
than those other
those of
of
steel
other bars,
othersteel which
steel bars,
bars,which indicates
whichindicates that the
indicatesthat steel
thatthe rebars
thesteel in
steel rebars the
rebarsin joint
inthe zone
thejoint were
jointzone severely
zonewere wereseverelydamaged
severelydamaged by
damagedbythe tensile
bythethe
stress
tensilebut
tensile the reinforcements
stress
stress but
but the away fromaway
the reinforcements
reinforcements the joint
away from
fromzone the
thewas small.
joint
joint zone
zone Figure
was 12
was shows
small.
small. the development
Figure
Figure 12
12 shows
shows the of
the
strain of steel of
development
development reinforcements
ofstrain
strainof steelinreinforcements
ofsteel concrete blocks
reinforcements inin
in two representative
concrete
concrete blocks
blocksin intwo
two joints.
representative
representativejoints. joints.
4000
4000 4000
4000
LSZ1-1
LSZ1-1
LSSZ4
LSSZ4 LSZ2-1
LSZ2-1 LSSZ13
LSSZ13 HLSZ1-1
HLSZ1-1
3500
3500 3500
3500
LSZ3-1
LSZ3-1 HLSZ2-1
HLSZ2-1
3000
3000 LSZ1-2
LSZ1-2 3000
3000
yield
yieldlevel
level HLSZ3-1
HLSZ3-1
LSZ2-2
LSZ2-2 yield
yieldlevel
level
(με)
HLSZ1-2
Strain (με)
(με)
HLSZ1-2
Strain (με)
2500
2500 2500
2500
LSZ3-2
LSZ3-2
HLSZ2-2
HLSZ2-2
Strain
Strain
2000
2000 2000
2000
HLSZ3-2
HLSZ3-2
1500
1500 1500
1500
1000
1000 1000
1000
500
500 500
500
00 00
00 10
10 20
20 30
30 40 40 5050 6060 7070 80
80 90
90 100
100 00 10
10 20
20 30
30 4040 5050 6060 70
70 80
80 90
90 100
100
Displacement
Displacement(mm)
(mm) Displacement
Displacement(mm)
(mm)
Figure
Figure12. Development
12.Development of
Developmentof strain
ofstrain of
strainof longitudinal
oflongitudinal
longitudinalrebars
rebarsof representativespecimens.
ofrepresentative specimens.
2500
2500 2500
2500
HLSZ1-1
HLSZ1-1 HLSZ1-1
HLSZ1-1
LSSZ4
LSSZ4 HLSZ2-1
HLSZ2-1 LSSZ13
LSSZ13 HLSZ2-1
HLSZ2-1
2000
2000 HLSZ3-1
HLSZ3-1 2000
2000 HLSZ3-1
HLSZ3-1
HLSZ1-2
HLSZ1-2 HLSZ1-2
HLSZ1-2
(με)
Strain (με)
HLSZ2-2
(με)
HLSZ2-2
Strain (με)
1500
1500 HLSZ2-2
HLSZ2-2 1500
1500
HLSZ3-2
HLSZ3-2 HLSZ3-2
HLSZ3-2
Strain
Strain
1000
1000 1000
1000
500
500 500
500
00 00
00 10
10 20
20 30
30 40 40 5050 6060 70
70 80
80 90
90 100
100 00 10
10 20
20 30
30 40 40 5050 6060 70
70 80
80 90
90 100
100
Displacement
Displacement(mm)
(mm) Displacement
Displacement(mm)
(mm)
Figure 13. Development of strain of concrete of representative specimens.

Figure
Figure13.
13.Development
Developmentof
ofstrain
strainof
ofconcrete
concreteof
ofrepresentative
representativespecimens.
specimens.
Deformation of the steel plate—similar to concrete deformation in the joints, the strain of the steel
Deformation
plate Deformation
in two directionsof
of the
the
bothsteel
steel plate—similar
plate—similar
increased toto concrete
as the vertical concrete deformation
deformation
displacement in
in the joints,
joints, the
theHowever,
of the joints. strain
thethe
strain of
of the
increasing the
steel
steel plate
plate in
in two
two directions
directions both
both increased
increased as
as the
the vertical
vertical displacement
displacement of
of
state was found in the early stage of loading except for the specimen LSSZ13. At the latter stage of the the
the joints.
joints. However,
However, the
the
increasing
increasing
loading, asstate
state
shown was
wasinfound
Figurein
found the
in14,
the early
earlystage
except stage
for of loading
ofthe
that mainexcept
loading strainfor
except for the
thespecimen
of steel specimen LSSZ13.
plate of LSSZ13 At
Atthe
LSSZ13.exceededthelatter
latter
the
stage
stage of
of the
the loading,
loading, as
as shown
shown in
in Figure
Figure 14,
14, except
except for
for that
that the
the main
main strain
strain
yield strain of the plate, the main strain of the steel plates of other specimens was much smaller than of
of steel
steel plate
plate of
of LSSZ13
LSSZ13
exceeded
exceededthe theyield
yieldstrain
strainof ofthe
theplate,
plate,the
themain
mainstrain
strainofofthe
thesteel
steelplates
platesofofother
otherspecimens
specimenswas wasmuch
much
smaller
smaller than
than thethe yield
yield strain
strain of of the
the plates,
plates, indicating
indicating thatthat the
the bolts
bolts of
of the
the LSSZ13
LSSZ13 worked
worked more more
effectively
effectively toto resist
resist the
the deformation
deformation during during thethe whole
whole loading
loading process.
process. The
The reason
reason cancan be
be explained
explained
as
as the
the arrangement
arrangement of of steel
steel bars,
bars, which
which made
made the the steel
steel plate
plate contribute
contribute more more resistant
resistant atat the
the latter
latter
the yield strain of the plates, indicating that the bolts of the LSSZ13 worked more effectively to resist
the deformation during the whole loading process. The reason can be explained as the arrangement of
steel bars, which made the steel plate contribute more resistant at the latter stage of loading. From
this point,
stage we can
of loading. Fromunderstand that
this point, wethe steel
can plate should
understand that be
theimproved
steel platefor the enhancement
should be improvedof cyclic
for the
enhancement of cyclic behavior of the bolted joints, not only by increasing the number of the steela
behavior of the bolted joints, not only by increasing the number of the steel bolts and providing
reasonable
bolts arrangement
and providing of steel bolts.
a reasonable arrangement of steel bolts.
2500 2500
Major strain (vertical)
Shear strain (horizontal)
2000 2000
1500 1500
Strain (με)
Strain (με)
1000 1000
LSSZ4：GLSZ1
LSSZ4：GLSZ1
500 LSSZ4：GLSZ2
500 LSSZ4：GLSZ2
LSSZ5：GLSZ1
LSSZ5：GLSZ1
0 LSSZ5：GLSZ2 0 LSSZ5：GLSZ2
LSSZ12：GLSZ1
-500 LSSZ12：GLSZ1
LSSZ12：GLSZ2 -500
LSSZ12：GLSZ2
LSSZ13：GLSZ1
-1000 LSSZ13：GLSZ1
LSSZ13：GLSZ2 -1000
LSSZ13：GLSZ2
-1500 -1500
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Displacement (mm) Displacement (mm)
Figure 14. Development of strain of the steel plate of tested specimens.

Figure 14. Development of strain of the steel plate of tested specimens.
5.2. Main Features of the Load-Displacement Response of the Bolted Joints
5.2. Main Features of the Load-Displacement Response of the Bolted Joints
As shown in Figure 15, the bolted joints may have a considerable loading capacity comparing
withAs theshown
welded injoints
Figure 15, the
with the same
bolted joints mayhowever,
conditions, have a considerable
the slippage loading capacity
of the bolted jointscomparing
should be
with the during
noticed weldedthe joints withofthe
design thesame
joints.conditions,
As a summary, however, the slippage of theresponse
the load-displacement bolted joints
of theshould be
joints can
noticed
be dividedduringintothefivedesign of the
possible joints.
stages, As a summary, the load-displacement response of the joints
as follows:
can be divided into five possible stages, as follows:
• Stage I—Elastic deformation stage.
• Stage I—Elastic deformation stage.
In this stage, a well-tightened joint can make the bolted concrete blocks work well without large
In this
slippage andstage,
work a well-tightened
elastically without jointlarge
can residual
make thedeformation
bolted concreteafterblocks
removingwork thewell without
loading. large
It should
slippage
be noticed andthat work elastically
the key process without
of the stage large residual
is the deformation
tightening afterwhich
of the bolts, removing
can bethe wellloading.
controlledIt
should be noticed
by current that the The
technologies. key mechanical
process of the stage is the
properties tightening
of the of the
steel bolts andbolts,
steel which can are
plate also be well
very
controlled
important by current technologies.
influencing factors for theThe mechanical
stage, such as using properties
of highofstrength
the steelbolts
boltsisand steeltoplate
helpful also
this stage.
are very important influencing factors for the stage, such as using of high strength bolts is helpful to
• Stage II—Elastic-low plastic deformation stage.
this stage.
The plastic deformation of the joint is caused by the small damage of bolted joints such as concrete
• Stage II—Elastic-low plastic deformation stage.
cracking, which usually is started from the hole for plastic deformation resistance capacity of concrete
Theisplastic
usually deformation
much smaller of theparts
than other jointinisthecaused
joints. byThethe
smallsmall damage
bending of boltedofjoints
deformation suchbolts
the steel as
concrete cracking, which usually is started from the hole for plastic deformation
also is one reason for the plastic behavior of the joints. Therefore, at this stage, the plastic deformation resistance capacity
of
ofconcrete
the joints usually is muchdepends
significantly smaller uponthan other parts in theproperties
the mechanical joints. Theofsmall bending
concrete useddeformation of
and steel bolts.
the
Thissteel bolts
stage also isisthe
usually oneend
reason
untilforthethejointplastic
reaches behavior
its yieldofstatus.
the joints. Therefore, at this stage, the
plastic deformation of the joints significantly depends upon the mechanical properties of concrete
• Stage III—Large plastic and slippage stage.
used and steel bolts. This stage usually is the end until the joint reaches its yield status.
The slippage stage of the joints is a process of stiffness rapid degradation and a large number of
• Stage III—Large plastic and slippage stage.
plastic damages of the joint zone, mainly including the concrete crushing damage in holes in the blocks
and The slippage
the large stagedeformation
bending of the joints of is asteel
process
bars.ofDuring
stiffness
thisrapid degradation
stage, the loadingand a large of
resistance number of
the joints
plastic
still candamages of the joint
keep increasing, zone, mainly
however, including
the increase ratio the concreteusually
of loading crushing damage
is low. This in holes
stage in the
is usually
blocks
ended and the large
at a feature bending
point at wheredeformation
the joints of steel
start bars. aDuring
to enter this stage,stage,
load hardening the loading
which may resistance of
be for the
the joints still
expansion can keep increasing,
deformation of the jointhowever,
zone such theasincrease ratio expansion
the possible of loading usually is low.
of two steel This
plate stage by
caused is
usually
crushedended
concrete.at a feature point at where the joints start to enter a load hardening stage, which may
be for the expansion deformation of the joint zone such as the possible expansion of two steel plate
caused by crushed concrete.
Peak loading Peak loading
Applied loading
IV
yield loading
III
yield loading
Stage I - Elastic stage

II Stage II - Elastic-low plastic stage
Stage III- Slip stage
Stage IV- Hardening stage
I Stage V - Loading decrease state
Displacement
Figure 15. Schematic

Schematic diagram
diagram of
of the
the load-deflection
load-deflection curve.
• Stage IV—Hardening stage.

• Stage IV—Hardening stage.
The hardening stage of the joints may be caused by following reasons: The steel bolts reached a
The hardening
re-tightening stage of
status caused bythe joints may
expansion of be caused
inside by following
concrete; or thereasons: The steel
bolts contact withbolts
thereached
inside a
re-tightening status caused by expansion of inside concrete; or the bolts contact with the inside
stirrups; or the movement or slippage of steel plate is restrained by surrounding parts of the joints. stirrups;
or the movement or slippage of steel plate is restrained by surrounding parts of
This stage makes the joints rapidly develop the loading capacity to reach their maximum load the joints. This stage
makes the
resistance joints rapidly develop the loading capacity to reach their maximum load resistance status.
status.
• • Stage
StageV—Loading
V—Loadingdegradation
degradationstage.
stage.
After
After reachingthe
reaching themaximum
maximum loading
loading of of the
thejoints,
joints,the
theloading
loadingcapacity of the
capacity of bolted jointsjoints
the bolted usually
starts to decrease because of the following reasons: (1) The shearing fracture
usually starts to decrease because of the following reasons: (1) The shearing fracture of stirrups of stirrups contacted with
steel bolts, (2) shearing fracture of steel bolts, (3) put-out of the steel bolts and (4)
contacted with steel bolts, (2) shearing fracture of steel bolts, (3) put-out of the steel bolts and (4) cracking or fracture
of the steel
cracking plate. of
or fracture Among them,
the steel theAmong
plate. first twothem,
casesthemay usually
first happen
two cases maywhen fewhappen
usually stirrupswhen
are used
few or
the used stirrups are too weak, or the steel bolts are too weak. The case (4) may
stirrups are used or the used stirrups are too weak, or the steel bolts are too weak. The case (4) may occur when only a
occur when only a small number of steel bolts are used for the joints and the steel plate is too weak an
small number of steel bolts are used for the joints and the steel plate is too weak or too thin. When
or out-plan
too thin.load
When occurs
an in the jointload
out-plan face occurs
possibly incaused
the jointby the
faceout-plane
possiblydeformation
caused by the of the steel plate
out-plane
led by inside damaged concrete, case (3) can appear.
deformation of the steel plate led by inside damaged concrete, case (3) can appear.
5.3.5.3. Possible
Possible Failure
Failure Modes
Modes of the
of the Bolted
Bolted Joints
Joints
According
According to this
to this study,
study, thethe possible
possible failure
failure modes
modes of of
thethe steel
steel bolted
bolted joints
joints proposed
proposed forfor a RC
a RC
structure with DfD have:
structure with DfD have:
(1)(1)Concrete
Concrete crushing
crushing and
and stirrup
stirrup shearing
shearing fracture.
fracture.
TheThe strong
strong steelbolts
steel boltsdevelop
developthe
thedamage
damage ofof concrete,
concrete, especially
especiallywhen
whenconcrete
concreteis is
weak, and
weak, then
and
then the bolts contact directly surrounding stirrups. The coming loading makes the shearing fracture of
the bolts contact directly surrounding stirrups. The coming loading makes the shearing fracture
of steel
steel stirrups
stirrups happen.
happen.
(2)(2)Shearing
Shearing fracture
fracture of of steel
steel bolts.
bolts.
When
When low-strength
low-strength steel
steel bolts
bolts areare used
used or or over
over high
high strength
strength concrete
concrete andand a steel
a steel plate
plate areare used
used
for the joints, the failure mode might happen.
for the joints, the failure mode might happen.
(3)(3)Tensile
Tensile fracture
fracture of of steel
steel bolts.
bolts.
This
This mode
mode usuallyisiscaused
usually causedby bythe
theout-plane
out-plane damage
damage of
of concrete
concretebetween
betweensteel
steelplates,
plates,and
andit gets
it
worse when a weak steel bolt is used.
gets worse when a weak steel bolt is used.
(4)(4)Put-out
Put-out
of of steel
steel bolts.
bolts.
The
The over-damage
over-damage of of
thethe concrete
concrete andand steel
steel plate
plate mama
thethe bolts
bolts under
under high
high tensile
tensile stress
stress with
with their
their
nuts together, which then widens the holes in the steel plate and concrete block. This failure
nuts together, which then widens the holes in the steel plate and concrete block. This failure mode mode
usually
usually occurs
occurs with
with a fracture
a fracture of of
thethe bolts
bolts at at their
their screwing
screwing zone.
zone.
(5) Fracture of the steel plate.
(5) Fracture of the steel plate.

When enough steel bolts and a relative weak steel plate are used in the bolted joints, this mode
possibly occurs because of the direct strong shear behavior of the bolts.
5.4. Recommendations for Design of Bolted Joints in a RC Structure with DfD

Based on this study, the following recommendations for the design of the steel bolted joints are
provided here for improving the safety and sustainability of the RC structures with DfD:
A) Improve the plastic deformation of concrete holes by using high strength concrete, or using a
metal pipe inside the hole to increase the bolt-hole interface strength.
B) Arrange a reinforcement enhancing zone to restrain the whole move/slippage of the bolts to help
the stirrups to resist the movement of steel bolts.
C) High strength bolts are recommended for the joints.
D) Tightening of the steel bolts is a necessary and key process to controlling the slippage.
E) Prevent the out-plane deformation of joint is also a key factor to avoid the put-out of steel bolts
and the tensile fracture of steel bolts. Therefore, a demountable connection set consisting of two
steel plates pre-connected with concrete blocks is recommended for the joints, which is being
investigated in our next studies.
6. Conclusions
This paper proposed a simply demountable bolted vertical connection for low-rise buildings in
earthquake-prone zones. As a preliminary study, this paper investigated the cyclic behavior of the
demountable connection consisting of steel bolts and a steel plate, which could hopefully promote the
current construction industrialization and sustainability. This promotion is reached by direct reusing
of the components from old structures. However, it should be mentioned that this paper preliminarily
studied as the number of the specimens was very limited and more studies are expected in the future.
The main conclusions are drawn as follows:
• The study verified that the rotation and slippage of the bolts was a very key factor for the
steel-bolted joints. When the concrete was crushed heavily or the holes were destroyed, the large
rotation of steel plate could occur.
• A staggered arrangement of the bolts could not improve the load carrying capacity of the joints,
which could be explained with the fact that the side bolts of the joints made the steel plate rotate
largely at a large deformation stage.
• As the possible failure modes of the steel bolted joints, according the preliminary study, the
put-out of steel bolts and fracture of the steel plate also could occur, which complemented the
well-understood failure mode of the joints described in the existing literature, such as concrete
crushing and stirrup shearing fracture.
• The paper provided several recommendations to improve the structural behavior of the joints
based on investigation and analyses, such as using a demountable connection set consisting of
two steel plates pre-connected with concrete blocks.
7. Patents
The invention patent based on the above content, “Low-layer assembled composite wall house
bolt connection node structure” was authorized on 2016 [47] (Patent number: 201410171848.0).
Author Contributions: Conceptualization, G.C. and F. X.; Data curation, G.C., F.X. and Y.X.; Formal analysis,
G.C., F.X., YX.; Funding acquisition, F.X.; Investigation, G.C., F.X., Y.X. and Y.L.; Methodology, G.C., F.X. and
Y.X.; Project administration, F.X.; Resources, G. C. and F.X.; Software, G.C. and F. X.; Supervision, G.C. and F.X.;
Validation, G.C., F.X. and Y.X.; Visualization, G.C. and F. X.; Writing – original draft, G.C., F.X. and Y.X.; Writing –
review & editing, G.C., F.X., Y.X., A.S.L. and M.Y.
Funding: This research was funded by the National Key R&D Program of China, grant No. 2018YFD1100903-02.
The APC was funded by the same funding, No. 2018YFD1100903-02.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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Sustainability 2019, 11, 3696; doi:10.3390/su11133696 www.mdpi.com/journal/sustainability

Sustainability 2019, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 16

Figure 1. Roles of reduction, recycling and reuse of wastes in construction sustainability.

Figure 2.2. Construction and deconstruction of precast concrete (PcaC)

Figure 4. Details of joint specimens.

Sustainability 2019, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 16

4.1. Damage Observation

Sustainability 2019, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 16

Applied Load (kN)

Applied Load (kN)

(2) Steel blots heavily destoryed boles;

Figure 9. Load-displacement relationship of tested specimens.

Figure 10. Skeleton curves of concrete block joint specimens.

Figure 13. Development of strain of concrete of representative specimens.

Figure 14. Development of strain of the steel plate of tested specimens.

Peak loading Peak loading

Stage I - Elastic stage

Figure 15. Schematic

• Stage IV—Hardening stage.

(5) Fracture of the steel plate.

5.4. Recommendations for Design of Bolted Joints in a RC Structure with DfD

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