INTRODUCTION TO APPORTIONMENT

Apportionment is a method of distributing a number of items proportionally into several groups

on the basis of the group population sizes.

For example, we can use an apportionment method to determine the number of representatives a city
should have based on its present population.

A. Hamilton Rules
• To get the lower quota of a group, round down the standard quota to a whole number.
• The standard quota of a group with the highest decimal part is only rounded up to a whole
number if the sum of the lower quotas is less than the value of A.
• The process is repeated until the value of A is reached.

Example 1
Consider a country with 6 states and 40 seats in the House of Representatives with populations
distributed as follows.

Population
STATE A 58,805
STATE B 32,780
STATE C 109,111
STATE D 78,900
STATE E 67,430
STATE F 44,862
TOTAL 391,888
Determine the apportionment of 40 seats to the 6 states using Hamilton method.

Solution:
STATE A STATE B STATE C STATE D STATE E STATE F TOTAL

Population 58,805 32,780 109,111 78,900 67,430 44,862 391,888

SQ=P/SD 6.00 3.35 11.14 8.05 6.88 4.58

Lower Quota 6 3 11 8 6 4 38
Final
6 3 11 8 7 5 40
Apportionment
A 40
SD = P/no. of
people to 9,797.2
apportion (1S)

The sum of the lower quota does not meet A=40. Thus, the top 2 states with the highest decimal part
will be rounded up to whole number just to complete the requirement. In this case, we add one
representative to state E and another one to state F.
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Example:
Exact University needs to create a student government with 24 representatives from 6 groups of
students. Here are the enrollment numbers:

U1 12,000
U2 10,000
U3 8,000
U4 8,000
U5 4,000
U6 6,000
U1 U2 U3 U4 U5 U6 TOTAL
Population 12,000 10,000 8,000 8,000 4,000 6,000 48,000
SQ=P/SD 6 5 4 4 2 3
Lower Quota 6 5 4 4 2 3 24
Final
6 5 4 4 2 3
Apportionment
A 24
SD = P/no. of
people to 2,000
apportion (1S)

A 8,560
B 7,845
C 5,458
D 9,105
E 7,890
F 6,142
30 representatives

A B C D E F TOTAL
Population 8,560 7,845 5,458 9,105 7,890 6,142 45,000
SQ=P/SD 5.71 5.23 3.64 6.07 5.26 4.09
Lower Quota 5 5 3 6 5 4 28
Final
6 5 4 6 5 4 30
Apportionment
A 30
SD = P/no. of
people to 1,500
apportion (1S)

B. The Webster Method

• Instead of rounding down the lower quota as in the previous method, it is rounded up to a
whole number.

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Solution
Choose 9500 or any closer value for the modified standard divisor. The sum of the lower quotas will be
equal to 40 which is the value for A.

STATE A STATE B STATE C STATE D STATE E STATE F TOTAL

P 58805 32780 109111 78900 67430 44862 391888

S=P/MSD 6.19 3.45 11.49 8.31 7.10 4.72

Lower Quota 6 3 11 8 7 5 40
Final
6 3 11 8 7 5 40
Apportionment
A 40

Modified Std.
9500
Divisor (MSD)

A B C D E F TOTAL
Population 8,560 7,845 5,458 9,105 7,890 6,142 45,000
SQ=P/SD 6.29 5.77 4.01 6.69 5.80 4.52
Lower Quota 6 6 4 7 6 5 34
Final
6 5 4 6 5 4 30
Apportionment
A 30
Modified Std.
1,360
Divisor (MSD)

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 THE VOTING SYSTEMS

What is voting?
Voting is a tool used by groups of people in making a collective decision. It can be presented
conveniently in terms of an election system where one can select one particular candidate out of a set
of candidates on the basis of ballots cast by a group of voters.

Majority System
Majority means that more than 50% of the total voters favor a certain candidate. Majority system
is the most common voting system applied on an election with only two candidates.

Plurality of Voting
In the plurality system with a preference list, the candidate having the most number of first-place
votes is declared the winner. The winning candidate may not have the majority of the votes and
alternative choices are not considered

Example 1: Preference table for the ballot for the Society of Math Majors’ Election for president. 30
VOTERS

Number of
10 6 7 4 1 2
Votes
1st C D A B C A

2nd B C B D D B

3rd D B C C B D

4th A A D A A C

Methods to determine the result of an Election

1. Plurality Method
The Candidate with the most first place votes wins. The elected candidate using this
method does not have to have a majority of votes.

Solution:

Number of
10 6 7 4 1 2
Votes
1st C D A B C A
Candidate A: 7 + 2 = 9
Candidate B: 4
Candidate C: 10 + 1 = 11 Winner
Candidate D: 6

NO. OF VOTES 16 25 20 10
1ST X Z Y X
2ND Y X Z Z
3RD Z Y X Y
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 2. Plurality with Elimination method
This method is performed in rounds and considers voter’s alternate choices by
eliminating the candidate/s with the fewest first-place votes for every round. If only two
candidates are remaining then the candidate with the most votes wins the election.

Solution:
using the answer in no/ 1, candidate C has the highest votes but not a majority. Therefore, there
is no winner yet. Since, candidate B has the fewest votes, then he has to be eliminated.

Number of
10 6 7 4 1 2
Votes
1st C D A C A
2nd C D D
3rd D C C D
4th A A D A A C

Then the new preference table is:

Number of
10 6 7 4 1 2
Votes
1st C D A D C A
2nd D C C C D D
3rd A A D A A C

Candidate A: 7 + 2 = 9 Candidate C: 10 + 1 = 11 Candidate D: 6 + 4 = 10

Candidate C has the highest votes but not a majority. Therefore, there is not winner yet. Since
candidate A has the fewest, then he has to be eliminated.

Number of
10 6 7 4 1 2
Votes
1st C D D C
2nd D C C C D D
3rd D C

The new preference table is:

Number of
10 6 7 4 1 2
Votes
1st C D C D C D
2nd D C D C D C

Candidate C: 10 + 7 + 1 = 18 Winner and has the majority of the votes

Candidate D: 6 + 4 + 2 = 12

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 NO. OF VOTES 16 25 20 10
1ST X Z Y X
2ND Y X Z Z
3RD Z Y X Y

NO. OF VOTES 16 25 20 10
1ST X Z Z X
2ND Z X X Z

3. Borda count method

In this method each voter ranks the candidates by giving points to the voter’s choice. The
voter’s least choice candidate receives 1 point and 2 points for the next candidate and so on.
The candidate receives the most total points is declared as the winner.

Solution:
Number of
10 6 7 4 1 2
Votes
1st (4) C (40) D (24) A (28) B (16) C (4) A (8)

2nd (3) B (30) C (18) B (21) D (12) D (3) B (6)

3rd (2) D (20) B (12) C (14) C (8) B (2) D (4)

4th (1) A (10) A (6) D (7) A (4) A (1) C (2)

Summary of points for each candidate:

Candidate A: 10 +6 +28 + 4 + 1 + 8 = 50
Candidate B: 30 + 12 + 21 + 16 + 2 + 6 = 87 Winner
Candidate C: 40 + 18 + 14 + 8 + 4 + 2 = 86
Candidate D: 20 + 24 + 7 + 12 + 3 + 4 = 70

NO. OF VOTES 16 25 20 10
1ST 3 X Z Y X
2ND 2 Y X Z Z
3RD 1 Z Y X Y
X = 148 Y = 127 Z = 151

4. Pairwise comparison method

This voting method is also known as “head-to-head” method. In this method, the voters
rank the candidates. The preferred candidate receives 1 point, ½ point for the tie candidates and
zero point for the loss. After all the comparisons are made among the candidates, the candidate
with the highest number of points is declared the winner.

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 Number of
10 6 7 4 1 2
Votes
1st C D A B C A

2nd B C B D D B

3rd D B C C B D

4th A A D A A C
C vs B = (10+6+1) 17 vs 13 (7+4+2)
C vs D = (10+7+1) 18 vs 12 (6+4+2)
C vs A = (10+6+4+1) 21 vs 9 (7+2)
B vs D = (10+7+4+2) 23 vs 7 (6+1)
B vs A = (10+6+4+1) 21 vs 9 (7+2)
D vs A = (10+6+4+1) 21 vs 9 (7+2)

Candidate A = 0
Candidate B = 2
Candidate C = 3 Winner
Candidate D = 1

NO. OF VOTES 16 25 20 10
1ST 3 X Z Y X
2ND 2 Y X Z Z
3RD 1 Z Y X Y
X vs Y = 51 vs 20
X vs Z = 26 vs 45
Y vs Z = 36 vs 35

Samples:
Number of votes 15 10 3
1st A B C
2nd B C B
3rd C A A

The Fairness Criteria

1. Majority Fairness Criterion
A voting method is said to satisfy the majority fairness criterion if the winning candidate
receives a majority of the first-place votes.
2. Monotonicity Criterion
If a winner is declared in an election, this winning candidate will still win for the second
round of election if the voter’s preference changes in favor of the winning candidate.
Suppose A is the winner of the original election. If one or more voters who voted for other
candidates were to change their choice to A, then A should still be the winner of the new election.
3. Condorcet Criterion (Head-to-Head)
If a candidate wins over other candidates in all head-to-head matchups using the majority
rule then this candidate must also be the winner when all candidates appear on the ballot.
4. Independence of Irrelevant Alternatives (IIA)
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 A winning candidate in an election remains the winner in any recount even if the losing
candidates withdraw from the election.

The Weighted Voting Systems

A weighted voting system occurs when voters have unequal weights on the outcome of an
election. It is a biased voting system where voters have different weights in the outcome of an
election. Best examples are the stockholders of a company.
Weighted Voting System Notation:
𝑊 = {𝑄: 𝑋1 , 𝑋2 , … , 𝑋𝑛 }
where Q is the quota, which is the required number of votes to pass a resolution and X is the
weight of a voter, which corresponds to the amount of votes controlled by the voter.

Types of Weighted Voting Systems

1. One Person – One Vote System
Each person has only one vote. Thus, a majority of the vote is required to pass a resolution.
Example: 𝑊 = {𝑄: 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1}
Since the total number of votes is 7, then Q = 4 is the required number of votes to pass a
resolution.

2. Dictatorship
One particular person has a weight that is greater than the quota and sum of all the weights of
other voters
Example: 𝑊 = {9: 10, 2, 3, 1, 1}
The person with x = 10 will always dictate any voting outcome. Note that even if we combine
the other votes, it will not exceed the said quota, Q=10

3. Null System
This is a weighted voting system which cannot pass any resolution because the sum of all the
votes is always less than the quota.
Example: 𝑊 = {17: 2, 1, 8, 3, 2}
Here, ∑ 𝑋 = 2 + 1 + 8 + 3 + 2 = 16 < 𝑄 = 17

4. The Veto Power System

This is one type of weighted voting system where each voter has a veto power meaning if one
voter does not vote, no resolution will be passed. This type of voting system will occur when
quota is equal to the sum of all votes. If at least one voter in a weighted voting system has a
veto power, the system is said to be a veto power system
Example: 𝑊 = {18: 4, 5, 1, 2 6}
Here, ∑ 𝑋 = 4 + 5 + 1 + 2 + 6 = 18 which is equal to the quota Q=18. Even the voter with one
vote will have a veto power.

COALITION

A coalition in a voting system is an alliance formed by a group of voters with a common goal which is
either to favor a resolution or vote against it. We define the following terms related to coalition.
1. A winning coalition is a group of voters whose sum of all votes is greater than or equal to the
quota.
2. A losing coalition is a group of voters whose sum of all votes is less than the quota.

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 3. A critical voter is a voter who turns a winning coalition into a losing coalition if he leaves for
another group.
4. A dummy is a voter whose weight does not affect any voting outcome. Note that when a
system has a dictator, all other players are considered dummies.

What is the number of possible coalitions given n number of voters?

- The number of possible coalitions with n voters is the number of possible subsets that can be
formed from these voters. This includes the set containing all the voters and the singleton
subsets.
- The number of possible coalitions with n voters is given by 2𝑛 − 1

Example:
The weighted voting system for a company owned by 4 people is given by
𝑊 = {601: 425, 250, 175, 350}
a. Find all the winning coalitions
b. For each winning coalition, determine the critical voters

Solution:
Owners Shares
A 425
B 250
C 175
D 350
Quota 601

LC = {A}, {B}, {C}, {D}, {A, C}, {B, C}, {C, D}, {B, D}

The total possible coalitions are 24 − 1 = 15

The winning coalitions (WC) are those combinations whose total votes is greater than the quota 601.
These are {A, B}, {A, D}, {A, B, C}, {A, B, D}, {B, C, D}, {A, C, D}, and {A, B, C, D}.

If a critical voter of a winning coalition is removed, the winning coalition becomes a losing coalition.
The following table summarizes the critical voters for each winning coalition.
Winning Coalition Critical Voters
{A, B} A, B
{A, D} A, D
{A, B, C} A, B
{A, B, D} A
{B, C, D} B, C, D
{A, C, D} A, D
{A, B, C, D}

Banzhaf Power Index

• We introduce how a voting power is measured in a weighted voting system
• The voting power of a voter is measured by Banzhaf power index and it is defined as follows:
𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒏𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆𝒔 𝒂 𝒗𝒐𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝒃𝒆𝒄𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒔 𝒂 𝒄𝒓𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒍 𝒗𝒐𝒕𝒆𝒓
𝑩=
𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒏𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒄𝒓𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒍 𝒗𝒐𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒔 𝒊𝒏 𝒂𝒍𝒍 𝒘𝒊𝒏𝒏𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒄𝒐𝒂𝒍𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒔

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 Owner B
A 5/12 0.42
B 3/12 0.25
C 1/12 0.08
D 3/12 0.25

Owner A has the most power and owner C has the least power

Sample:
If there are three players A, B, and C, and their weighted voting system is [17: 12, 7, 3]. Compute for
the voting power of each player.

WC CV
AB A,B A = 2/4=.5=50%
ABC A,B B = 2/4=.5=50%

Sample 2
[100: 33, 25, 69, 52]

AC A,C A = 3/12 = 25%

CD C,D B = 1/12 = 8%
ABC A,C C = 5/12 = 42%
ABD A,B,D D = 3/12 = 25%
ADC C
BCD C,D
ABCD

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