Steel السعوديه

Steel Structures
1- Industrial Building
2- Roofs
1 Prepared by Prof. Shehab Mourad – Department of Civil Eng. - KSU

3- Tall Buildings
4- Bridges

5- Electric and Telecommunication Towers
6- Special Structures

Steel Sections
1- Rolled Sections

a- Hot Rolled Sections

Typical ASTM A6/6M Hot rolled shapes:
1. W shapes (wide flange): have essentially parallel flange surfaces.

2. HP bearing pile shapes have essentially parallel flange surfaces and
equal web and flange thicknesses.
3. S shapes (American standard beams): have a slope of approximately
17 % on the inner flange surface.
4. C shapes (American standard channels): have a slope of
approximately 17 % on the inner flange surface.
5. L- shapes (equal and unequal leg angles)
6. T- shapes.
7. M and MC (Miscellaneous): designates shapes that can not be
classified as W, HP, S, C.
W shape S shape
C shape or Channel L Shape or Angle

b- Cold Formed Sections

Typical Structural Systems used in Steel Structures

Structural General Layout of a Steel Industrial
Structure
A 7 5 B C
1 1
L/8 = 4.5 m 3
L/12 = 3m 4
2m
2m
6 2
8m 6
5 4m
L= 12 x 3m = 36 m L/2 = 18 m 6
Elevation 1 : 100
1 – Purlins 5- Horizontal bracings
2- Main truss 6- Vertical bracings
3- Main frame 7- Steel sheets
4- Main beams

Details of central joint of main truss
Main structural system
6m
Main structural system is repeated every 6 m

The trusses are connected with longitudinal Purlins
ay upper cord members
The steel sheets are fastened on top of the purlins

Main beams are placed between main frames every 6m

Secondary beams are placed every 2 m
The steel sheets are fastened on top of the beams

Horizontal bracings are placed at first and last bays
Vertical bracings are placed at first and end bays

along axes A, B ,and C

Plan View 1:100
Side View at Axis (A) 1:100
Side View at Axis (B) 1:100
Side View at Axis (C) 1:100

Introduction to Structural Steel Design
- Advantages of Steel as a Structural Material:
1- High Strength
High strength of steel per unit weight means that the weight of
structure will be small, which has a great importance for large
structures, as bridges and tall buildings.
Typical used structural steel in design
Grade Fy MPa Fu ASTM designation Availability

(MPa)
A 36 250 400
A36M For most applications
(36 ksi)
A572M For most applications
350 For thin-plate members
A529M
G 50 (50 ksi) 450 only
For corrosion-resistance
A242M, A588M
steel

2- Uniformity
Uniform and consistent properties with time
3- Elasticity
Steel behaves closer to design assumption (elastic, follows
Hooke's law) up to high stresses
4- Permanence
With proper maintain ace steel structures can last indefinitely
5- Ductility
Steel can withstand extensive deformation without failure under
high tensile stresses. Ductility gives more warning before failure.
6- Toughness
Steel members can still withstand large forces even it has large
deformations. The ability of material to absorb energy in large
amounts is called toughness.
7- Additions to Existing Structures

Existing steel structures can be easily expanded both in width and height

8- Miscellaneous
- Ability to fasten members together

- Ability to prefabrication
- Speed of erection
- Ability to be rolled into a wide Varity of sizes and shapes
- Ability to form built up section from standard sections
- Possible reuse and recycle after disassembling
- Can be used with concrete to form composite sections

- Disadvantages of Steel as a Structural Material:
1- Maintenance Costs
Most steels are susceptible to corrosion when freely exposed to
air and water, therefore it should be painted periodically,
otherwise weathering steel should be used.

2- Fireproofing Costs
Steel strength is tremendously reduced at temperature

commonly reached in fires; therefore steel members should be
painted by fire proofing materials.

3- Susceptibility to Buckling
As the member length increases, its danger of buckling

increases, therefore, steel sections need to be increased and
stiffened to avoid buckling.
Global Buckling Torsional Buckling
Local Buckling in Flanges and Web

4- Fatigue
Steel strength is reduced when subjected to a large number of stress
reversals or even a large number of variations of tensile stress.

5- Brittle Failure
Steel may lose its ductility in certain conditions, and brittle
failure may occur at places of stress concentrations
Brittle failure along the Weld
Brittle failure of Bolts

6- Residual Stresses
Residual stresses occur due to;

1- Uneven cooling of room temperature of hot rolled sections
2- Cold bending of cold formed sections
3- Welding of two or more plates together

STEEL DESIGN METHODS
1. Allowable stress method (ASD): focuses on conditions

at service loads:
stresses at combined service loads £ Allowable stresses
2. Load and Resistance Factor Design (LRFD): based on

limit state philosophy. It focuses on conditions at loads
greater than the service loads when failure is close to
happen:
factored resistance ³ sum of factored load effects

or
fRn ³ SaI Qi
f : resistance factor
Rn: nominal resistance
a: load factors
Qi: load effect
The LRFD method is deemed conceptually more realistic to

establish structural safety.
Structural Safety
Structures and structural members must always be designed to
carry some reserve load above what is expected under normal
use.
There are three main reasons why some sort of safety factor is
necessary in structural design.
[1] Variability in resistance.
[2] Variability in loading.
[3] Consequences of failure

Philosophy of Loads & Resistance Factored
Design (LRFD)
1- Loads
Loads Specifications
In U.S., Loadings are specified in building codes such as

n Uniform Building Code (UBC)
n Basic Building Code (BOCA)
n Standard Building Code
These codes have been consolidated in the International Building Code (IBC).
Loadings in these codes are mainly based on ASCE Minimum Design
Loads for Buildings and Other Structures (ASCE 7-02)
In Saudi Arabia, Loadings specifications are given in SBC 301

which is mainly based on (ASCE 7-02).
2- are different in; Nature and type
Dead loads (D) : are constant in magnitude and remain in one

direction, consist of own weight of structure (steel weight, walls,
floors, roof, utility pipes, etc), Dead Loads (SBC 301 chapter 3)
Live loads (L) : may change in position and magnitude, also

can be movable loads as trucks and cranes.
Live Loads (SBC 301 chapter 4)
Environmental loads: caused by the environment in which a

particular structure is located and it varied with time and may
not all act all together, as;
(a) Snow (S)
(b) Rain (R), can cause roof failure due to roof ponding
(c) Temperature change (T)
(d) Wind loads (W) (SBC 301 Chapters 6 and 7)
(e) Earthquake loads (E) (SBC 301 Chapters 9 and 14)

- Magnitude The minimum design loads for buildings
and other structures are specified by the
applicable codes, as the American Society of Civil
Engineering (ASCE 7-02) and SBC 301
- Load Factors Load factors are used to increase the

magnitude of the calculated loads to
account for the uncertainties involved in estimating the
magnitude of different loads as, dead, live, wind and
earthquake loads. Load factors are different according to
the load nature, and its applied period.
For Example, dead load factor = 1.4
Live load factor = 1.6
- Load Combinations
Different types of loads can be
combined since it can be applied simultaneously, however
they may not be with the same magnitudes and factors.
For example, it is very rarely that the structure will be
subjected to the total factored dead and live loads at the
same instant the factored wind load or the earthquake loads
will be maximum.
The following load combinations ((ASCE 7-02) are used to

investigate the critical combination of factored loads
(ultimate loads = Pu):
1- 1.4D
2- 1.2D + 1.6 (L, or S or R)
3- 1.2D + 1.6 (Lr, or S or R) + (0.5L or 0.8W)
4- 1.2D ± 1.6W + 0.5L + 0.5 (Lr, or S or R)
5- 1.2D ± 1.0E + 0.5L + 0.2S
6- 0.9D ± ( 1.6 W or 1.0E)
See Load Combinations in SBC 301 Sec 2.3, to

discover the difference

2- Resistance
Resistance of a member is it's nominal strength based on
it' s nominal dimensions, and material properties.
- Resistance Factors Are used to reduce the nominal

strength (Pn) to account for the
uncertainties in the material strength, dimensions,
workmanship and consequences of failure.
1. Variability in Resistance
w Variability of the strengths.
w Differences between the as-built dimensions and those found in
structural drawings.
w Effects of simplification made in the derivation of the members
resistance.
2. Variability in Loading
(see Section 2-10 in the book)
3. Consequences of Failure
A number of subjective factors must be considered in determining an
acceptable level of safety.
w Potential loss of life.

w Cost of clearing the debris and replacement of the structure
and its contents.
w Cost to society.
w Type of failure: Beam vs. column, warning (ductile) vs.
sudden (brittle), existence of alternative load paths.
LRFD Resistance Factors, f (SBC 306)

Some examples of the strength reduction factor (resistance
factor), Ф, are:
1. Фc = 0.85 for axial compression and columns

2. Фv = 0.90 for shear in beams
3. Фb = 0.90 for flexure in beams ( bending moment )
4. Фt = 0.90 for yielding in a tension member
5. Фt = 0.75 for fracture in a tension member, welds & bolts

3- Reliability and LRFD Specification
- Reliability is refered to the estimated percentage of times

that the resistance of a structure will equal or
exceed the maximum loading combination applied to the structure
during its estimated life ( say 50 years)
Usually steel structures are designed to be 99.7% reliable, then

only a probability of 0.3% the strength will be lower than the
applied loads, but it doesn’t mean failure !!!
The typical distribution of the Resistance (R) of a member and

the applied loads (Q) are varied and as shown to be normal
distribution
b : reliability Index = number of standard deviations from the mean
ln ( R / Q )
b = m m
V R2 + V 2
Q
b= 1.75 for member subjected to gravity loads and earthquake loads
b = 2.50 for member subjected to gravity loads and wind loads
b = 3.00 for members subjected to gravity loads
b = 4.50 for connections (bolts and weld)
Therefore the resistance factors (Ф) for different members and load
factors for different load combinations are adjusted accordingly to be as
mentioned before.
LRFD target is to satisfy the following condition

Factored Resistance ≥ Factored Loads
Ф Pn ≥ Pu
Example 2
The axial loads on a building column resulting from the code specified
service loads have been calculated as :
PD=445 kN
PL=667 kN
PLr=133 kN
PW=267 kN (can be positive or negative)
PE=222 kN (can be positive or negative)
Determine the required strength for this column.
Solution:
Combination Pu (kN)
Comb1: 1.4 D 623
Comb2: 1.2 D + 1.6 L + 0.5 Lr 1668
Comb3a: 1.2 D + 1.6 Lr +0.5 L 1080
Comb3b: 1.2 D + 1.6 Lr +0.8 W 960
Comb4: 1.2D + 1.6W + 0.5 L + 0.5 Lr 1361
Comb5a: 1.2D + 1.0 E + 0.5 L 1090
Comb5b: 1.2D - 1.0 E + 0.5 L 646
Comb6a: 0.9D + 1.6W 828
Comb6b: 0.9D - 1.6W -27
Comb7a: 0.9D + 1.0E 623
Comb7b: 0.9D - 1.0E 179
Based on combination results, the required strength of the column is

1668 kN in compression and 27 kN in tension. In other words, the
column needs to be designed for compression and tension.

Strength of Double Angle Bolted Tension Members
Limit States of a Tension Member
• A tension member can fail by reaching one of two limit states:

1. Excessive deformation: can occur due to the yielding of the gross section
along the length of the member, for example section a-a in Figure 2.
2. Fracture in the net section: can occur if the stress at the net section
(section b-b in Figure 2) reaches the ultimate stress Fu.
• The objective of design is to prevent these failures before reaching the
ultimate loads on the structure.
Gusset plate
b Section b -b
b
22 mm diameter hole
a a
200 x 12 mm bar Section a -a
Fu
Fy
Stress, f
εy εu
Strain, ε

Le1 S S Le2 1
Pu g2 h
Pu
hg
g1
t
b
Le1 S S tg
Lc section (1-1)
1
Fig 1. Bolted tension member
1) Yielding of gross area

Ag = Gross Area of angles
Fy = Yield Tensile Strength of angles
Ø Rn = 0.9* Fy * Ag
2) Fracture at net area
Ø Rn = 0.75* Ae * Fu
y"
t y*
Effective Area , Ae = Anet * U
Fig 2 Dimension of cross section
Fu = Ultimate Tensile Strength of angles
Net area = Anet = Gross area – area of holes = {Ag – ∑ dh t }
dh = hole diameter = bolt diameter + 3mm (or 1/8 in)

Shear Lag effect
• Shear lag occurs when the tension force is not transferred uniformly
to all elements of the cross-section. This will occur when some
elements of the cross-section are not connected.
Strength reduction factor , U = (1 – x / Lc ) < 0.9
Lc = For bolted connections, l is the distance between the first and last
fasteners. For staggered bolts, the out-to-out dimension is used .

Strength reduction factor , U = (1 – x / Lc ) < 0.9
x' = c.g of angle along horizontal leg t

y' = c.g of angle along vertical leg x'
y* = c.g of the shaded area of angle
dh ye
y* = Ag (one angle) * y' – {(Ye)* tangle}* (hangle– [Ye /2] )
Ag – (Ye) * tangle h
y"
y* g1 y'
t
• SBC 306 gives values of U for some connection configurations
that can be used instead of using Equation . These values are
summarized in Table below.
1 For W, M, and S shapes With flange bf ≥ 2/3d …..

or Tee cut from these connected with 3 or U=0.9
shapes more fasteners per
b f < 2/3d ….
line in the direction of
loading U=0.85
2 With web connected U=0.7
with 4 or more
fasteners per line in
the direction of
loading
3 For all other shapes with at least 3 U=0.85
including built up fasteners per line in
sections the direction of
loading
4 For all members with only two U=0.75
fasteners per line
5 For all tension members where tension load is U = 1.0

transmitted only by transverse welds to some but
not all of the cross-sectional elements: Ae=UA,
A=area of the directly connected elements.
6 For plates where tension For l ≥ 2w U = 1.00
load is transmitted by For 2w > l ≥ 1.5w w
U = 0.87
U = 0.75
longitudinal welds only. For 1.5w > l ≥ w

3) Block shear in angle
• For some connection configurations, the tension member can

fail due to ‘tear-out’ of material at the connected end. This is
called block shear.
(a)
(b)
(c)
Tension failure plane
Lt
Lt
Lv 1 Lv 1
case 1 case 2
Lc
Fig 3 Block shear failure in bolted connection

• Block shear strength is determined as the sum of the shear strength
on the shear path and the tensile strength on a tension path:
•
Block shear strength = net section fracture strength on shear path
+ gross yielding strength on the tension path
OR
Block shear strength = gross yielding strength of the shear path +
net section fracture strength of the tension path
Agt = Lt * ∑ tangle
Ant = ( Lt - ∑ dh ) * ∑ t angle
Agv = Lv * ∑ tangle
Anv = ( Lv - ∑ dh) * ∑ tangle
Where
Lv = 2*Lv1 (for given case 1)

Lv = Lv1 (for given case 2)
If 0.6 * Fu * Anv > Fu * Ant , Ø Rn = 0.75* (0.6 * Fu * Anv + Fy * Agt)

If 0.6 * Fu * Anv < Fu * Ant , Ø Rn = 0.75 * (Fu * Ant + 0.6 * Fy * Agv)
Agt = gross Area in tensile plane for 2 angle

Ant = net Area in tensile for 2 angle
Agv = gross Area in shear for 2 angle
Anv = net Area in shear for 2 angle
Effect of Staggered bolt holes on net area

1 2
For angles bolted at one leg
For path 1-1 S
An = Ag – ∑ dh * t g
For path 2-2 1 2
An = Ag + ∑ S2 t - ∑ dh *t S
4g 1 2
g
For angles bolted at both legs

1 2
Example 1.
Determine the factor tensile resistance of the given double unequal

angles, if are bolted at the long leg only.
Le1 S S Le2 1
Pu Pu
g
hg
h
t
Le1 S S b
Le2
1 tg
section (1-1)
Fig 4 Bolted tension member for example

given :
2L 89 x 76 x 6.4 mm
Fy = 250 MPa
for single angle
Fu = 400 MPa
Ag = 1020 mm2
Le1 =Le2 = 51 mm
x' = 19.8 mm
s = 76 mm
y' = 26.2 mm
g = 51 mm
dbolt = 19 mm (for standard hole)
dhole = 19 + 3 = 22 mm
Solution :
1- Yielding of Ag.
Ag = 2*1020 = 2040 mm2

Ø Rn = 0.9 * Fy * Ag = 0.9 * 250 * 2040 * 10-3 = 459 kN
2- Fracture on Ae.
Ae = An * U
An = Ag – 2*dh*t = 2040 – 2* (22*6.4) = 1758.4 mm2 X' = 19.8 mm
U = ( 1 – x/Lc) < 0.9
ye = 38 mm
x the largest of
i) x' y"
ii) y" = g – y' g = 51 mm
y'
Fig 5 Dimension of cross section

y'' = {1020 * 26.2 – 38 * [89 * (38/2)] * 6.4}/{1020 – 38*6.4} = 12.49 mm
x = 20 mm or x = 51 – 12.49 = 38.51 mm
∴ x = 38.51 mm
Lc = 2s = 2 * 76 = 152 mm
U = ( 1 – 38.51/152) = 0.747 < 0.90
Ae = An * U = 1758.4 * 0.747 = 1313.5 mm2
Ø Rn = 0.75 * Ae * Fu = 0.75 * 1313.5 * 400 * 10-3 = 393.9 kN
3- Block shear rupture.
Lt
Lv
Fig 6 Block shear failure of single angle
Lv = 2s + Le = 2 * 76 + 51 = 203 mm
Agv = Lv* t = 203 * 2 * 6.4 = 2598.4 mm2
Anv = Agv – 2.5 * dhole* 2 * t = 2598.4 – 2.5 * 22 * 2 * 6.4 = 1894.4 mm2
Lt = leg – g = 89 – 51 = 38 mm
Agt = 38 * 2 * 6.4 = 486.4 mm2
Ant = 486.4 – 0.5 * 22 * 6.4 * 2 = 345.6 mm2
Fu * Ant = 400 * 345.6 = 138240 N

0.6 * Fu * Anv = 0.6 * 400 * 1894.4 = 454656 N > Fu * Ant
Ø Rn = 0.75 * (0.6 * Fu * Anv + Fy * Agt)
= 0.75 * (0.6 * 400 * 1894.4 + 250 * 486.4) * 10-3 = 432.2 kN
∴ the strength of the bolted angles
Ø Rn = 393.9 kN which is governing by fracture

Strength of Double Angle Welded Tension Members
1
Transversal L2
Longitudinal welds
weld
Pu
Pu L3 h hg
t
b
tg
L1
Lg section (1-1)
1
Fig. Welded tension member
1- Yielding of gross area Ag

Ag = gross area of angles
Ø Rn = 0.9 * Ag * Fy
2- Fracture of effective area Ae
Ø Rn = 0.75 * Ae * Fu Ae = A * U
a) If only transverse weld is used

w
A = area connection element
U = 1.0
(a)
b) If only longitudinal weld are used
A = Ag (of the member) w

if - Lc/w > 2.0 , U = 1.0
if - 2 > Lc/w > 1.5 , U = 0.87
if - 1.5 > Lc/w > 1.0 , U = 0.75 L
(b)
c) Transverse & longitudinal weld used
A = Ag (of the member)

w
U = ( 1- x / Lc ) < 0.9
x = c.g along horizontal leg

Lc
(c)
Fig . Different welded layouts

3) Block shear rupture in angle
Lt
Lv
Fig. Block shear failure of welded angle
Lv = L1 , Lt = h - tangle
Av = 2 * tangle * Lv , At = 2 * tangle * Lt
If 0.6 * Fu * Av > Fu * At Ø Rn = 0.75 *(0.6 * Fu * Av + Fy * At)
If 0.6 * Fu * Av < Fu * At Ø Rn = 0.75 *( Fu * At + 0.6 * Fy * Av)
At = gross area of tensile plane

Av = gross area of shear plane

Example
Determine the factor tensile resistance of the given welded double

angles
1
Transversal L2
Longitudinal welds
weld
Pu
Pu L3
h hg
t
b
L1 tg
section (1-1)
Lg
1
Fig. Welded tension member for example
Given :
2L 89 x 76 x 6.4 mm
Fy = 250 MPa L1 = 114 mm for single angle
Fu = 400 MPa L2 = 38 mm Ag = 1020 mm2
L3 = 89 mm x' = 19.8 mm
y' = 26.2 mm
Solution
1- Yielding of Ag.
Ag = 2 * 1020 = 2040 mm2

Ø Rn = 0.9 * Fy * (2*Ag) = 0.9 * 250 * 2040 / 1000 = 459 kN
2- Fracture on Ae.
Ae = Ag*U
U = ( 1 – x / Lc) < 0.9
Lc = L1 = 114 mm
U = ( 1 – 19.8 / 114) = 0.826 < 0.90
Ø Rn = 0.75 * Ae * Fu = 0.75 * (2040*0.826) *400 / 1000 = 505.7 kN
3- Block shear rupture.
Lv = L1 = 114 mm
Av = Lv * t = 114 * 2 * 6.4 = 1459.2 mm2 Lt
Lt = leg – t = 89 – 6.4 = 82.6 mm
At = 82.6 * 2 * 6.4 = 1057.28 mm2
Fu*At = 400 * 1057.28 = 422912 N Lv
0.6* Fu *Av = 0.6 * 400 * 1459.2 = 350208 N < Fu*At
Ø Rn = 0.75*(422912+ 0.6*250*1459.2)/1000 = 481.3 kN
Therefore the governing strength of welded angles is given by

yielding of gross area = 459 kN

Strength of Bolted Connections
Type of bolts
- According to strength
1- Ordinary bolts , A307 are made of carbon steel

similar of A36 steel
2- High strength bolts, A325 & A490, are made from

medium carbon heat-treated steel and have strength
two or more times those of A307.
For A325 bolts Fu = 620 MPa, Fv= 330 - 414 MPa
For A490 Bolts Fu = 780 MPa, Fv = 414 - 520 MPa
SBC 306 TABLE 10.3-2: Design Strength of Fasteners

Tensile Strength Shear Strength in
Bearing-type Connections
Nominal Nominal
Description of Fasteners Resistance Strength, Resistance Strength,
Factor f MPa Factor f MPa
A307 bolts 310 [a] 165 [b,e]

A325 or A325M bolts, when
threads are not excluded from 620 [d] 330 [e]
shear planes
threads are excluded from 620 [d] 414 [e]
shear 0.75 0.75
planesor A490M bolts, when
A490
threads are not excluded from 780 [d] 414 [e]
shear planes
threads are excluded from 780 [d] 520 [e]
shear planes
[a] Static loading only.
[b] Threads permitted in shear planes.
[c] The nominal tensile strength of the threaded portion of an upset rod, based upon the cross-sectional area at its
major thread diameter, AD shall be larger than the nominal body area of the rod before upsetting times Fy.
[d] For A325 or A325M and A490 or A490M bolts subject to tensile fatigue loading, see Section 11.3.
[e] When bearing-type connections used to splice tension members have a fastener pattern whose length,
measured parallel to the line of force, exceeds 1270 mm, tabulated values shall be reduced by 20 percent.

- According to tightening method
1- snug-tight bolts, used when all
surfaces are in firm contact and
tightened with the full effort of a
person using a spud wrench.
2- Pretension joints, bolts are

pretension to approximately 70% SBC 306 TABLE 10.3-1:
Minimum Bolt Pretension, kN*
of its minimum tensile stresses
using one of the tensioning
methods. Such joints are used in
tension applications when load
reversal can occur such in cases
of seismic and fatigue loading.
3- Slip-critical joints, are as

pretension joints and are
required for situations involving
shear combined with tension.
Shear is mainly resisted by
friction between the faying
surfaces
b. Fasteners loaded in shear
a. Fasteners loaded in tension c. Fasteners loaded in combined shear and tension

Methods for Fully Tensioning High-Strength Bolts
a- Turn-of-the Nut method :

The nut is turned from 1/3 to one
full turn depending on the bolt
length
b- Calibrated Wrench method:

An impact wrench is adjusted to
apply a certain torque that is
sufficient to tension the bolt with
certain diameter.
c- Direct Tension Indicator:

Consists of a hardened washer
which has protrusions on one
face in the form of small arches.
The arches are flattened as the
bolt is tightened
Types of Connections
1-Slip-crtical connection:
Bolts need to be pretensioned, to provide sufficient friction
between plates to resist the applied shear and to prevent any
slippage at the connection.
2- Bearing type connection:

Bolts need to be snug-tight, so the applied shear force are
resisted by bearing and shearing of bolts

Sizes and Types of Holes
SBC 306 TABLE 10.3-3

Nominal Hole Dimensions, mm
Hole Dimensions
Bolt Standard Oversize Short-slot Long-slot
Diameter (Dia.) (Dia.) (Width x Length) (Width x
Length)
M16 18 20 18 × 22 18 × 40
M20 22 24 22 × 26 22 × 50
M22 24 28 24 × 30 24 × 55
M24 27 [a] 30 27 × 32 27 × 60
M27 30 35 30 × 37 30 × 67
M30 33 38 33 × 40 33 × 75
≥M36 d+3 d+8 (d + 3) × (d + 10) (d + 3) × 2.5d
[a] clearance provided allows the use of a 25 mm, bolt, if desirable.
Limitations on Bolt Spacing and Edge Distance

≥1.5d b or values from Table
10.3-4
Hole spacing, Sh ≥3d b
Sh≥3d b
· Edge distance, SE
SE ≥ 1.5db or values from Table 10.3-4

SE ≤ Min(150 mm,12t)

1- Slip-Critical Connection
Ns = 1 Ns = 2
Single shear double shear
Fig Shear planes in bolted connection
Ø Rn = Ø * 1.13 * µ * 0.7 * (π*d2b/4) * Fu b* Nb * Ns
Ø =( 0.85 for over size holes) or (1.0 for standard holes)

µ =coefficient of friction.
i)µ= 0.33 for unpainted clean surface
ii)µ= 0.5 for unpainted blast-clean surface
Nb = Number of bolt
Fu b = Tensile strength of bolt
d b = Diameter of bolt
Ns = number of shear planes = 2 (for case of double shear)
1 (for case of single shear)
2- Bearing type connection
a) Shear failure of bolt.

Ø Rn = 0.75 * Fvb * Ab * Ns * Nb
Fvb= Shear Strength of bolt
Ab= Area of bolt = (π *d2b/4 )

Nb = Number of bolt
Ns = number of shear planes = 2 (for case of double shear)
1 (for case of single shear)
b) Bearing failure of plate. For Le > 1.5*d
ØRn = 0.75 * 2.4 * Fu * db * tmin * Nb
Fu = Tensile strength of steel

db = Diameter of bolt
tmin = min of thickness of (2tangle) or (tg)
Nb = Number of bolt

Example
Determine the factor resistance of the given bolted connection if it is a

slip- critical connection.
Given : Le1 S S Le2 1

Fu = 620 Mpa
Fv = 400 Mpa
Pu Pu
2L 89 x 76 x 6.4 mm
Le = 51 mm
s = 76 mm
dbolt = 19 mm Le1 S S Le2
dhole = 19 + 3 = 22 mm 1
g = 51 mm
Fig Dimensions of bolted connection
for single angle
Ag = 1020 mm2
µ = 0.5 (for unpainted blast-clean surface)
Ø = 1.0 (for standard holes)
Solution:
1- Slip- critical connection.
Ø Rn = Ø* 1.13 * µ * 0.7 * (π*d2b/4) * Fub * Nb * Ns

= 1 * 1.13 * 0.5 * 0.7 * {π*(19)2/4}*620 * 3 * 2 /1000 = 416.9 kN
2- Shear failure of bolt.
Ø Rn = 0.75 * Fvb * Ab* Ns * Nb

= 0.75 * 400 *{π*(19)2/4} * 3 * 2 / 1000 = 510 kN
3- Bearing failure of plate.
tmin = (tangle= 2*6.4 = 12.8 mm or tgusset= 12 mm)
\ tmin = 12 mm
Ø Rn = 0.75 * 2.4 * Fu * db * tmin* Nb

= 0.75 * 2.4 * 400 * 19 * 12 * 3 / 1000 = 492.5 kN
\ Ø Rn = 416.9 kN which is governed by slip-critical connection

Strength of Welded Connections
Advantages of welding:
1- Economic; savings results from eliminating
large amount of steel plates and splices.
2- Wider range of application especially for
circular sections.
3- More rigid connections as compared to bolted
connections.
4- Fusing steel together creates the most truly
continuous structures.
5 -Easy and quick process for repair situations
6- Relatively silent process as compared to bolting
process.
7- Stronger member resistance is resulted since no
reduction in cross section resulted
from holes of bolts.
Throat = 0.707 Sw
- Type of welds
Sw
1- fillet welds
2- Groove (butt)
Weld welds
size = S w
Fillet Weld

1- Strength of fillet welds
Ø Rn = 0.75 * 0.6 * FEX * 0.707 * Sw * Lw * ( 1 + 0.5 sin1.5 θ)

Transversal L2
Longitudinal welds
weld
F EX : Strength of weld electrode
P
S w : size of weld Pu L
Lw : Length of weld
θ : angle between load direction and weld direction
L1
For Longitudinal weld: θ = 0 Lg
Ø Rn = 0.75 * 0.6 * FEX * 0.707 * Sw * Lw
For Transversal weld : θ = 90o
Ø Rn = 0.75 * 0.6 * FEX * 0.707 * Sw * Lw * 1.5
2- Strength of gusset plate
1- Yielding on gross area
Ø Rn = 0.9 * Fy * Ag
Ag = Area of guest plate

Fy = Yield Tensile Strength of gusset plate
2- Fracture at net area

Ø Rn = 0.75 * 0.85 * Ag * Fu
Ag = Area of guest plate

Fu = Ultimate Tensile Strength of gusset plate
3- Block shear in guest plate Lt
Av = Lv * tgusset , At= Lt*tgusset Lv
If 0.6 * Fu*Av > Fu*At Ø Rn = 0.75 * (0.6 * Fu *Av + Fy * At)

If 0.6*Fu*Av < Fu*At Ø Rn = 0.75 *( Fu*At + 0.6 * Fy * Av)

Example
Determine the factor resistance of the given welded connection, and the gusset plate
L2 1
Pu Pu hg
L3 h
t
b
L1 tg
Lg section (1-1)
1
Fig Dimensions of welded connection one angle for example

Given :
Guest plate 127 x 16 mm
FEX of weld = 500 MPa 2L 89 x 76 x 6.4 mm
Fu of steel = 400 MPa
Weld size = s = 6 mm L1 = 114 mm
L2 = 38 mm
Solution L3 = 89 mm
1- Longitudinal weld
a) Weld fracture
Ø Rn = 0.75 * 0.6 * FEx * 0.707 * Sw * Lw
= 0.75 * 0.6 * 500 * (114+38) * 0.707 *6 * 2 / 1000 = 290.15 kN
b) Shear rupture of angle

Ø Rn = 0.75 * 0.6 * Fu(steel) * tangle* (L1+L2) * 2
= 0.75 * 0.6 * 400 * (114+38) * 2 * 6.4 /1000 = 350.2 kN
c) Shear rupture of gusset plate
ØRn = 0.75 * 0.6 * Fu(steel) * tgusset * (L1+L1)

= 0.75 * 0.6 * 400 * (114+114) * 16 / 1000 = 656.64 kN
Governing strength of longitudinal weld = 290.15 kN

2- Transverse weld
a) Weld fracture
Ø Rn = 0.75 * 0.6 * FEX* 1.5 * 0.707 * Sw * L3 * 2

= 0.75 * 0.6 * 500 * 89 * 1.5 * 0.707 * 6 * 2 / 1000 = 254.8 kN
b) Tensile Fracture of angle

Ø Rn = 0.75 *Fu(steel) * hangle* tangle*2
= 0.75 * 400 * 89 * 6.4 * 2 / 1000 = 341.76 kN
c) Tensile Fracture of gusset plate
Ø Rn = 0.75 * Fu(steel) * hangle* tgusset

= 0.75 * 400 * 89 * 16 / 1000 = 427.2 kN
Governing strength of transverse weld = 254.8 kN
Design strength of group of weld = 254.8 +290.15 = 545 kN
3- Strength of gusset plate

a) Yielding of Ag.
Ø Rn = 0.9 * Fy * Ag
= 0.9 * 250 * (127 * 16) / 1000 = 457.2 kN
b) Fracture on Ae.
Ø Rn = 0.75 * 0.85 * Ag * Fu
= 0.75 * 0.85 * 400 * (127 * 16)/ 1000 = 518.16 kN
Block shear rupture.

Av = Lv * tgusset = 114 * 16 = 1824 mm2 Lt
At= Lt * tgusset = 108 *16 = 1728 mm2
0.6 * Fu *Av = 437.76 kN
Fu * At = 691.2 kN > 0.6 * Fu *Av L
Ø Rn = 0.75*( Fu*At + 0.6* Fy* Av)
= 0.75*( 691.2 + 0.6* 250 * 1824 / 1000) = 723.6 kN
Summary of results of strength of welded tension member
Strength of member. Yielding of Ag = 459 kN

Fracture on Ae = 505.7 kN
Block share rupture = 481.3 kN
Strength of weld = 545 kN
Strength of gusset plate. Yielding of Ag = 457.2 kN

The governing design strength = 457.2 KN that is governed by yielding of gusset plate
Strength of Gusset Plate
Le1 S S Le2 1
1) Yielding on gross area
Ø Rn = 0.9 * Fy * Ag
Pu Pu
Ag = Area of gusset plate
Fy = Yield Tensile Strength of guest
2) Fracture at net area Le1 S S Le2

1
Anet is the smaller value of
Gusset Plate
i) Anet = Ag - (dh* tgusset*Nb)
ii) Anet = 0.85 * Ag
Ø Rn = 0.75 * Fu * Anet
Fu = Ultimate Tensile Strength of gusset
Ag = Area of gusset plate
dh = Diameter of hole
Nb = Number of bolt
3) Block shear in gusset plate
Lt
Lt
Lv 1 Lv 1
case 1 (for two rows of bolts) case 2
Fig Block shear failure on gusset plate bolted connection
Agt = Lt*tgusset
Ant = Lt*tgusset – (Nb1*dh* tgusset) Nb1 = Number of bolt along Lt (for given case 1, Nb1= 1)
Agv = Lv* tguest (for given case 2, Nb1= 3/2)
Anv = Lv* tgusset – (Nb2*dh* tgusset) Nb2= Number of bolt along Lv (for given case 1, Nb2= 5)
Where (for given case 2, Nb2= 5/2)
Lv = 2*Lv1 (for given case 1)

Lv = Lv1 (for given case 2)
Agt = gross Area in tensile
If 0.6*Fu*Anv > Fu*Ant , Ø Rn = 0.75*(0.6*Fu*Anv + Fy*Agt)

If 0.6*Fu*Anv < Fu*Ant, Ø Rn = 0.75*(Fu*Ant + 0.6*Fy*Agv)

Example 3
Determine the factor tensile resistance of the given gusset plate

Fu = 400 MPa
Fy = 250 MPa Le1 S S Le2 1
Gusset plate 165 X 12 mm 38 mm

Pu
38 mm
2L 89 x 76 x 6.4 mm Pu
Le = 51 mm
s = 76 mm
dbolt = 19 mm
dhole = 19 + 3 = 22 mm Le1 S S Le2
1
Fig Dimensions of bolted connection for gusset plate
Yielding on gross area

Ø Rn = 0.9 * Fy * Ag
= 0.9 * 250 * (165*12) / 1000 = 445.5 kN
Fracture at net area

Anet is the smaller value of
i) Anet =Ag - (dh* tgusset) = 165*12 – 22*12 = 1716 mm2

ii) Anet = 0.85*Ag = 0.85*165*12 = 1683 mm2
Anet = 1683 mm2
Ø Rn = 0.75 * Fu * Anet
= 0.75 * 400 * 1683 / 1000 = 504.9 kN
Block shear rupture. Lt = 76 mm
Agt = Lt * tguest = 76 * 12 = 912 mm2

Ant = Lt * tguest – (Nb1 * dh * tgusset) = 912 – 1/2 * (22*12) = 780 mm2 Lv = 203
Agv = Lv * tguest = 203 * 12 = 2436 mm2
Anv = Lv * tguest – (Nb2 * dh * tgusset) = 2436 – 2.5* (22*12) = 1776 mm2
Block shear failure on gusset
0.6 * Fu * Anv = 0.6 * 400 * 1776 / 1000 = 426.24 kN plate
Fu * Ant = 400 * 780 / 1000 = 312 kN
0.6 * Fu * Anv > Fu * Ant
Ø Rn = 0.75 * (0.6 * Fu * Anv + Fy * Agt)
= 0.75 * (426.24 + 250 * 912 / 1000) = 490.68 kN
∴ The factor tensile resistance of the gusset plate is Ø Rn = 445.5 kN

Summary of result of strength of bolted tension memeber
Fu = 400 MPa Le1 S S Le2 1

Fy = 250 MPa
38 mm
Pu
Guest plate 165 X 12 mm 38 mm
Pu
2L 89 x 76 x 6.4 mm
Le = 51 mm
s = 76 mm
dbolt = 19 mm Le1 S S Le2
dhole = 19 + 3 = 22 mm 1
Strength of member.
Yielding of Ag = 459 kN
Strength of bolt
Slip- critical connection = 416.9 kN

Shear failure of bolt = 510 kN
Bearing failure of plate = 492.5 kN
Strength of gusset plate.
Yielding of Ag = 445.5 kN
The governing design strength of the bolted tension member = 393.9 kN

That is governed by fracture at effective area of the angles

Design of Tension Member with Bolted Connection
Example:
Design a double angle tension member with a bolted end connection
Given : Pu = 500 kN
Steel A36, Fy =250 MPa, Fu = 400 MPa
A325 Bolts, Fub= 620 MPa, Fvb= 400 MPa
Consider the connection is Slip Critical Connection with µ = 0.50, and with standard
holes
Solution :
1- Estimation of Bolts (as Slip Critical Connection)
a- Slip Critical Connection

Ø Rn = Ø * 1.13 * µ * 0.7 * (π*d2b/4) * Fu b* Nb * Ns
f Rn = 1.0 x 1.13 x 0.50 x 0.70 x (π *d2b/4) x 620 x Nb x 2 ≥ 500 x 10 3
d2b x Nb ≥ 1298
b- Bolt shear Failure

Ø Rn = 0.75 * Fvb * Ab * Ns * Nb
Ø Rn = 0.75 x 400 x (π*d2b/4) x Nb x 2 ≥ 500 x 10 3

d2b x Nb ≥ 1061.03
Then d2b x Nb ≥ 1298 Governs the design of bolts
If db = 16 mm, then, Nb = 5.07, Take Nb = 6 bolts

Choose 4 bolts with diameter db = 20 mm
Spacing (S) = 3 d → 6 d = 60mm → 120 mm, take S = 80 mm

Take edge distance (Le) = 40 mm
c – Bearing failure
Ø Rn = 0.75 * 2.4 * Fu * db * tmin * Nb
Ø Rn = 0.75 x 2.4 x 400 x 20 x tmin x 4 ≥ 500 x 10 3
tmin ≥ 8.68 mm, for one angle tmin ≥ 8.68/2 = 4.34 mm ,

for guest plate tmin ≥ 8.68 mm
Choose angle thickness = 6.40 mm (from LRFD standard section tables)

And guest plate thickness = 12 mm
2- Estimation of Angle Sizes
a- Yielding of gross area

Ø Rn = 0.9 x Ag x Fy
= 0.9 x Ag x 250 ≥ 500 x 10 3 Ag ≥ 2222.2 mm2
b- Fracture of net area

Ø Rn = 0.75 x An x U x Fu, assume U = 0.85 for Nb ≥ 3
d h = 20 + 3 = 23 mm
= 0.75 x ( Ag – 2 x 23 x 6.40 ) x 0.85 x 400 ≥ 500 x

3
10 Ag ≥ 2255 mm2
Therefore, Ag ≥ 2255 mm2 governs the design of angles

Area of one angle ≥ 2255 / 2 = 1128 mm2
6.4 mm
From LRFD tables choose angle 102 x 89 x 6.40 mm,
Area gross = 1180 mm2 , c.g x = 23.1 mm 38.1 mm
From Table 3.1, g = 2.5 in = 63.5 mm
y* 57.1 mm
Recalculate the right value of U 63.5 mm
y‘’ 6.4 mm
y’’ = ( 89 x 6.4 x 3.2) + (57.1 x 6.4 x 34.95)

89 mm
89 x 6.4 + 57.1 x 6.4
23.1 mm
= 15.60 mm
y* = 63.5 – 15.60 = 47.90 mm
x = larger of 23.1 mm or 47.90 mm
40 80 80 80
Lc = 3 x 80 = 240 mm
U = 1- 47.90 / 240 = 0.80 ≤ 0.90
Check fracture at effective area
Ø Rn= 0.75 x (1180 x 2 – 2 x 23 x 6.40 )x 0.80 x 400 / 1000 = 495.744 kN < 500 kN
Not O.K
Use larger spacing, take S = 100 mm = 5d, and Le = 50 mm
Lc = 3 x100 = 300 mm, U = 1 – 47.90 / 300 = 0.84
Therefore,
Ø Rn = 0.75 x ( 1180 x 2 – 2 x 23 x 6.40 ) x 0.84 x 400 / 1000 = 520 kN > 500 kN
O.K
3- Check Block Shear Rupture of Angles

Lv = 3S + Le = 300 + 50 = 350 mm, Avg = 350 x 6.4 x 2 = 4480 mm2
Avn = 4480 – 3.50 x 23 x 6.4 x 2 = 3449.6 mm2
Lt = 38.1 mm , Atg = 38.1 x 6.4 x 2 = 487.68 mm2,

At n = 487.68 – 0.5 x 23 x 6.40 = 414 mm2
Fu Atn = 165600 N, and 0.6 Fu Avn = 827904 N
Therefore, 0.6 Fu Avn > Fu Atn, then.
Ø Rn = 0.75 (827904 + 250 x 487.68 ) / 1000 = 712 kN > 500 kN O.K
Note: the strength of Guesst plae should also be checked to be ≥ 500 kN
Use double angles 102 x 89 x 6.40 with 4 M20 A325 bolts, with
spacing 100 mm and edge distance = 50 mm, gage distance = 63.5 mm

Design of Tension Member with Welded Connection
Example:
Design a double angle tension member with a welded end connection
Given : Pu = 500 kN
Steel A36, Fy =250 MPa, Fu = 400 MPa
Use Weld, FEX = 500 MPa
Solution :
1- Assume that yielding on gross area governs the design
Ø Rn = 0.90 Fy Ag = 0.9 x 250 x Ag ≥ 500 x103
Ag ≥ 2222.2 mm2 , therefore each angle gross area ≥ 1111.1 mm2
From LRFD Tables, choose double angles 88.9 x 63.5 x 7.9 mm

Ag of one angle = 1148 mm2
2- Estimation of weld Length (Take weld size = 6 mm)

1
Transversal L2
Longitudinal welds
weld
Pu
Pu L3 h hg
t
b
tg
L1
Lg section (1-1)
1
Longitudinal welds strength per unit length
a) Weld Fracture, Ø Rn = 0.75 x 0.6 x FEx x 0.707 x Sw x 2

= 0.75 x 0.6 x 500 x 0.707 x 6 x 2 = 1909 N/mm
b) Shear fracture of angles, Ø Rn = 0.75 x 0.6 x Fu x 2 t angle

= 0.75 x 0.6 x 400 x 2 x 7.90 = 2844 N/mm
c) Shear rupture of guest plate (take t guesst = 12 mm)

Ø Rn = 0.75 x 0.6 x Fu x t guesst
= 0.75 x 0.6 x 400 x 12 = 2160 N/mm

Therefore the strength of longitudinal weld = 1909 N/mm
Transversal weld strength per unit length

a) Weld fracture, Ø Rn = 0.75 x 0.6 x FEx x 0.707 x Sw x 2 x 1.5
= 0.75 x 0.6 x 500 x 0.707 x 6 x 2 x 1.5 = 2863.5 N/mm
b) Tensile rupture of guesst plate , Ø Rn = 0.75 x Fu x t guesst

= 0.75 x 400 x12 = 3600 N/mm
Therefore the strength of transversal weld = 2863.5 N/mm
Length of required welds

Take L3 = long angle leg = 88.90 mm, and take L1 = L2
Then resistance of welds = 88.9 x 2863.5 + (2 L1 ) 1909 ≥ 500 x 103
Therefore L1 = L2 ≥ 55.2 mm
Take L1 = L2 = 60 mm
3- Check Tensile fracture of angles
c.g , x of angle = 16.17, Lc = L1 = 60 mm

For both transversal and longitudinal welds, U = 1 – (16.17 / 60 ) = 0.73
Ag of two angles = 1148 x 2 = 2296 mm2
Ø Rn = 0.75 x 400 x (0.73 x 2296) = 503 kN > 500 kN O.K
4- Check Block shear of angles
Lv = L1 = 60 mm , Av = 60 x 2 x 7.9 = 948 mm2

Lt = 88.9 – 7.90 = 81 mm, At = 81 x 2 x 7.90 = 1279.8 mm2
0.6 Fu Av = 0.6 x 400 x 948 = 227520 N
Fu At = 400 x 1279.8 = 511920 N > 0.6 Fu Av
Therefore, Ø Rn = 0.75 (511920 + 0.6 x 250 x 948) / 1000 = 490.6 kN < 500 kN Not O.K
Therefore choose a larger longitudinal weld length, Take L1= L2 = 70 mm

Lv= L1 = 65 mm, Av = 70 x 2 x 7.9 = 1106 mm2
0.6 Fu Av = 0.6 x 400 x 1106 = 265440 < Fu At
Therefore, Ø Rn = 0.75 (511920 + 0.6 x 250 x 1106) / 1000 = 508 kN > 500 kN
O.K
Use double angles 88.9 x 63.5 x 7.9 with longitudinal welds L1= L2 = 70 mm, and L3 = 88.90 mm
Introduction to Axially Compression Members
Compression members can be found in:

1- Columns
2- Top chord of simply supported trusses
3- Bracing members
4- Parts of members such as the compression flange of rolled beams
Compression members can have three different modes of failure
1- Flexural buckling (Euler buckling –

Global buckling), it depends on the
slenderness ratio (KL/r) and end
conditions. What is buckling?
P Pcr Buckling occurs when a
straight column subjected to
axial compression suddenly
undergoes bending as
shown in the Figure 1(b).
Buckling is identified as a
L failure limit-state for
columns
.
P Pcr
(a) (b)

2- Local buckling occurs when some part of cross section are so thin that can
buckle locally in compression before flexural buckling occur.

3- Torsional buckling may occur in columns having certain cross sections,
where the shear center does not coincide with the center of gravity. These
columns failed by twisting or combination of torsion and flexural buckling
s.c
s.c s.c.
yo yo yo
c.g. xo c.g.

Euler Formula
For a pined-pined column with length (L) and cross section (A) and has a
moment of Inertia (I) with a modulus of Elastically (E), The buckling load is
given by Euler formula (PE)
PE = π2 E I
L2
And the buckling stress (critical Stress) , Fcr is given by:
Fcr = PE = π2 E (I/A) = π2 E
A L2 (L/r)2
In general, for different end conditions, the buckling length will be equal to KL
where K, depends on the end conditions and Fcr , is given by
Fcr = π E
2
, where KL/r is called slenderness ratio of the column
(KL/r)2

Column Formulas ( Short, Intermediate and long column)
Φ Pn = 0.85 Ag Fcr (Φ = 0.85 for compression members)
Ag = gross area of cross section even there are holes for bolts
(elastic buckling) , long columns (for λc > 1.5)
Fcr = 0.877 π E where λc = KL/r √ Fy / E

2
= 0.877 Fy
(KL/r)2 λc2 π
( Inelastic buckling), short and intermediate columns
For λc ≤ 1.5 Fcr = (0.658 )2Fy

λc
y
For wide flange sections,
x is the major axis and y
is the minor axis. Major
x
axis means axis of
greater moment of
inertia (Ix > Iy)

Local buckling of the cross section elements
Local buckling of flanges and webs of column cross section can occur before
the member reaches its buckling load. LRFD specifications provide limiting
values for the width-thickness ratios of the individual elements of
compression members as follows;

Limiting width-thickness ratio for compression elements, local buckling will
occur if those limits are exceeded
1- Unstiffened elements:
- Single angle and double angles
λ r = b/t = 0.45 √ E / Fy
- Flanges of W-shapes and channels;
λ r = b/t = 0.56 √ E / Fy in pure compression
- Stem of tees;
λ r = d/t = 0.75 √ E / Fy
2- Stiffened elements:
- Flanges of rectangular box and hollow structural sections
λ r = b/t = 1.40 √ E / Fy
- All other elements uniformly compressed and supported along two edges
as web of W-shapes
λ r = b/t = 1.49√ E / Fy
Effect of local buckling in the compression strength
If the limits of b/t > λ r , a reduction factor Q is applied to the yield strength,
where ;
Q = Qs . Qa
Qa: reduction factor for stiffened elements as webs

Qs : reduction factor for unstiffened elements as angle legs and W-shape
flanges

Note that ;
Qs = 1.0 if the cross section is composed of only stiffened elements as
hollow sections
Qa = 1.0 if the cross section is composed of only unstiffened elements

as angles and Tees
For sections that are composed of both stiffened and unstiffened

elements such as W-shapes and channels, Q = Qs . Qa
For Unstiffened compressed elements
a) For single angle
0.45√ E / Fy < b/t < 0.91 √ E / Fy
Qs = 1.34 – 0.76 (b/t) √ Fy / E
b/t ≥ 0.91 √ E / Fy Qs = 0.534 E

Fy (b/t)2
b) For flanges of W-shapes and channels
0.56√ E / Fy < b/t < 1.03 √ E / Fy
Qs = 1.415 – 0.74 (b/t) √ Fy / E
b/t ≥ 1.03 √ E / Fy Qs = 0.69 E

Fy (b/t)2
c) For stems in tees
0.75√ E / Fy < d /t < 1.03 √ E / Fy
Qs = 1.908 – 1.22 (d/t) √ Fy / E
Qs = 0.69 E
b/t ≥ 1.03 √ E / Fy Fy (d/t)2

For Stiffened Compression elements
If h/tw ≥ 1.49 √ E / Fy be/2
E   0.34 E   hw
* 1 −  *  < hw
b*
f  
be = 1.91 * tw *
f   (h / t w )
be/2
f : computed elastic compression stress in the stiffened element based on

design properties
ΣArea.effective A − b * tw [ *
]
Qa = = A
A
Factored Strength of Column
Q λc2
If λc * Q < 1.5 Fcr = Q (0.658) * Fy
If λc * Q > 1.5 Fcr = 0.877 * Fy

λc2
where λc = KL/r √ Fy / E
π
Φ Pn = 0.85 Ag Fcr

Example: 1
Determine the factor resistance of a double angle with short legs back to
back (152 X 89 X 9.5)mm, If (KLx) = 3 m , (KLy) = 6 m
Y
Area = 4400 mm2
rx = 25.1 mm , ry = 74.5 mm
X h X
Solution:
t
(a) Check local buckling b
tg
b/t = 152/9.5 = 16 > 0.45 E / Fy = 12.7
Y
Account for local buckling Q = Qs * Qa
There is no stiffened elements (Qa = 1.0 , Q = Qs)
0.91 E / Fy = 25.74
0.45 E / Fy < b/t = 16 < 0.91 E / Fy
Qs = 1.34 – 0.76*(b/t)* Fy / E = 0.91 (Q = Qs = 0.91)
(b) Check global buckling
KLx/rx = 3000/25.1 = 119.5 , KLy /ry = 6000/74.5 = 80.5
Buckling @ x-x axis is critical
KL / r Fy
λc = * = (119.5/3.14)*(250/200000)0.5 = 1.345
p E
Q * lc = 1.345* 0.91 = 1.283 < 1.5
Ql2
Fcr = Q*(0.658) * Fy
0.91 * (1.345) 2
= 0.91*(0.658) * (250) = 114.2 Mpa
ØPn = 0.85*Ag*Fcr
= 0.85*4400*114.2/1000 = 427 kN
Check using LRFD Tables: for Lx = 3m ØPn = 427 kN

Example: 2
Use the LRFD tables to determine the factor resistance for double angle
back to back (89 x 89 x 9.5) if (KLx)=3 m (KLy) = 6 m
And determine the number of required connectors needed. Y
X h X
Solution: t
b
From Tables: rx = 27.3 mm , ry = 40.8 mm tg
Y
KLx/rx = 3000/27.3 = 109.89 , KLy/ry = 6000/40.8 = 147
Since KLy/ry > KLx/rx , then buckling @ y-y axis is critical
From LRFD Tables:
Ly = 6000 mm , ØPn = 202 kN
Number of connectors needed for x-x axis; rz = 17.40 mm
K a/rz £ KLx/rx = 109.89
\{ 3000/(n+1) } / 17.40 £ 109.89 , \ n > 0.56 for x-x axis
From Tables n = 3 for y-y axis
\ use 3 connectors along the length of the member

Example : 3
A W360X134 section is used as an axially loaded member with(KLx) =

12 m and (KLy) = 6 m . Find the column factor compression resistance ?
bf = 369mm
Given :
Area = 17100 mm2 , Fy = 250 MPa tf = 18mm
rx = 156 mm , ry = 94 mm
Solution : tw = 11.2mm
hw = 286mm
(a) Check local buckling
Flange b/t = (369/2)/18 = 10.25 < 0.56 E / Fy = 15.8

Web h/tw = 286/11.2 = 25.5 < 1.49 E / Fy = 42.2
Then no local buckling will occur, Q =1.0
(b) Check global buckling
KLx/rx = 12000/156 = 76.92 , KLy /ry = 6000/94= 63.83
Buckling @ x-x axis is critical
KL / r Fy
λc = * = (76.92/3.14)*(250/200000)0.5 = 0.866 < 1.5
p E
l2
ØPn = 0.85*Ag*(0.658) * Fy
2
(0.866)
= 0.85*17100*(0.658) * (250) / 1000 = 2654.6 kN
Check Using LRFD Tables
Since, KLx/rx > KLy /ry ,

get the equivalent (KLy) = (KLx)/ (rx/ry) = 12000/1.66 = 7228.9 mm
From Tables: at KLy = 7000 mm Þ ØPn = 2710 kN

at KLy = 7500 mm Þ ØPn = 2590 kN
\ at KLy = 7228.9 mm Þ ØPn = 2655 kN

Example :4
A W530X66 section is used for a column section. Find the column

factored compression resistance for two cases :
bf = 165mm
Case 1 : (KLx) = 5 m and (KLy) = 5 m .
Case 2 : (KLx) = 2 m and (KLy) = 2 m . tf = 11.4mm
Given :
tw = 8.9mm
Area = 8370 mm2 , Fy = 250 MPa
rx = 205 mm , ry = 32 mm hw = 464mm
Solution :
Check local buckling
Flange, bf/2*tf = (165/2)/11.4 = 7.236 < 0.56 E / Fy = 15.8

(no local buckling) , (Qs = 1)
Web, hw/tw = 464/8.9 = 52.1 > 1.49 E / Fy = 42.2
\ Account for local buckling of web Q = Qs * Qa
There is stiffened elements (Qs = 1.0 , Q = Qa)
First assume Qa = 1.0 KL/rmin = 5000/32 = 156.13
KL / r Fy
λc = * = (156.13/3.14)*(250/200000)0.5 = 1.757 > 1.5
p E
Fcr = (0.877/ λc2)*Fy = 71 MPa
E æ ì éhù E ü ö÷
be = 1.91*t* * ç1 - í0.34 / ê ú * ý
Fcr ç ët û Fcr þ ÷ø
è î
200000 æç ìé 0.34 ù 200000 ü ö÷
= 1.91*8.9* * 1 - íê
ç ú * ý = 589.7 mm > hw
71 è îë 52.1 û 71 þ ÷ø
Then Qa = 1.0, and Fcr = 71 MPa
ØPn = 0.85*Ag*Fcr
= 0.85*8370*71/1000 = 505 kN

Trial # 1
First assume Qa = 1.0 KL/rmin = 2000/32 = 62.5
KL / r Fy
λc = * = (62.5/3.14)*(250/200000)0.5 = 0.703 < 1.5
p E
lc 2
Fcr = (0.658) * Fy = 203.2 Mpa
be = 1.91 * t * * ç1 - í0.34 / ê ú * ý
è î
200000 æç ìé 0.34 ù 200000 ü ö÷

= 1.91 * 8.9 * * 1 - íê * ý = 424.1 mm < hw
203.2 çè îë 52.1 úû 203.2 þ ÷ø
b* = h – be = 464 – 424.1 = 39.9 mm

be/2
Qa =
SArea.effective
=
[
Ag - b * * t w ]
Ag Ag hw = 464mm
b*
8370 - [39.9 * 8.9]
= = 0.957
8370
be/2
Q = Qa = 0.957
lc * Q = 0.688 < 1.5 Area effective for web

Q lc 2
Fcr = Q*(0.658) * Fy
2
0.957* ( 0.703)
= 0.957*(0.658) * (250) = 196.3 MPa
203.2 - 196.3
Difference in computed stresses = * 100 = 3.4 > 1
203.2
Then try another trial;
Trial # 2
be = 1.91*t* * ç1 - í0.34 / ê ú * ý
è î
200000 æç ìé 0.34 ù 200000 ü ö÷
= 1.91*8.9* * 1 - íê * ý = 429.57 mm < hw
196.3 çè îë 52.1 úû 196.3 þ ÷ø

b* = h – be = 464 – 429.57 = 34.43 mm
Qa =
SArea.effective
=
[
Ag - b * * t w ]
Ag Ag
8370 - [34.43 * 8.9]
= = 0.963
8370
Q = Qa = 0.963
lc * Q = 0.690 < 1.5

Q lc 2
Fcr = Q*(0.658) * Fy
2
= 0.963*(0.658)0.963 * (0.703) * (250) = 197.26 MPa
196.3 - 197.25
Difference in compression stresses = * 100 = 0.48 < 1,
196.3
Then its good enough;
Fcr = 197.26 MPa
ØPn = 0.85*Ag*Fcr
= 0.85*8370*197.26/1000 = 1403.4 kN

Effective Length of Columns
The effective column length (the equivalent half wave of buckling

length), depends on;
1) The fixed end conditions (fixed, hinged or free ends), of the column
(K factor).
2) The framing condition, whether it is braced or unbraced

P P P P
L L
Braced Frame
(Sway prevented) Unbraced Frame
(Sway Permitted)
0.5 < K< 1.0 1.0 < K 5.0
Ib
K≤ 1 K≥ 2

3) The column - beam connections, and the relative stiffnesses of columns
to beams at each end of the column
S (I/L) columns
G=
S (I/L) beams
Note : G = 10 for hinged (pinned) support

G = 1.0 for fixed support
For braced Frame
Km = 3 Gi Gj + 1.4 (Gi + Gj) + 0.64

3 Gi Gj + 2 (Gi+Gj) + 1.28
For unbraced Frame
Km = 1.6 Gi Gj + 4 (Gi+Gj) + 7.5

Gi + G j + 7.5
Or by using charts:

Example
For the shown two storey frame with the indicated relative
Inertias, computed the Buckling length factor (K) for columns 1, 2 and 3.
Solution: 2I 8
5
G1= 10 for hinged support 3 I I 3m

G3 = G6 = 1.0 for fixed support 2I 4 2I 7
2
G2 = (I/5) = 0.60
1 I 2 I 5m
(2I /6) 2I
1 3 6
G4 = ( 2I/5 + I/3 ) = 1.257
(2I/6 + 2I/8) 8m
6m
G5 = (I/3) = 1.332
(2I/8)
For Column 1, (unbraced frame) Values from charts
K1 = 1.6 x 10 x 0.6 + 4 (10 +0.6) + 7.5 = 1.81 1.80

10 + 0.60 + 7.5
For Column 2, (unbraced frame)
K2 = 1.6 x 1 x 1.257 + 4 (1 + 1.257) + 7.5 = 1.378 1.375

1 + 1.257 + 7.5
For Column 3, (braced Frame)
K3 = ( 3 x 1.257x1.332) + 1.4 (1.257 + 1.332) + 0.64 = 0.81 0.80

3 x 1.257 x 1.332 + 2 ( 1.257 + 1.332) + 1.28

Design of Beams
1 - Bending stresses in beams
Pu Plastic hinge
W shape
εc
-
Φ +
εt
Area of yielding Beam cross section Strain diagram
M
f < Fy Fy Fy Fy Fy
- - - - - Mp
4 5
+ + + + + 3
Fy Fy Fy My 2
f < Fy Fy
1 2 3 4 5 1
My = Yield moment Curvature Φ

= (C or T) yc.t
= Fy. S
where S : Elastic modulus

For rectangular section S = bd2/6
Mp = Plastic moment
= (C or T ) yc.t
= Fy . Z
Where Z : Plastic modulus
For rectangular section Z = bd2/4
Mp = Z for rectangular section Z = 1.5

My S S
For W shapes Z/S ≈ 1.10 → 1.15

2- Effect of beam unbraced length on its moment capacity
Buckling of the compression flange of the beam can occur if the unbraced
length of the compression flange ( Lb) exceeds certain values
Lp : Is the largest value of unbraced length that Mp can be reached
Lr : is the largest value of unbraced length that cause inelastic torsional

buckling

3 - Beam bending strength
Resistance factor for flexural (Φ) = 0.90
(a) if Lb ≤ L p (Zone 1)
Φ Mn = least of Φ Mp
Φ 1.5 Fy . S
(b) if Lp < Lb ≤ Lr (Zone 2) (inelastic lateral torsional buckling)
Φ Mn = Φ Cb [ Mp – ( Mp – Mr) (Lb - Lp) ] ≤ Φ Mp

(Lr – Lp)
= Φ Cb [ Mp – BF (Lb - Lp) ] ≤ Φ Mp
Where, Lp, Lr, Mp, Mr, BF are obtained from LRFD tables
Cb : is a modification factor for non-uniform moment diagram
( c ) if Lb > Lr (Zone 3) ( Elastic lateral torsional buckling)
Φ Mn = Φ Cb Mcr
Where Mcr is the critical moment at which the beam will twist elastically
due to the elastic buckling of the compression flange, its values are obtained
from graphs

Bending Coefficient (Cb)
Cb is a moment coefficient to account for the effect of different

moment gradients on lateral - torsional buckling
Cb = 1.0 for a uniform moment diagram M M

+
Which represent the worst case
of compression flange buckling,
resulting in the least beam moment resistance
In general, Cb = 12.5 M max

2.5 M max + 3 M A + 4 MB + 3 MC
Where, M max : is the largest moment in an unbraced segment
MA, MB & MC: are the moments at the 1/4, 1/2 & 3/4 point in the
segment, respectively.
MC Mmax
MB = Mmax MB
MA MC MA
1/4 Lb 1/4 Lb 1/4 Lb 1/4 Lb 1/4 Lb 1/4 Lb 1/4 Lb 1/4 Lb
Lb = L Lb = L/2 Lb = L/2
Compression flang is laterally Compression flang is laterally
supported at ends only , Cb = 1.14 supported at mid span , Cb = 1.30

Some typical values of Cb for different type of loading and different points of
laterally supported compression flange

Beam shear strength
Shear resistance factor ( f v) = 0.90
LRFD strength requirement : f v Vn ≥ Vu
Area of web, Aw = d tw

Serviceability Limit State for Beams
- Deflection of beams
The deflections of beams are usually limited to certain maximum values for several
excellent reasons such as;
1- Excessive deflection may damage other materials attached to it as plasters, walls

and flooring.
2- Extreme deflection do not inspire confidence in persons using the structure,

although it may be completely safe from strength point of view.
Standard American practice for buildings has been limit service live load deflection
to approximately L/360, where "L" is the beam span.
Maximum deflection due to service live loads D max £ L /360
w
D max = 5wL 4
384 E I
L
D max = P L3
L/2 L/2
48 E I
P P
D max = P a ( 3 L2 – 4 a2)
24 E I a L - 2a a
L
w
D max = w L4
8 EI L
D max = P L3
3 EI
L
Examples on beam design
A simple steel beam (A36) has a span of 9m and is supporting a uniform service dead
load = 12 kN/m and service live load = 21 kN/m,
Find the lightest W- Shape section for the following Cases :
1) The top flange in laterally supported continuously with RC Slab w

2) The top flange is supported at (2.25m) apart
3) The top flange is only supported at mid span
4) The top flange is supported at only ends. L=9m
486 kN.m
Solution:-
Fy = 250 MPa +
wult = 1.2 D + 1.6 L = 1.2 x 12 + 1.6 x 21 = 48 kN/m
Mult max = wL2 /8 = 48 (9)2 /8 = 486 kN.m
Qult max = w L /2 = 48 x 9 /2 = 216 kN 216 k N
+
Case 1: -
216 k N
Top flange is continuously laterally supported .
Lb = 0 < Lp
Look for the lightest W- Shape , so that

Ø Mp > 486 kN.m (Zone 1) of curve
From LRFD tables Choose W 610 x 82

Mp= 495 kN.m , Lp= 1.7m, L r = 4.99 m BF= 57.8
For zone 1 of curve

ØMp= Fy.Zx = 495 kN.m
Ø Mn least of
Ø 1.5 Fy Sx =0.9(1.5) 250 x 1870x103x 10-6 = 631.12 kN.m
Therefore Ø Mn = 495 kN.m > M ult max = 486 kN.m
\ W 610 x 82 is Safe

Check shear strength
For W 610 x 82 h = 534 mm , tw = 10 mm, d = 599 mm
h = 534 = 53.4
tw 10
2.45 E = 2.45 2x 105 = 69.30 , \ h < 2.45 E

Fy 250 tw Fy
Ø Vn= (0.90) 0.6 x 250 x (599 x 10) x 10-3 = 808.65 kN > Vult = 216 kN
\ The W 610 x 82 section is Safe in shear
Case 2
455.6
417.7 486
Top flange is laterally @ 2.25m \ Lb=2.25m
478.4
Try to use same section W 610x82 364.5
Mp= 495 kN.m , Lp= 1.7m, Lr = 4.99 m, BF= 57.8
Lb> Lp \ beam is located in zone 2 on curve
Therefore, Ø Mn = Cb [Ø Mp – BF (L b - L p) ] Lb= 2.25 Lb= 2.25
Check for part 2 of beam :- Critical part, Cb in

less, and maximum
Cb2 = 12.5 M max moment is applied
2.5 Mmax+ 3MA+4MB+3MC
Cb2 = 12.5 x 486 = 1.061

2.5 x 486 + 3 x 417.7 + 4 x 455.6 + 3 x 478.4
The factored resistance of W 610x82, for Lb = 2.25 m
Ø Mn = 1.061 [495 - 57.8 (2.25-1.70) ] = 491.46 kN. m < Ø Mp= 495 kN.m
\ Ø Mn = 491.46 kN.m > Mult max = 486 kN.m
\ W610 x 82 is safe for unsupported length of compression flange = 2.25 m

Case 3 : Top flange is laterally supported at mid span (4.5m)
MC = 455.6
MB =364.5
Lb = 4.5m and most probably will be greater than Lp
M max =486
MA = 212.6
Therefore the beam is located at zone 2 of beam curve
Cb = 12.5 Mmax
2.5M max + 3MA + 4MB + 3Mc
Cb = 12.5 x 486 = 1.30

2.5 x 486 + 3 x 212.6 + 4 x 364.5 + 3 x 455.6 Lb= 4.50 Lb= 4.50
Enter beam graphs and look for the lightest section with,
Lb=4.5 m, and factored resistance not less than Mmax / Cb = 458/1.30 = 373.8 kN.m
From graph, the lightest section is W 610 x 92
From beam tables, for W 610 x 92, Ø Mp= 565 kN.m , Lp = 1.74 m, BF = 62.1
Ø Mn = 1.30 [ 565 -62.1( 4.5-1.74)] = 511.68 < 565 kN.m
\ Ø Mn= 511.68 kN.m > M ult max = 486 kN.m
\ W 610 x 92 is Safe for Lb= 4.50 m
MA =364.5 MC = 364.5
Case 4 : The top flange is only laterally supported at ends
MB= M max =486
\ Lb= 9m.
Cb = 12.5x486 = 1.136
2.5 x 486 + 3 x 364.5 + 4 x 486 +3x364.56
Look for a lightest section in zone 2 in beam graphs, with Lb =9.0 m, Lb= 9.00
With a factored resistance not less than Mmax / Cb = 486 /1.136 = 427.7 kN.m
From graph choose, W 460 x 128,

From Tables Ø Mp = 686 kN.m , Ø Mr = 445 kN.m, Lp = 3.33 m , Lr = 10.8 m, BF = 32.3
\ Ø Mn = 1.136 [ 686 -32.3 (9-3.33)] = 571 kN.m < Ø Mp
\ Ø Mn = 571 kN.m. > M ult max = 486 kN.m
\ W 460 x 128 is Safe for Lb= 9.0 m

Check deflection due to live load W 460 x 128
From W-shape tables , Ix = 6.37x108 mm4 E = 2 x 105 MPa (N/mm2)
L = 9000 mm
Service live load = w = 21 kN/m = 21x1000 N = 21 N /mm

1000 mm
For uniform load on simply supported beam, the max deflection = 5wL4
384 EI
r max = 5 x 21 x (9000)4 = 14.09 mm

384 x 2 x 105 x 6.37 x 108
r all = L = 9000 = 25 mm
360 360
\ r max < r all
\ W 460 x 128 satisfies the deflection limits as well as strength requirements for
unsupported compression flange = 9.0 m

Beam – Column Strength
- Second order effect ( P - D)

Effect of axial force on members having deformations due to
transversal or lateral loading
If the member is braced at ends;

wu
Pu Pu
L
Mnt = is the primary moment due to
M nt = wL2/8
transverse loads
d co = deformation due to transverse load
d c = deformation of member due to Primary Moment Mnt, If P = 0
transverse loading and axial load
dco
M u = Mnt + Pu . d c
Pu Pu
dc dco
Secondary moment
for braced case
= B1 . Mnt Deflection before P was applied
Deflection after P was applied
Where, B1 is a moment magnification factor for a braced member

D Pu
If the member is unbraced ;
M lt = is the primary moment resulted from sway

D = lateral deflection due to sway
M u = M lt + P . D
Secondary moment
= B2 . M lt for unbraced case Mu
Pu
Where, B2 is a moment magnification factor for a unbraced member
Therefore for a general member, the final moment taking into

consideration second order effect will be in the form
M u = B1 . Mnt + B2 . M lt
Where, B1 = Cm ³ 1.0
1 - ( Pu / Pe1)
C m : factor accounts for type of loading and member – end moments

P e1 : Euler buckling load of the member = p2 E I / (KL)2
where, I & L for the axis of bending and (K) for a braced member
For beam-column not subjected to transverse loads
Cm = 0.60 – 0.4 M1
M2
Where;
M1: is the absolute value of smaller moment at
end
M2 : is the absolute value of larger moment at
end
and M1/M2 = - ve for single curvature
= + ve for double curvature
For beam-column subjected to transverse loads

Cm is given as in the shown table

Where, B2 = 1 ³ 1.0
1 - ∑ Pu
∑ Pe2 ∑ Pu = Pu1 + Pu2 + Pu3
Where, ∑ Pu is the summation of all ultimate

loads of columns in a story of frame
And, ∑ Pe2 is the summation of Euler buckling

load of all columns in the frame,
where Pe2 = p2 E I / (KL)2
where, I & L for the axis of bending and (K)

for a unbraced member
Strength Equations for Beam – Column
1) when Pu ³ 0.20
f Pn
Pu + 8 Mux + Muy £ 1.0

f Pn 9 f Mnx f Mny
2) when Pu < 0.20

f Pn
Pu + Mux + Muy £ 1.0

2 f Pn f Mnx f Mny
where;
f Pn : Column design strength (obtained from column strength)
f Mnx : Beam design strength about x-x axis (obtained from beam strength)
f Mny: Beam design strength about y-y axis (obtained from beam strength)
Pu : Ultimate column load (obtained from factored loads)
Mux : Ultimate bending moment about x-x axis
(obtained from factored loads with the second order effects)
Muy : Ultimate bending moment about y-y axis
(obtained from factored loads with the second order effects)

Example 1
Check the safety of the

shown beam to resist the
given ultimate loads, if the
beam section is W 310 x 97 Pu = 700 kN W u = 10 kN/m Pu = 700 kN
(A36) and the compression
flange of the beam is only 9m
laterally supported at ends.
Solution:
1- Beam effect (beam strength)

Lb = 9m
For W 310 x 97, f Mp = 358 kN.m, f Mr = 235 kN.m, Lp = 3.83 m, Lr = 13.6 m ,
BF = 12.6
Lr > Lb > Lp \beam strength is located in zone 2
Obtain Cb = 1.14 for uniform load on simply supported beam that is laterally
supported at ends only.
f Mn = 1.14 [ 358 – 13.2 (9 – 3.83) ] = 330 kN.m < f Mp
\ f Mnx = 330 kN.m
2- Beam-Column Effect
The beam is braced at ends,

Maximum moment = Mnt = w L2 /8 = 10 . (9)2 /8 = 101.25 kN.m
B1 = Cm
1 - Pu /Pe1
Cm = 1.0 , for hinged-hinged beam with uniform transverse loads
Pe1 = p2 E I = (3.14)2 (2 x 105) (222 x 106) x 10-3 = 5410.00 kN

(KL)2 (9000)2
B1 = 1.0 = 1.15 ³ 1.0 \ B1 = 1.15

1 – 700/5410
Ultimate maximum moment at mid span = Mux
= B1 x Mnt = 1.15 x 101.25 = 116.44 kN.m

3- Column Effect
For W 310 x 97,

bf =305 mm, tf = 15.4 mm, h = 241 mm, tw = 9.9 mm,
A= 12300 mm2, ry = 77mm
Klx = Kly = 9000 mm \ KLy /ry is critical
ly = (KL/ry) Fy = 9000 / 77 250 = 1.32

5
p E 3.14 2 x 10
Check local buckling:

For flange, ( bf/2) / tf = (305/ 2) / 15.4 = 9.90 < 0.56 E = 15.80 o.k
Fy
For web, h/ tw = 241 / 9.9 = 24.13 < 1.49 E = 42.10 o.k

Fy
\ No local buckling in column section
ly = 1.31 < 1.50

2
Fcr = (0.658) (1.32) x 250 = 120.6 MPa
f Pn = 0.85 (12300) ( 120.6) x 10-3 = 1260.8 kN
4- Check Strength Equation
Pu = 700 = 0.555 > 0.20

f Pn 1260.8
\ Pu + 8 ( Mux) = 700 + 8 116.44 = 0.87 < 1.0 \ o.k

f Pn 9 f Mnx 1260.8 9 330
\ Section W 310 x 97 is safe to resist the given ultimate loads

Example 2
W = 50 kN/m
Check the safety of column (3), if H
Pu = 250 kN and is laterally supported
at mid height. The resulted bending 2 W 530 x 66
moment diagrams are given for both 5m
1
cases, braced and unbraced. All steel is W 360 x 72 W 360 x 72 3
A36
For W 360x72 10 m
A= 9110 mm2, d= 350 mm, tw=8.6 mm
bf =204 mm, tf = 15.1 mm, h =280 mm
Ix = 201 x 106 mm4 , rx = 149 mm,
ry = 48.5 mm W = 50 kN/m
For W 530 x 66 180 kN.m

I x = 351 x 106 mm4
180 kN.m
Mnt diagram
Solution: (braced case)
- Column buckling length (inplane)

H 100 kN.m
Ic/ Ib = 1.75
100 kN.m
G1 = 10 (for hinge)
Mlt diagram
(unbraced case)
G2 = I/5 = 1.14
1.75 I/10
Braced case
K = 3 x 10 x 1.14 + 1.4 (10 + 1.14) + 0.64 = 0.87
3 x 10 X 1.14 + 2 (10 +1.14) + 1.28
Unbraced case
K = 1.6 x 10 x 1.14 + 4 (10 + 1.14) + 7.5 = 1.94

10 + 1.14 + 7.5

M
1- Beam effect
0.88 M
Lb = 5.0 / 2 = 2.5 m
0.75 M Lb = 2.5 m
For W 360 x 72; f Mp = 288 kN.m, f Mr = 187 kN.m,
0.63 M
Lp = 2.41 m, Lr = 7.98 m , BF = 18.1 0.5 M
Lr > Lb > Lp \ beam strength is located at zone 2
Lb = 2.5 m
Cb = 12.5 M = 1.25
2.5 M + 3 x 0.63 M + 4 x 0.75 M + 3 x 0.88 M
\ f Mn = 1.25 [ 288 – 18.1 (2.5 – 2.41)] = 357 kN.m > f Mp = 288 kN.m
\ f Mn = f Mp = 288 kN.m
2 – Beam – Column effect
(braced case)
B1 = Cm
1 - Pu /Pe1
where Cm = 0.6 – 0.4 ( 0 ) = 0.6

180
Pe1 = p2 E I = (3.14)2 (2 x 105) (201 x 106) x 10-3 = 20946 kN

(KLx)2 (0.87 x 5000)2
\ B1 = 0.6 = 0.61 < 1.0

1 – ( 250/20946)
\ B1 = 1.0
(unbraced case)
B2 = 1 > 1.0
1 - ∑Pu /∑Pe2
∑Pu = 50 x 10 = 500 kN
Pe2 = p2 E I = (3.14)2 (2 x 105) (201 x 106) x 10-3 = 4212.5 kN

2
(KLx) (1.94 x 5000)2
B2 = 1 = 1.06
1 – [500 / (2 x 4212.5)]
Mux = B1 Mnt + B2 Mlt = 1 x 180 + 1.06 x 100 = 286.3 kN.m

3- Column Effect (unbraced case)
KLx/rx = 1.94 x 5000 / 149 = 65, KLy /ry = 1 x 2500/ 48.5 = 51.5
\ KLx/rx controls,
lx = (KL/rx) Fy = 65 250 = 0.736 < 1.50

5
p E 3.14 2 x 10
Check local buckling:
For flange, ( bf/2) / tf = (204/ 2) / 15.1 = 6.75 < 0.56 E = 15.80 o.k
Fy
For web, h/ tw = 280 / 8.6 = 32.6 < 1.49 E = 42.10 o.k

Fy
\ There is no local buckling

2
Fcr = (0.658) (0.736) x 250 = 199.3 MPa
=
f Pn 0.85 x 199.3 x 9110 x 10-3 = 1543 kN
5- Check beam –column strength
Pu = 250 / 1543 = 0.16 < 0.20

f Pn
\ Pu + ( Mux) = 250 + 286.3 = 1.08 > 1.0 \ NOT o.k

2 f Pn f Mnx 2 x 1543 288
\ W 360 x 72 is unsafe to be used a column by about 8 %, and

need to changed to a larger section

Building Connections
Types of Beam connections:
1- Rigid or continuous connections (FR),

are assumed to be sufficiently rigid to
keep the original angles between
members unchanged under load.
2- Simple and Semi rigid connections

(PR), are assumed to have insufficient
rigidity to keep the original angles
between members unchanged
Types of Simple connections

Type of Semi Rigid Connections
Types of Rigid Connections

Design of Simple Shear Connections
(Bearing type connection)
Strength of bolts is governed by;
1- Shear failure of bolts
φ Rn = 0.75 . Fv . Ab . Nb . Ns A A
Where;
Fv : Shear strength of bolts
(for A325 bolts = 400 MPa)
Ab : gross area of bolt
Nb : Number of bolts
Ns : Number of shear planes,
For group A, Ns = 2, for group B Ns= 1
Group B Bolts
2- Bearing failure of plate
φ Rn = 0.75 * 2.4 Fu (d . tmin) . Nb
Where:
Fu : ultimate tensile strength of plates Group A bolts
d : diameter of bolts
tmin : of group A bolts is less of tw or 2tangle Sec A- A
of group B tflange of column or tangle
Simple Shear Connection between a
beam and column
Secondary Secondary
beam beam
Main beam
Simple Shear Connection between

Secondary beams and main beam

Example
Determine the number of bolts Group B bolts
needed to support an ultimate Group A bolts
shear force = 1000 kN,
transformed from beam
155 mm
W 840 x 473 to a main beam
W 920 x 653 with double W 840 x 473
angles 65 x 65 with a length of 690 mm 893 mm
690 mm
48 mm
F v for bolts = 400 MPa Critical section

Fu for steel = 400 MPa for shear
Fy for steel = 250 MPa
W 920 x 653
For W 840 x 473 For W 920 x 653
d= 893 mm d = 972 mm
h = 756 mm tw = 34.5 mm
tw = 26.4 mm
tf = 48 mm
Solution:
Check the shear strength at critical section
For W 480 x 473, h/tw = 756 / 26.4 = 28.6 < 2.45 2 x 105 = 69
250
∴ φVn = 0.9 x 0.6 Fy . Aw where Aw = (690 + 48 ) x 26.4 = 19483 mm2
φVn = 0.9 x 0.6 x 250 x 19483 x 10-3 = 2630 > Vu = 1000 kN ∴ OK
Strength of Bolts
a) Group (A) bolts (Double Shear)
1- Shear Failure, φ Rn = 0.75 x (πd2 /4) x 400 x Nb x 2 = Vu = 1000 x 103
∴ d2 Nb = 2122.07
Try , if
Nb d (mm) Spacing = 690/Nb
3 26.5 230mm = 8.67 d > 6d not OK
4 23 172 mm = 7.5 d > 6d not OK
5 20.6 138 mm = 6.7 d > 6d not OK
6 18.8 115 mm =6.1 d > 6d not OK
7 17.4 98.5mm = 5.6 d < 6d O.K

g
∴ Choose 7 bolts with s/2

diameter 18 mm with s
spacing = 98.5 mm for s = 98.5 mm s
group A s
690 mm s
s
s
s/2
2- Check bearing strength for 7 M18 bolts
φ Rn = 0.75 x 2.4 Fu x d x tmin x Nb
= 0.75 x 2.4 x 400 x 18 x t min x 7 = 1000 x 103
∴ t min = 11.02 = 2 t angle
∴ tmin of angle = 5.5 mm
∴ Choose double angles 65 x 65 x 6.35 mm
b) Group (B) bolts (Single Shear)
1- Check Shear Failure,

φ Rn = 0.75 x (π 18 2 /4) x 400 x 14 x 1 x 10-3 = 1068.8 kN > Vu = 1000 kN
2- Check bearing strength

φ Rn = = 0.75 x 2.4 x 400 x 18 x 6.35 x 14 x 10-3 = 1152 kN > 1000 kN
∴ Use 14 M18 for group B bolts
Check shear block of double angles g Lt

D hole = 18 + 3 = 21 mm
Lv = 6.5 s = 6.5 x 98.5 = 640.25 mm
s/2
Av= 640.25 x 2 x 6.35 = 8131.2 mm2 s
Avn = 8131.2 – (6.5 x 21 x 6.35 x 2) = 6397.65 mm2 s
Gage distance g = 35 mm , Lt = 65 - 35 = 30 mm s
2 Lv
Atg = 30 x 6.35 x 2 = 381 mm s
2
Atn = 381 – 0.5 x 21 x 6.35 x 2 = 247.65 mm s
-3 s
0.6 Fu Avn = 0.6 x 400 x 6397.65 x 10 = 1535.44 kN
Fu Atn = 400 x 247.65 = 99.06 kN s/2
0.6 Fu Avn > Fu Atn
φ Rn = 0.75 [0.6 Fu Avn + Fy Atg]
φ Rn = 0.75 [ 1535.4 + 250 x 381 x 10-3] = 1223 kN > Vu = 1000 kN
∴ double angles 65 x 65 x 6.35 mm with 7 M 18 A325 bolts with spacing 98.5 mm

and gage distance g = 35 mm are sufficient to resist Vu = 1000 kN
Design of Four-Bolt Unstiffened Extended End-Plate Connection
Le g ≤ bf Le
Le Puf = Mu
pf
tf (d-tf)
pf
2bd
d d-tf
tw
Effective weld
length for shear
Mu
pf
tf
pf Puf
Le
bf
bp
Assumptions
1- Fully pretension ASTM, A325 M, or A490M bolts are used with

diameter less than 36 mm.
2- End plate material is A36
3- Only static load is permitted.
4- Recommended distance pf = db + 12 mm, fabricators prefer to use

standard dimension , usually 50 mm, which is adequate for all bolt
diameters.
5- End plate width which is effective in resisting the applied moment is

not greater than bf + 25mm.
6- The gage distance (horizontal distance) of tension bolts (g) should not
exceed the beam tension flange width (bf).
7- When the applied moment is less than the design flexural strength of
the beam, the bolts and end plate may be designed for the applied
moment only.
8- The effective length of weld to resist shear is the distance between the
mid-depth of beam to the inside face of the compression beam flange.

9- Minimum number of bolts at tension side is 4 and minimum number
of bolts at compression side is 2.
The required end-plate thickness (tep ) can be obtained as follows:
tep = 4 M eu
f Fy bp
Where; Fy : end-plate yield strength

f = 0.90
bp = effective end-plate width, should not exceed bf +25 mm
And, M eu = am Puf pe
4
Where;
Puf = factored beam flange force = Mu / (d-tf)
am = Ca Cb (Af/Aw)1/3 (pe/db) 1/4
Ca = constant = 1.38 for Fy = 250 MPa for both the beam and end-plate and bolts A325
(For other cases see Table 10-1 in the LRFD Connection Manual)
Cb = (bf / bp) 1/2
bf = beam flang width, mm
bp = effective end-plate width, mm not exceed bf +25 mm
Af = area of beam tension flange, mm2
Aw = area of beam web, clear of flanges, mm2
pe = effective pitch, mm = pf – (db/4) – wt
pf = distance from bolt center line to the near surface of tension flange, mm
wt = filet weld throat size, mm
db = nominal bolt diameter, mm

Example
Design a four-bolt unstiffened extended end-plate moment connection for a W 460x
74 beam to a W 360 x 147 column flange. Both materials for beam and end-plate are
A36m, Fy = 250 MPa. Use ASTM A325M bolts Fvb= 400 MPa, Fub =620 MPa with
standard holes ( m = 0.33) and 480 MPa electrodes.
Given : Factored shear force Vu = 200 kN

Factored bending moment Mu = 330 kN.m
W 460 x 74 ;
d= 457 mm bf = 190 mm, tw = 9.0mm , tf = 14.5 mm
W 360 x 147:
d= 360 mm bf = 370 mm, tw = 12.3 mm, tf = 19.8 mm, T = 286 mm
Solution:
1 - Flange force Puf
Puf = Mu = 330 x 1000 = 746 kN

(d – tf) ( 457 – 14.5 )
2- Check for bolts in tension and shear
(a) for tension use 4 bolts with diameter (db)
\ f Rn = f Fub x (p db 2/4) x 4 ³ Puf

= 0.75 x 620 x (p db 2/4) x 4 ³ 746 x 1000
\ db ³ 22.6 mm , \ use 4 bolts M 24 for tension flange
(b) Number of bolts needed for slip critical connection

f Rn = f 1.13 m [0.7 Fub (p db 2/4) ] Nb ³ 200 x 1000
\ = 1.0 x 1.13 x 0.33 [ 0.7 x 620 x (p (24)2/4) ] Nb ³ 200 x 1000
\ Nb = 2.733 bolt
\ a total of 6 bolts (4 at tension flange and 2 at compression flange)
will be sufficient to resist the shear force 200 kN as a slip critical
connection.
(c) Check bolt shear strength (6 bolts)
f Rn = f Fvb (p db 2/4) Nb Ns
= 0.75 x 400 (p (24)2/4) x 6 x 1 x 10-3 = 814 kN > 200 kN
\ O.K
3- Design of end-plate
Choose Le ³ 1.5 d ( 36mm) and bf ( 190mm) > g ³ 3d (72 mm)
\ choose Le = 40 mm and g = 140 mm and pf = db + 12 mm = 24 +12= 36mm
\ bp = 2 Le + g = 2 x 40 + 140 = 220 mm
However the effective width of plate should not exceed bf + 25 = 190 +25 = 215 mm
M eu = am Puf pe
4
Where; am = Ca Cb (Af/Aw)1/3 (pe/db) 1/4
Ca = 1.38
Cb = (bf / bp) 1/2 = (190/215) 1/2 = 0.94
Af / Aw = (190 x 14.5) / [(457-29) x 9] = 0.75
pe = pf – (db/4) – wt , assume weld size for flange = 14 mm
pe = 36 – 24/4 – (0.707 x14) = 20.1 mm
\ am = 1.38 x 0.94 x (0.75) 1/3 (20.1/24) 1/4 = 1.11
\ M eu = 1.11 x 746 x 20.1 /4 = 4177.73 kN.mm
\ tep = 4 M eu = 4 x 4177.73 x 1000 = 18.59 mm ® 20 mm

f Fy bp 0.90 x 250 x 215
Check shear strength of end-plate with thickness 20 mm and bp eff = 215 mm
f Rn = 2 f ( 0.6 Fy Ag)
= 2 x 0.9 x ( 0.6 x 250 x 215 x 20) x 10-3 = 1160 kN > 746 kN
\ O.K

4- Fillet weld design
(a) web weld size near tension bolts

determine required size of weld to develop web flexural strength near tension bolts
f Rn = f (0.6 FEx x 0.707 x w) x 2 ³ 0.9 Fy x tw
0.75 (0.6 x 480 x 0.707 x w ) x 2 ³ 0.9 x 250 x 9.0
\ w ³ 9.15
choose w = 10 mm fillet weld on both sides of web from the inside face of beam flange
to the center of inside bolts plus two bolt diameter (48mm)
(b) web weld size required to resist the factored shear force
Length of weld (Lw) = d/2 - tf = 457/2 – 14.5 = 214 mm
f Rn = f (0.6 FEx x 0.707 x w x Lw) x 2 ³ 200 x 1000
= 0.75 x 0.6 x 480 x 0.707 x w x 214 x 2 ³ 200 x 1000
\ w ³ 3.06 mm
\ choose weld size = 8mm (minimum size) on both sides of web below the tension bolts
(c) flange weld size

length of weld = Lw = 2 (bf +tf) -tw = 2 ( 190 + 14.5 ) – 9 = 400 mm
f Rn = f (0.6 FEx x 0.707 x w x Lw) ³ 746 x 1000

= 0.75 ( 0.6 x 480 x 0.707 x w x 400 ) ³ 746 x 1000
\ w ³ 12.2 mm ® 14.0 mm
Use 14 mm fillet welds surrounding the beam tension flange, welds at compression
flange may be 8 mm fillet weld (minimum size )
40 140 40 w= 14 mm
40
36
14.5
36
48
w= 10 mm
609 mm 457
9.0
w= 8 mm
36
14.5
36 End plate 609 x 220 x 20 mm
40
190
220
Design of Column Base Plates
v Column bases frequently are designed to resist bending moments as

well as axial load.
v An axial load causes compression between a base plate and the

supporting footing ,while a moment increases the compression on
one side and decreases it on the other side .
M
A=BxH
I = B x H3 / 12 P
e
y= H/2
e=M/P P/A
For no tensile stress H > 6 e M. y / I

v for small moment the forces may be transferred to the footing
through flexure of the base plate.
v For higher moments ,stiffened or booted connections may be used
Design requirements:
1- Choose a base plate dimension ( H x B) so that the maximum

compression stress should not exceed the maximum bearing stress on
concrete
fc fb = 0.60 x 1.7 f 'c , where f 'c = compressive strength of concrete
6 M pu
2- Thickness of base plate t ³
fb Fy
Where; M pu = moment acting at base plate at center of compression flange

fb = 0.90

Example :
Design a moment resisting base plate to support a W 530 x 150 column with an
axial load of Pu = 1735 kN and bending moment Mu = 200 kN.m. Use A36 steel
with Fy = 250 MPa and concrete footing strength = 35 MPa.
Solution
For W530x150 , d = 543 mm , tw = 12.7mm , bf = 312 mm , tf =20.3 mm
Eccentricity , e = (Mu x1000) /Pu = (200x 1000) / 1735 = 115.27 mm
For no tensile stress on base plate, H ³ 6 e = 6 x 115.27 mm = 691.6 mm
Then choose H = 750 mm and B = 500 mm
Check stresses on concrete footing
f = - Pu / A ± Mu .y / I =
- 1735 x 103 / ( 750 x 500) ± 200 x 106 x 375 / (500 x 7503/12)
f = - 4.60 ± 4.30
f max = -8.90 MPa < fc Pu = 0.6 x 1.7 x 35 = 35.7 MPa O.K
f min = -0.30 MPa ( still compression) O.K

I
x d = 543
B = 500 103.5 103.5
II II
x
113.65
H = 750
I
-0.30
-7.60 -8.90
taking moments at center of compression flange per unit width (sec I-I)
M pu I-I = ( 7.60 x 113.65 2 / 2 ) + (8.90-7.60) (113.65 2) /3 = 54679 N.mm
6 M pu
t³ = ( 6 x 54679/ 0.9x 250) 0.5 = 38.20 mm
fb Fy
Choose t = 40 mm
checking bending in transverse direction (sec II-II)

x = ( 500 – 0.8 x 312) /2 = 125.2 mm
Average stress f = (0.3+8.9)/2 = 4.6 MPa
Mpu II-II = (4.60) (125.2)2 /2 = 36053 N.mm < 54679 N.mm (O.K)
Use base plate 750mm x 500 mm x 40mm


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Steel Structures

1 Prepared by Prof. Shehab Mourad – Department of Civil Eng. - KSU

3 Prepared by Prof. Shehab Mourad – Department of Civil Eng. - KSU

4 Prepared by Prof. Shehab Mourad – Department of Civil Eng. - KSU

5 Prepared by Prof. Shehab Mourad – Department of Civil Eng. - KSU

6 Prepared by Prof. Shehab Mourad – Department of Civil Eng. - KSU

1. W shapes (wide flange): have essentially parallel flange surfaces.

C shape or Channel L Shape or Angle

7 Prepared by Prof. Shehab Mourad – Department of Civil Eng. - KSU

8 Prepared by Prof. Shehab Mourad – Department of Civil Eng. - KSU

1 Prepared by Prof. Shehab Mourad – Department of Civil Eng. - KSU

2 Prepared by Prof. Shehab Mourad – Department of Civil Eng. - KSU

Main structural system

Main structural system is repeated every 6 m

3 Prepared by Prof. Shehab Mourad – Department of Civil Eng. - KSU

The steel sheets are fastened on top of the purlins

4 Prepared by Prof. Shehab Mourad – Department of Civil Eng. - KSU

5 Prepared by Prof. Shehab Mourad – Department of Civil Eng. - KSU

The steel sheets are fastened on top of the beams

6 Prepared by Prof. Shehab Mourad – Department of Civil Eng. - KSU

Vertical bracings are placed at first and end bays

7 Prepared by Prof. Shehab Mourad – Department of Civil Eng. - KSU

Side View at Axis (A) 1:100

Side View at Axis (B) 1:100

Side View at Axis (C) 1:100

8 Prepared by Prof. Shehab Mourad – Department of Civil Eng. - KSU

- Advantages of Steel as a Structural Material:

Typical used structural steel in design

Grade Fy MPa Fu ASTM designation Availability

1 Prepared by Prof. Shehab Mourad – Department of Civil Eng. - KSU

7- Additions to Existing Structures

3 Prepared by Prof. Shehab Mourad – Department of Civil Eng. - KSU

- Ability to fasten members together

- Ability to form built up section from standard sections

- Possible reuse and recycle after disassembling

- Can be used with concrete to form composite sections

4 Prepared by Prof. Shehab Mourad – Department of Civil Eng. - KSU

5 Prepared by Prof. Shehab Mourad – Department of Civil Eng. - KSU

Steel strength is tremendously reduced at temperature

6 Prepared by Prof. Shehab Mourad – Department of Civil Eng. - KSU

As the member length increases, its danger of buckling

Global Buckling Torsional Buckling

Local Buckling in Flanges and Web

8 Prepared by Prof. Shehab Mourad – Department of Civil Eng. - KSU

9 Prepared by Prof. Shehab Mourad – Department of Civil Eng. - KSU

Brittle failure along the Weld

Brittle failure of Bolts

10 Prepared by Prof. Shehab Mourad – Department of Civil Eng. - KSU

Residual stresses occur due to;

11 Prepared by Prof. Shehab Mourad – Department of Civil Eng. - KSU

1. Allowable stress method (ASD): focuses on conditions

stresses at combined service loads £ Allowable stresses

2. Load and Resistance Factor Design (LRFD): based on

factored resistance ³ sum of factored load effects

The LRFD method is deemed conceptually more realistic to

1 Prepared by Prof. Shehab Mourad – Department of Civil Eng. - KSU

In U.S., Loadings are specified in building codes such as

In Saudi Arabia, Loadings specifications are given in SBC 301

2- are different in; Nature and type

Dead loads (D) : are constant in magnitude and remain in one

Live loads (L) : may change in position and magnitude, also

Environmental loads: caused by the environment in which a

2 Prepared by Prof. Shehab Mourad – Department of Civil Eng. - KSU

- Load Factors Load factors are used to increase the