5 MOTIVATION AT WORK

CHAPTER SCAN

This is the first of two chapters on motivation, behavior, and performance. This chapter
addresses the early content theories of motivation that are related to the internal factors that
explain behavior. Maslow's hierarchy of needs and McGregor's assumptions are discussed and
compared. McClelland's need theory is presented, followed by a discussion of Herzberg's two-
factor theory of hygiene factors and motivators. Process theories contained in this chapter
include equity theory, social exchange theory, and expectancy theory.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After reading this chapter, you should be able to do the following:

1. Define motivation.
2. Explain how Theory X and Theory Y relate to Maslow's hierarchy of needs.
3. Discuss the needs for achievement, power, and affiliation.
4. Describe the two-factor theory of motivation.
5. Describe how inequity influences individual motivation and behavior.
6. Explain seven different strategies for resolving inequity.
7. Describe the expectancy theory of motivation.
8. Describe the cultural differences in motivation.

83
84 Chapter 5: Motivation at Work

KEY TERMS

Chapter 5 introduces the following key terms:

motivation
psychoanalysis
self-interest
need hierarchy
Theory X
Theory Y
need for achievement
need for power
need for affiliation
motivation factor
hygiene factor
inequity
equity sensitive
benevolent
entitled
valence
expectancy
instrumentality
moral maturity

THE CHAPTER SUMMARIZED

I. THINKING AHEAD: Noncompliance as a Hidden Health Threat

II. MOTIVATION AND WORK BEHAVIOR

Motivation is the process of arousing and sustaining goal-directed behavior. Motivation

theories attempt to explain and predict observable behavior. Motivation theories may be
classified as internal, process, or external theories. This is one of the most complex topics in
organizational behavior because of the large number of variables that affect motivation.

A. Internal Needs

Motivation research is increasingly specific, and examines smaller portions of the larger
theories. Writers have looked for internal, value-oriented reasons for motivation that
would relate to the meaning of work for society. The Protestant ethic was related to the
concept of working hard in order to secure a place in heaven. In contrast, Freud
developed psychoanalysis as a method of probing the subconscious mind to understand a
person’s motives and needs.
 Chapter 5: Motivation at Work 85

B. External Incentives

Early scholars assumed that self-interest and economic gain motivated people. The
Hawthorne studies revealed the importance of social and interpersonal motivation. Early
theories of motivation typically took one of two perspectives. The first perspective was
that people acted out of self-interest for material gain. The second perspective suggested
that people act in ways that satisfy their emotional needs. Adam Smith's basic assumption
was that people are motivated by self-interest for economic gain. Therefore, employees
will be most productive when motivated by self-interest. Self-interest refers to seek
one’s own best interest and benefit. Frederick Taylor believed that the conflict between
management and employees was over how to divide profits. These early ideas stand in
contrast to newer theories of motivation.

III. MASLOW’S NEED HIERARCHY

A. The Hierarchy of Needs

The needs hierarchy divided motivation into five levels of needs to be satisfied.
Maslow compared the lower level of this hierarchy to unsatisfied employees, and
suggested that as people satisfy needs on one level, they progress to the next level of
need as motivation for behavior.

B. Theory X and Theory Y

McGregor utilized the needs hierarchy to develop polarized assumptions about workers
based on whether they are motivated by lower order needs or by higher order needs.
Furthermore, he suggested that individuals in organizations should be treated differently
depending on which level of needs motivated them. Theory X represents the
assumptions associated with managing individuals motivated by lower order needs.
Theory Y represents the assumptions associated with managing individuals motivated by
higher order needs.

C. ERG Theory

ERG theory represents a reclassification of Maslow's need hierarchy into three levels of
needs. Alderfer also developed a regression hypothesis that suggests that individuals will
focus on lower level needs when higher level needs are unattainable.

IV. MCCLELLAND'S NEED THEORY

McClelland's need theory focuses on personality and learned needs. He categorized motives into
three manifest needs: need for achievement, need for affiliation, and need for power.

A. Need for Achievement

86 Chapter 5: Motivation at Work

The need for achievement refers to seeking excellence in performance and difficult,
challenging goals. Research indicates that people with a high need for achievement
outperform those with a moderate or low need for achievement.

B. Need for Power

The need for power is concerned with making an impact on others, influencing others,
changing people or events, and making a difference in life. McClelland further
distinguished between socialized power (used for the benefit of many) and personalized
power (used for personal gain).

C. Need for Affiliation

The need for affiliation emphasizes the establishment and nurturing of intimate
relationships with other people. In contrast, individuals with a high need for autonomy,
as outlined in Murray’s manifest needs theory, value independence and freedom from
constraints. Students will be able to identify the differences between individuals by
using an example of telecommuting and by discussing which individual would be more
comfortable with this change in organizational interaction.

V. HERZBERG'S TWO-FACTOR THEORY

The two-factor theory examines the degree to which individuals are satisfied or dissatisfied at
work. Herzberg's theory provided two lists of needs. For example, work conditions related to
satisfying psychological needs were determined to be motivation factors. On the other hand,
hygiene factors were related to dissatisfaction and were caused by discomfort or pain.

A. Motivation Factors

Motivation factors lead to positive mental health and challenge people to grow; yet the
absence of these factors does not lead to dissatisfaction.

B. Hygiene Factors

Job dissatisfaction occurs when the hygiene factors are either not present or not
sufficient. However, because they cannot stimulate psychological growth, they do not
lead to satisfaction.

C. Critique of the Two-Factor Theory

Although the approaches of Maslow and Herzberg were more flexible than previous
theories, critics identify the lack of clear distinction between hygiene and motivation
factors, the absence of individual differences, and the absence of intrinsic motivators as
deficiencies. History is full of examples of people who are motivated by causes, personal
 Chapter 5: Motivation at Work 87

missions, discovery, service, beliefs, creativity, and other factors not considered by
Herzberg.

VI. SOCIAL EXCHANGE AND EQUITY THEORY

Social exchange and equity theory revolve around the balance between efforts and rewards in
organizations. The individual-organization exchange relationship addresses the contributions
and demands that each party makes in the relationship.

A. Demands and Contributions

1. Demands

Needs form the basis for the expectations or demands placed on organizations by
individuals. Organizations express demands on individuals through job
expectations, mission statements, and performance feedback.

2. Contributions

Contributions are the basis for satisfying the demands expressed by the other
party in the relationship. Individual contributions include knowledge, skills,
abilities, and professional contacts. Organizational contributions include status,
benefits, income, and affiliation.

B. Adams’s Theory of Inequity

Adams's developed a theory of social exchange that analyzes inequity in the workplace.
Specifically, inequity is the situation in which a person perceives he or she is receiving
less than he or she is giving, or is giving less than he or she is receiving. Individuals
calculate an inputoutcome ratio for themselves and compare it with an inputoutcome
ratio for another person. If the ratios are not equivalent, perceived inequity results.

C. The Resolution of Inequity

Individuals seek to resolve inequity because it produces tension. The seven strategies for
restoring equity are (1) to alter the person's outcomes, (2) to alter the person's inputs, (3)
to alter the comparison other's outcomes, (4) to alter the comparison other's inputs, (5) to
change who is used as a comparison other, (6) to rationalize the inequity, and (7) to leave
the organizational situation.

D. New Perspectives on Equity Theory

New examinations of inequity have further refined the theory, including three different
perspectives regarding equity: benevolent, entitled, and equity sensitive. An equity
sensitive individual prefers a ratio that is equal to that of his or her comparison other.
The benevolent individual is comfortable with an equity ratio less than that of his or her
88 Chapter 5: Motivation at Work

comparison other. The entitled individual is comfortable with an equity ratio greater
than that of his or her comparison other.

VII. EXPECTANCY THEORY OF MOTIVATION

Expectancy theory is based on personal perceptions of the performance process and the idea that
people desire certain outcomes for behavior, and they believe there are connections between
effort, performance, and outcomes. Expectancy theory is a cognitive, process theory of
motivation that includes three key constructs: valence, expectancy, and instrumentality. Valence
is the value or importance an individual places on a particular reward. Expectancy is the belief
that effort will lead to performance. Instrumentality is the belief that performance is related to
rewards.

A. Motivational Problems

Motivation problems stem from three basic causes within the expectancy theory
framework. These causes are a disbelief in a relationship between effort and
performance, a disbelief in a relationship between performance and rewards, and lack of
desire for the rewards offered.

B. Motivation and Moral Maturity

Expectancy theory is grounded in the concept of self-interest, and does not explain
motivations that may be altruistic. Moral maturity is a measure of a person's cognitive
moral development that aids in explaining motivation for altruistic pursuits.

C. Cultural Differences in Motivation

In regard to Maslow’s, McClelland’s, Herzberg’s, and Vroom’s theories, differences

have been found in different cultures’ reactions to motivational techniques.

VIII. MANAGERIAL IMPLICATIONS: MANY WAYS TO MOTIVATE PEOPLE

IX. LOOKING BACK: Hygienic Factors, Motivation, and Compliance

 Chapter 5: Motivation at Work 89

CHAPTER SUMMARY

· Early economic theories of motivation emphasized extrinsic incentives as the basis for
motivation and technology as a force multiplier.
· Early psychological theories of motivation emphasized internal needs but did not take into
account individual diversity in these needs.
· Maslow's hierarchy of needs theory of motivation was the basis for McGregor's Theory X
and Theory Y assumptions about people at work.
· According to McClelland, the needs for achievement, power, and affiliation are learned
needs that differ among cultures.
· The two-factor theory found that the presence of motivation factors led to job satisfaction,
and the presence of hygiene factors prevented job dissatisfaction.
· Social exchange theory holds that people form calculated working relationships and expect
fair, equitable, ethical treatment.
· Expectancy theory says that effort is the basis for motivation and that people want their
effort to lead to performance and rewards.
· Theories of motivation are culturally bound and differences occur between nations.

REVIEW QUESTIONS: SUGGESTED ANSWERS

1. Define the terms motivation, needs, and equity.

Motivation is the process of arousing and sustaining goal-directed behavior. Needs are the
internal causes of motivation. Equity can be viewed in terms of the individual-organization
exchange. When individuals receive what they believe they deserve based on their effort, they
perceive equity.

2. How can knowledge of motivation theories help managers?

The workforce is increasingly diverse. Knowledge of motivation theories can help managers use
a variety of techniques for motivating employees with a wide range of needs, interests, and
abilities.

3. What are the five categories of motivational needs described by Maslow? Give an example of
how each can be satisfied.

The needs hierarchy begins with fulfilling physiological needs, such as food and shelter. The
second level involves safety and security needs that are satisfied by a feeling of safe
surroundings, such as a well-lit environment in which to work. Family and friends can meet
third level needs for love and social relationships. Fourth is the esteem need, which can be
satisfied by titles and actions that earn respect from others. The final level is the self-actualizing
need, which is the need to achieve one's full potential.
90 Chapter 5: Motivation at Work

4. What are the Theory X and Theory Y assumptions about people at work? How do they relate
to the hierarchy of needs?

Theory X is a skeptical, negative view of individuals and their relationship to tasks and work.
Theory Y views individuals as highly motivated and responsible for their actions. Theory X
individuals would be concerned with the lower three levels of Maslow's needs, and Theory Y
individuals are concerned with the higher-order needs.

5. What three manifest needs does McClelland identify?

McClelland identifies needs for achievement, power, and affiliation. These needs are learned.
Individuals and cultures differ in their levels of these needs.

6. How do hygiene and motivational factors differ? What are the implications of the two-factor
theory for managers?

Hygiene factors are factors such as supervision, work policies, and working conditions. Hygiene
factors can prevent dissatisfaction, but do not lead to satisfaction. Motivational factors include a
sense of achievement, recognition, and responsibility. Motivational factors may lead to
satisfaction. Managers need to realize that both contribute to workers' attitudes toward the job.

7. How is inequity determined by a person in an organization? How can inequity be resolved if

it exists?

Individuals in organizations calculate equity through a concept of social exchange. This

intuitive exchange compares the demands versus the contributions of individuals in an
environment. A person compares his/her input/outcome ratio to the same ratio for another
person. The strategies for remedying an inequitable situation include (1) altering one's
outcomes, (2) altering one's inputs, (3) alter the comparison other's outputs, (4) alter the
comparison other's inputs, (5) change who is used for comparison, (6) rationalize the inequity,
and (7) leave the organizational situation.

8. What are the key concepts in the expectancy theory of motivation?

This theory focuses on personal perceptions of desired outcomes of behavior, in conjunction

with effort and performance. Valence is the value placed on the anticipated reward. Expectancy
is the belief that effort will lead to performance. Instrumentality is the belief that performance is
related to the rewards.
 Chapter 5: Motivation at Work 91

DISCUSSION AND COMMUNICATION QUESTIONS: SUGGESTED ANSWERS

1. What do you think are the most important motivational needs for the majority of people? Do
you think your needs differ from those of most people?

This is similar to the research question that asks what motivates supervisors versus what
motivates employees. Most of us think our motives are superior and deeper than the rest of the
organizational members. No one wants to be merely normal or average. Most of us may share
lower level needs, but there may be differences in the higher level needs.

2. At what level in Maslow's hierarchy of needs are you living? Are you basically satisfied at
this level?

One of the difficulties with this question is that we typically move up and down the scale in
different phases of our lives, or different surroundings. Students may not grasp this readily.

3. Assume you are leaving your current job to look for employment elsewhere. What will you
look for that you do not have now? If you do not have a job, assume you will be looking for one
soon. What will be the most important factors that you will seek?

This should relate to where students are on their needs hierarchy. Encourage students to use the
terminology of motivational factors that they learned in this chapter. Students may also use
equity theory and expectancy theory concepts to explain what they seek in a job.

4. If you were being inequitably paid in your job, which strategy do you think would be the most
helpful to you in resolving the inequity? What tactics would you consider using?

Adams's Theory of Inequity is a logical approach to this problem. The resolution of inequity
strategy could be to alter the input, to leave the organization, to alter the comparison other's
input, or any of the ways of restoring equity. Students can also compare themselves in terms of
their preferences for equity, benevolence, or entitlement.

5. Do you believe you can do a better job of working or do a better job of studying than you are
currently doing? Do you think you would get more pay and benefits or better grades if you did a
better job? Do you care about the rewards (or grades) in your organization (or university)?

The first portion of the question relates to tangible, self-motivated goals. Most students will
answer yes to being able to do a better job. Occasionally students are so overloaded that they
have assessed the obligations in their lives (work, school, and family) and determined that they
will have to balance their efforts. The underlying theme is whether all of their current
motivation rests in predicable, tangible, outcomes.
92 Chapter 5: Motivation at Work

6. What important experiences have contributed to your moral and ethical development? Are
you working to further your own moral maturity at this time?

This is a difficult, but thought-provoking question, to answer in class. This question is better for
a homework review question, and is an excellent question for an essay exam. Students can
assess their own level of moral maturity.

7. Prepare a memo describing the two employees you work with who most closely operate
according to Theory X and Theory Y assumptions about human nature. Be as specific and
detailed in your description as you can, using quotes and/or observational examples.

Students who are not in a work setting could describe other students with whom they have
worked closely (e.g., in group projects). During discussion of these memos, it would be
interesting to also discuss how managers in each of the work settings dealt with each of these
employees.

8. Develop an oral presentation about the most current management practices in employee
motivation. Find out what at least four different companies are doing in this area. Be prepared
to compare these practices with the theory and research in the chapter.

This is an excellent opportunity for students to learn about motivational programs that are
actually being used by companies. During class discussion encourage students to evaluate the
effectiveness of these programs based on the theories and research from the chapter.

9. Interview a manager and prepare a memo summarizing the relative importance that manager
places on the needs for achievement, power, and affiliation. Include (1) whether these needs
have changed over time and (2) what job aspects satisfy these needs.

In class, students can compare the perspectives of the different managers they interviewed.
Encourage the students to see if a pattern emerges among the managers regarding the importance
of these needs. Discuss why students think there is or is not a pattern.

ETHICS QUESTIONS: SUGGESTED ANSWERS

1. Is it ethical for you to pursue your own needs first at work? Are your needs in conflict with
what is fair and equitable for others at work? Do you consider the thoughts and feelings of
other people at work?

Students will have examples of inequitable situations. Work-study students typically have
comparison stories of jobs where the student is allowed to study on the job. Although some
students might state they would like to find these positions, by querying further, they typically
relate that they resent this environment.
 Chapter 5: Motivation at Work 93

2. Suppose your company knew what employees wanted at work and was unwilling to spend the
money to meet their needs. Do you think this would be unethical?

Organizational supervisors are not obligated to fulfill all of our needs at work, but should try to
fulfill those that are reasonable, equitable, and necessary. Students can discuss what types of
needs organizations can reasonably be expected to meet.

3. Assume you know an employee who is being underpaid because the company believes it can
save money and the employee will not complain. Is this unethical? Should you tell the employee
about the underpayment condition?

Most positions have a salary range connected with the job. The impression that the company is
not paying the salary in order to save money may not be the case. There are equity issues related
to experience and education that should be questioned. If the focal employee is aware of the
situation, and comfortable with the situation (i.e., a benevolent) that is the individual’s decision.
Students should be cautioned not to act without full information.

4. Suppose your company has an employee who has been with the company for a long time and
now has health problems that will prevent him or her from being fully productive for at least a
year. Should the company attempt to carry this person for that period of time, even though the
person will not be able to perform? Should the person's pay and benefits be reduced according
to performance?

It is rare when an organization has not anticipated these events. Most benefits packages clearly
spell out the requirements of both employer and employee. Most students will not see this as an
entitlement issue, but rather a long-term relationship that can and should be continued. The
implications for age and ability discrimination can be discussed.

CHALLENGES

5.1 PROTESTANT ETHIC

This challenge provides an opportunity to discuss the implications for work behavior in
organizations due to different orientations toward the Protestant ethic. Also, discuss the
different approaches to managing and motivating that might be needed for an employee with a
pro-Protestant ethic score and an employee with a non-Protestant ethic score.

5.2 WHAT’S IMPORTANT TO EMPLOYEES?

The perceptions of employees and their supervisors differ considerably in regard to employee
motivation. One thousand employees were asked to rank what was important to them. Their
rankings of “job reward” factors follows. The rewards are listed from most to least popular.

-interesting work
-full appreciation of work done
-a feeling of being in on things
94 Chapter 5: Motivation at Work

-job security
-good wages
-promotion and growth in the organization
-good working conditions
-personal loyalty to employees
-tactful discipline
-sympathetic help with personal problems

Supervisors’ rankings of the same factors follow, from most valuable to least valuable.

-good wages
-job security
-promotion and growth in the organization
-good working conditions
-interesting work
-personal loyalty to employees
-tactful discipline
-full appreciation of work done
-sympathetic help with personal problems
-a feeling of being in on things

Comparing these results to Maslow’s hierarchy of needs and Herzberg’s two-factor theory of
motivation suggests that organizations in the United States more effectively satisfy workers’
basic needs than they satisfy ego needs or self-fulfillment needs. Discuss with students why they
think this is the case.

* SOURCE: “Crossed Wires on Employee Motivation.” Training and Development, 49 (1995):

59-60.

EXPERIENTIAL EXERCISES

5.1 WHAT DO YOU NEED FROM WORK?

This exercise encourages students to think broadly about what they desire from a work
experience. During Step 2 of this exercise (sharing of group results with the class) encourage
discussion across groups regarding similarities and differences in ratings that might have
occurred. In particular, have students consider why differences in ratings exist (i.e., because of
differences in length of work experience, type of work experience, etc.). Discussion could also
center on organizations’ effectiveness at meeting these needs (and why they are or are not
effective).
 Chapter 5: Motivation at Work 95

5.2 WHAT TO DO?

This exercise presents students with a true-to-life illustration of equity theory. Discussion may
focus on attributions for the inequity stemming from factors such as gender or parental status.
Factors such as external labor market conditions, which also may contribute to pay inequity, may
be discussed.

ALTERNATIVE EXPERIENTIAL EXERCISE

MOTIVATION: THREE INCIDENTS

Instructor's Notes:

Students are provided three incidents with 5 choices of actions. For each of the following
incidents, students are asked to determine whether the individuals will be motivated to behave as
desired. This exercise takes approximately thirty minutes of class time, with groups of 4-6 in
each group. The first example is very quick, and students believe they have motivation theory
"wrapped up.” The second example gets more complicated, and by the third example, most of
them miss the issues. Expectancy theory, job characteristics model, and effort-performance
relationship are all relevant for these examples.

I. The key sentences in this example are, (1) He also knows that Walter needs a scholarship
to be able to go to college, and (2) However, an article in the Sunday Sports section
reports that two of the major state university coaches are recruiting him.

A. Has nothing additional for motivation. Walter already knows this.

B. This isn't Walter's valence; probably knows this as well.
C. This answer does not increase valence for THIS school.
D. Best answer; this approach would be unique to this school and deals with Walter's
needs.
E. Doesn't deal with the problem.

II. Joyce's sales are instrumental to incentive bonus; therefore, there is high valence for
Joyce.

A. This approach is useful only if you need to build effort to performance expectancy.
B. She knows this already.
C. Goal is high valence, not necessarily the answer.
D. Best answer. Use if problem-solving or ability is the issue. Looks like a "know-how"
problem.
E. Apparently, she doesn't know how to improve.

III.E. They are likely to begin cooperating now anyway.

96 Chapter 5: Motivation at Work

Very few students select E because they believe we are always to DO SOMETHING.
Many students pick up on the issues of the U.S. in another country. The key to this
answer is that none of the previous choices, A-D provide anything in motivation theory
that has not already been provided. This is wasted effort to duplicate the same
approaches.

MOTIVATION: THREE INCIDENTS

Conrad Jackson, The University of Alabama, Huntsville

For each of the following incidents, determine whether the individuals will be motivated to
behave as desired. Then select the appropriate managerial action from those listed.

I. Frank Edwards is head basketball coach at a small regional state university, a campus of the
state's main university system. He has just had a visit with Walter Johnson, a local high
school athlete who is clearly one of the state's blue chip basketball prospects. Frank
desperately needs a player of Walter's potential to turn his mediocre team around, but he
realizes that it won't be easy to sign him. He is confident that he made it clear to Walter that
there is a scholarship available for Walter if he wants it. He also knows that Walter needs a
scholarship to be able to go to college. However, an article in the Sunday Sports section
reports that two of the major state university coaches (larger schools upstate, with nationally
known basketball programs) intend to actively recruit Walter, also. Coach Edwards should
take which of the following actions?

A: Send Walter a written and notarized offer of the scholarship.

B: Write Walter's parents, stressing that the scholarship will cover all of his tuition, room
and board, and book expenses.

C: Write a letter to Walter stressing to him the value of a college education.

D: Talk to Walter again, stressing the likelihood that he would make the starting five in his
Freshman year.

E: Do nothing. Walter will probably sign with him anyway.

II. Joyce, a recent College of Business graduate, has been working several months as a sales
person for a small manufacturer of computers and word processors. She is one of two sales
people working a large metropolitan area. Her sales manager, Eric Kurtz, is concerned about
her performance, however. He is aware that Joyce wants very much to have high sales in
order to participate in the company's generous incentive bonus plan. She has expressed her
satisfaction with the way the plan operates, and was clearly in agreement that there is a
booming demand for computers and word processors in the market area. He is puzzled,
therefore, by her poor performance. He should take which of the following actions?
 Chapter 5: Motivation at Work 97

A. Post sales performance figures in the office so that everyone can see how the sales
persons are doing.

B. Have a talk with Joyce, stressing the details of how she can benefit financially from
increased sales.

C. Tell Joyce that unless she begins to reach her quota within the next three months, she will
be terminated from employment.

D. Ask Joyce to accompany him on sales calls to several new customers.

E. Do nothing. Her performance should soon be improving.

III.Motumba is a small African nation with rich deposits of several rare metals. Tall,
forbidding mountains to the North and West make it impossible to ship out ore in these
directions. Kobutsu, the country bordering on their East has a modern deep-water port
city, and an extensive rail network, which make it a logical alternative route for shipping
out the ore. However, due to a long-running conflict between the heads of state of the
two countries, Kobutsu has not allowed Motumban ore to be transported to and through
its port, and Motumba has been forced to settle for sending out small quantities through
the neighboring country to the south via a long route of antiquated rail facilities.
Recently, however, the government of Kobutsu changed, with a new head of state
coming to power who had a reputation of being friendly toward the Motumbans and
cognizant of the potential benefits to Kobutsu of serving as a transportation route for
their ore. As U.S. Department of State envoy to that area, your action should be:

A. Meet with the Kobutsun head of State, stressing the potential benefits of being a
transportation link for Motumban ore.

B. Meet with the Kobutsun head of State and point out the opportunity present for a new
constructive relationship with Kobutsu.

C. Send a letter to the Kobutsun Minister of Commerce stressing the likelihood of being
able to work out a trade agreement with Motumba.

D. Invite both heads of State to the U.S., and tell both of them that the U.S. will cut off all
economic aid to them if they do not begin to cooperate.

E. Do nothing. They are likely to begin cooperating now anyway.

98 Chapter 5: Motivation at Work

MBTI EXERCISE

Exercise Learning Objectives:

Highlight the different things that create a motivational environment for people.
Show that people want to be recognized for different things.

Exercise Overview:

1. Students should know their temperament types (SJ, SP, NF, or NT).
2. Students will be formed into like-temperament groups.
3. Students will develop a list of recent scientific breakthroughs.
4. After development, groups will be reformed into dissimilar types (dyads or triads) and
compare ideas.
5. The instructor should know what each temperament would find useful and fascinating about a
scientific breakthrough.

Exercise Description:

Form like-temperament groups. The instructor should have each group prepare a list of recent
scientific breakthroughs that have happened within the next 10 years. Have the students use a
blackboard or a large piece of flip chart paper to capture the list. Have each group pick the top 3
to 5 of these breakthroughs. Now have each group develop and be prepared to present the
rationale for their choices. After an appropriate time, have each group explain to the class why
they chose these breakthroughs and why they important. If time is short, have each group pick
the most important breakthrough. The instructor should ask each group, "If you were making
any of the breakthroughs, tell us how you would like to be recognized for your work--what
would really turn you on."

What should the instructor expect?

Each temperament group will develop lists that have some overlap. The key is that each group
will view them differently. We would expect to see two of the temperaments to use "present"
orientation (SJ and SP) and two groups to be more "future" oriented (NF and NT).

In the second phase, each temperament would like to be rewarded differently. For example, SPs
like to be rewarded for their cunning and skill, SJs for doing the arduous and tedious work of
keeping things together and on track, NFs like to be rewarded for bring harmony and a sense of
self-worth to everyone, and NTs like to be rewarded for their intellectual prowess and
systematic, analytical thinking.

Instructor's Summary:
 Chapter 5: Motivation at Work 99

The SJ temperament reflects a strong desire for orderliness, dependability, and realistic
assessments. Additionally they admire service, belonging to and supporting organizations, and
organizational stability. Some of the pitfalls for one with an SJ preference are: unwillingness to
change, deciding too quickly, making the rule all important, and becoming too impatient when
schedules are not rigidly adhere to. Ways to motivate these people include: recognizing their
steadfastness and loyalty, giving them more responsibility, and appreciating (in front of their
peers) their tireless "small" contributions (doing the little things that keep the organization
functioning well).

The SP temperament reflects a strong desire for freedom, action, and risk-taking. Additionally
they admire quick-thinking, negotiating skills, and open-mindedness. Some of the pitfalls for
someone who possesses an SP temperament include: becoming too restless with rules and
procedures, becoming bored with status quo, not listening to or trying to understand theory or a
philosophy, and doing any long range planning. Ways to motivate these people include:
recognizing them for their cleverness, appreciating their ability to recognize trouble and find a
quick way out, appreciating their willingness to take a risk and their ability to usually succeed.

The NF temperament reflects a strong desire to search for meaning and authenticity, to be
empathetic, and to establish and maintain close personal contact with others. Additionally, they
admire the search for possibilities (especially for people), appreciating people, and
organizational investment in people. Some of the pitfalls for a person whose preference is an NF
temperament include: spending too much time on the needs of others, putting off task
accomplishment out of a concern for people, giving objective feedback, and avoiding any
situation which may jeopardize harmony. Ways to motivate these people include: recognizing
them for their people orientation, thanking them for leading a harmonious team, and
appreciating their ability to help others manage their careers.

The NT temperament reflects a strong desire to search for change in organizational principles,
and to attain competency. Additionally, they admire competence, logic, critical analysis,
systems thinking, and those that "take on the system." Some of the pitfalls for a person whose
preference is an NT temperament include: becoming too critical of self and others, becoming too
impersonal, unwillingness to follow through once a project is designed, and becoming very terse
in conversation. Ways to motivate these people include: giving them the project design phase
without much guidance, appreciating their critical, systems thinking, and appreciating their
competency in whatever they tackle.
100 Chapter 5: Motivation at Work

EXTRA EXPERIENTIAL EXERCISES

The following alternative exercises to supplement the material in the textbook can be obtained
from:

Marcic, Dorothy, Seltzer, Joseph, & Vaill, Peter. Organizational Behavior: Experiences and
Cases, 6th Ed. South Western College Publishing Company, 2001.

Work vs. Play. p. 49-51. Time: Part A, 40-55 minutes; Part B, 30-55 minutes.
Purpose: To examine the concept of motivation.

Motivating the Simpsons. p. 45-47. Time: 20 minutes.

Purpose: To apply expectancy theory.

Fandt, Patricia M. Management Skills: Practice and Experience. West Publishing Company,
1994.

In-Basket Exercise: Initiating and Maintaining Action. p. 61-62.

In-Basket Exercise: Holding Others Accountable. p. 69-72.

CASE QUESTIONS: SUGGESTED ANSWERS

MOTIVATING PARTNERS AT STARBUCKS

1. Given Starbucks’ training approach, benefits package, work/life program, and partner
relations mechanisms, what insights have you gained about their approach to employee
motivation? Explain your answer.

The Starbucks’ approach to employee motivation is based upon the fundamental tenets of
providing a great work environment, treating everyone with respect and dignity, treating
everyone equitably, and challenging people to be their best. These fundamental tenets are
translated into specific actions in Starbucks’ training approach, benefits package, work/life
program, and partner relations mechanisms. Specifically, the training programs are designed
to equip partners, whether baristas or managers, with the knowledge and skills necessary to
provide excellent customer service. The excellent benefits package, made available to
everyone who works a minimum of 20 hours per week, is designed to attract, motivate, and
retain competent, loyal employees. Moreover, the use of stock options ties the fortunes of the
employees to the success of the company. The work/life program provides assistance to
employees in dealing with and balancing their work activities and their personal life.

Additionally, the work/life program is intended to deal with the “whole person” by
developing meaningful corporate programs to address the partners’ physical, mental,
emotional, and creative needs. The company takes employee input seriously through the use
of different partner relations mechanisms. Starbucks listens to what employees have to say,
 Chapter 5: Motivation at Work 101

and then takes meaningful action based on what it hears. All of these actions have strong
positive effect on employee motivation.

2. What needs does Starbucks appeal to through its training approach, benefits package,
work/life program, and partner relations mechanisms?

A good way to approach this question is from the perspective of Maslow’s need hierarchy,
Herzberg’s two factor theory, or McClelland’s needs theory.

Many of the elements of Starbucks’ motivational programs and employee relations practices
can be conceptualized in the context of the need hierarchy. Parts of the benefits package—
especially the comprehensive insurance coverage, vacations, and the retirement savings
plan––address physiological and safety/security needs. These needs are also addressed
through the on-site fitness services, flexible work schedules, referral and educational support
for child care and elder care issues that are part of the work/life program. Social needs at
work can be fulfilled with the work/life program that links employees with shared interests
and hobbies. Esteem needs can be satisfied through the company’s treatment of all
employees with dignity and respect, and the employee involvement and recognition aspects
of the different partner relations mechanisms. While self-actualization may not be truly
addressed, one might argue that using stock options to link individual and corporate success
and providing support mechanisms for personal interests and hobbies might begin to chip
away at this need.

With respect to two factor theory, it may be argued that Starbucks addresses both the hygiene
factors and motivation factors. The comprehensive benefits package and the work/life
program clearly link to the hygiene factors. The partner relations program promotes
employee involvement and recognizes employee achievements—elements that can be
construed as motivation factors. By addressing both hygiene factors and motivation factors,
Starbucks both prevents dissatisfaction and promotes satisfaction.

McClelland’s needs theory is also a viable explanation. The evidence indicates the need for
achievement is addressed through intense training and the use of stock options to link
individual and organizational success; the need for affiliation through aspects of the
work/life program that focus on connecting with other Starbucks’ employees who have
similar interests and hobbies; and the need for power through the various partner relations
programs.

3. Using the model of the individual-organizational exchange relationship shown in Figure 5.4,
explain the relationship that Starbucks seeks to develop with its partners. How might this
exchange relationship influence the partners’ perceptions of equity?

The social exchange relationship depicted in Figure 5.4 is based on the demands and
contributions of the partners (i.e., individuals) and Starbucks (i.e., the organization).
Starbucks demands excellent performance from employees and expects them to respond
positively to humanistic corporate values and a clear corporate vision of excellence. In turn,
this facilitates the company’s pursuit of continued profitability and growth. The company
102 Chapter 5: Motivation at Work

contributes an excellent work environment, a generous benefits package, and dignity and
respect for all employees. The partners demand (or expect) that their needs—physical,
security, and psychological—will be satisfied through the company’s different motivational
programs. The partners contribute their skills, knowledge, customer service, and loyalty.

Most likely, the partners will perceive that a great deal of equity exists at Starbucks. An
argument for the perception of equity can be based on either the generous benefits package
provided to everyone working a minimum of 20 hours per week, the corporate philosophy of
treating everyone with dignity and respect, or both.

4. What is important to you in terms of your personal work motivation? How do the things that
motivate you fit with Starbucks’ approach to motivating partners?

In responding to this question, students should first examine their own motivation in terms of
Maslow’s need hierarchy, Herzberg’s two factor theory, and/or McClelland’s needs theory.
Students should then compare their personal assessment to the answer for question (1). Class
discussion should also consider the implications of a match or a mismatch between people’s
needs and what the company offers in terms of motivational programs.