Professional Documents
Culture Documents
1 5 Flattening The Earth With Map Projections
1 5 Flattening The Earth With Map Projections
© Donald Boyes, Department of Geography and Planning, University of Toronto 1
Selecting a coordinate system
© Donald Boyes, Department of Geography and Planning, University of Toronto 2
Globe vs. Map
Globe:
Three‐dimensional (3D)
Expensive, cumbersome, no detail, but no distortion
Map:
Two‐dimensional (2D)
Easier to measure distance, area, direction
Can show more detail
Easy to work with, portable, cheaper
Distortion.
© Donald Boyes, Department of Geography and Planning, University of Toronto 3
http://thetruesize.com
© Donald Boyes, Department of Geography and Planning, University of Toronto 4
How projections work
© Donald Boyes, Department of Geography and Planning, University of Toronto 5
Transformation of 3D Earth to a 2D map
© Donald Boyes, Department of Geography and Planning, University of Toronto 6
First, imagine that the Earth
has been shrunk to the desired scale
Can use either
sphere or ellipsoid
Reference
Globe
Full‐sized Earth 1:100,000,000
Principal scale
Goal: Flat map with scale of 1:100,000,000
© Donald Boyes, Department of Geography and Planning, University of Toronto 7
Hypothetical
Still 3D
Principal scale = Reference globe radius
Earth’s radius
1:100,000,000
6.378 cm
637813700 cm
= 0.00000001
or 1:100,000,000
Reference globe
© Donald Boyes, Department of Geography and Planning, University of Toronto 8
Reference Globe (3D) Flat Map (2D)
1:100,000,000 1:100,000,000
© Donald Boyes, Department of Geography and Planning, University of Toronto 9
Reference Globe (3D) Flat Map (2D)
1:100,000,000 1:100,000,000
© Donald Boyes, Department of Geography and Planning, University of Toronto 10
Actual distance
paper
Map distance
reference (shrunk, or distorted)
globe
To flatten globe, must stretch, tear, or distort…
(based on Melita and Kopp, 2004)
© Donald Boyes, Department of Geography and Planning, University of Toronto 11
How to lie with maps...
"Not only is it easy to lie with maps, it's
essential. To portray meaningful relationships
for a complex, three‐dimensional world on a flat
sheet of paper or video screen, a map must
distort reality"
Mark Monmonier, How to Lie with Maps, 1996
© Donald Boyes, Department of Geography and Planning, University of Toronto 12
Associating points from 3D to 2D
© Donald Boyes, Department of Geography and Planning, University of Toronto 13
Associating points
© Donald Boyes, Department of Geography and Planning, University of Toronto 14
Equator
© Donald Boyes, Department of Geography and Planning, University of Toronto 15
Equator
Rotate 90°
© Donald Boyes, Department of Geography and Planning, University of Toronto 16
Rotate 90°
© Donald Boyes, Department of Geography and Planning, University of Toronto 17
Projection from sphere to plane
© Donald Boyes, Department of Geography and Planning, University of Toronto 18
Should be equal, Should not be equal,
but are not but are
© Donald Boyes, Department of Geography and Planning, University of Toronto 19
Adjust distances
© Donald Boyes, Department of Geography and Planning, University of Toronto 20
Equirectangular projection
© Donald Boyes, Department of Geography and Planning, University of Toronto 21
Two perpendicular directions
We adjusted points along a meridian
Same can be done along a parallel
Can adjust both, and in different ways.
© Donald Boyes, Department of Geography and Planning, University of Toronto 22
Graticule: indicates how projections work
© Donald Boyes, Department of Geography and Planning, University of Toronto 23
Projection class (developable surfaces)
© Donald Boyes, Department of Geography and Planning, University of Toronto 24
Planar
Cylindrical
Conic
(adapted from Lo and Yeung, 2006)
Projection classes
© Donald Boyes, Department of Geography and Planning, University of Toronto 25
Standard line and scale factor
© Donald Boyes, Department of Geography and Planning, University of Toronto 26
Where globe
Planar touches
developable surface
Cylindrical
Conic
(Melita and Kopp, 2004; Lo and Yeung, 2006)
© Donald Boyes, Department of Geography and Planning, University of Toronto 27
Hypothetical
Still 3D
Principal scale = Reference globe radius
1:100,000,000
Earth’s radius
6.378 cm
637813700 cm
= 0.00000001
or 1:100,000,000
Reference globe
© Donald Boyes, Department of Geography and Planning, University of Toronto 28
Scale on
map
Local scale
SF=2 SF = Scale on
Principal scale
SF > 1
ref. globe
SF > 1
SF=1 Where will the local scale
be the same as the principal scale?
i.e., where is there no distortion?
1/100,000,000
SF =
1/100,000,000
SF > 1
SF = 1 at the standard line
SF > 1
What happens to the SF as you
move away from the standard line?
(Kennedy et al., 2004)
Scale factor
© Donald Boyes, Department of Geography and Planning, University of Toronto 29
No distortion (3D) Scale factor varies
1/50,000,000
SF =
1/100,000,000
0.00000002
=
0.00000001
= 2.0
3D Reference Globe 2D Projected Map
1:100,000,000 1:100,000,000
(at all locations) (only along standard line)
(Kimerling et al., 2009)
Scale factor
© Donald Boyes, Department of Geography and Planning, University of Toronto 30
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercator_projection
© Donald Boyes, Department of Geography and Planning, University of Toronto 31
1:500,000
Representative fraction
(absolute scale)
“one inch to one mile”
Verbal scale
> 1:250,000
0 50 100 200 300 400 Km
Bar scale
© Donald Boyes, Department of Geography and Planning, University of Toronto 32
Projection case
© Donald Boyes, Department of Geography and Planning, University of Toronto 33
Scale factor = 1
Planar at standard lines
Cylindrical
How can we
Conic reduce distortion?
(adapted from Lo and Yeung, 2006)
Tangent case
© Donald Boyes, Department of Geography and Planning, University of Toronto 34
Scale factor = 1
Planar at standard lines
Cylindrical
Conic
(adapted from Lo and Yeung, 2006)
Secant case
© Donald Boyes, Department of Geography and Planning, University of Toronto 35
Scale factor > 1
Scale factor = 1
Scale factor < 1
© Donald Boyes, Department of Geography and Planning, University of Toronto 36
Reference globe Mercator projection
© Donald Boyes, Department of Geography and Planning, University of Toronto 37
Planar Polar
Cylindrical Tropical
Conic Temperate
(adapted from Lo and Yeung, 2006)
© Donald Boyes, Department of Geography and Planning, University of Toronto 38
Projection aspect
© Donald Boyes, Department of Geography and Planning, University of Toronto 39
SF > 1
SF > 1 SF > 1
SF > 1
(adapted from Lo and Yeung, 2006)
Aspect
© Donald Boyes, Department of Geography and Planning, University of Toronto 40
Polar Equatorial Oblique
(adapted from Kimerling et al., 2006)
Aspect
© Donald Boyes, Department of Geography and Planning, University of Toronto 41
http://www.nrcan.gc.ca/earth‐sciences/geography/atlas‐canada/wall‐maps/16870
© Donald Boyes, Department of Geography and Planning, University of Toronto 42
http://www.nrcan.gc.ca/earth‐sciences/geography/atlas‐canada/wall‐maps/16870k
© Donald Boyes, Department of Geography and Planning, University of Toronto 43
http://www.nrcan.gc.ca/earth‐sciences/geography/atlas‐canada/wall‐maps/16870
© Donald Boyes, Department of Geography and Planning, University of Toronto 44
http://www.nrcan.gc.ca/earth‐sciences/geography/atlas‐canada/wall‐maps/16870k
© Donald Boyes, Department of Geography and Planning, University of Toronto 45
Let’s all hate Toronto
© Donald Boyes, Department of Geography and Planning, University of Toronto 46
Projection central meridian
© Donald Boyes, Department of Geography and Planning, University of Toronto 47
(adapted from Lo and Yeung, 2006)
Central meridian
© Donald Boyes, Department of Geography and Planning, University of Toronto 48
Central meridian: ‐100
Central meridian
© Donald Boyes, Department of Geography and Planning, University of Toronto 49
Central meridian: ‐75
© Donald Boyes, Department of Geography and Planning, University of Toronto 50
http://www.greenlandsc.com/en/World_America.aspx`
© Donald Boyes, Department of Geography and Planning, University of Toronto 51
Central meridian set to China
© Donald Boyes, Department of Geography and Planning, University of Toronto 52
Tissot’s indicatrix
© Donald Boyes, Department of Geography and Planning, University of Toronto 53
Observing distortion
© Donald Boyes, Department of Geography and Planning, University of Toronto 54
Reference globe Mercator projection
© Donald Boyes, Department of Geography and Planning, University of Toronto 55
Tissot’s Indicatrix
Draw infinitely small circles on
reference globe
On globe, they are circles
When projected, they are
distorted in shape and/or size
© Donald Boyes, Department of Geography and Planning, University of Toronto 56
Tissot’s Indicatrix: Cylindrical Equal Area
© Donald Boyes, Department of Geography and Planning, University of Toronto 57
SF < 1
SF > 1
© Donald Boyes, Department of Geography and Planning, University of Toronto 58
Area = πr2
= πab
a = 1
b
a b = 1
a x b = 1
a and b
are scale factors (SF) This is on the original
reference globe (3D)
Tissot’s Indicatrix
© Donald Boyes, Department of Geography and Planning, University of Toronto 59
Area = πr2
= πab
a = 1.25
b
a b = 0.8
a x b = 1
Since a x b = 1,
2D map is equal‐area
but a ≠ b
so map is not conformal
Shapes distorted
© Donald Boyes, Department of Geography and Planning, University of Toronto 60
Tissot’s Indicatrix: Mercator
© Donald Boyes, Department of Geography and Planning, University of Toronto 61
SF > 1
SF > 1
© Donald Boyes, Department of Geography and Planning, University of Toronto 62
Area = πr2
= πab
a = 1.25
b
a b = 1.25
a x b = 1.5625
Since a x b ≠ 1,
2D map is not equal‐area
but a = b
so map is conformal
Sizes distorted
© Donald Boyes, Department of Geography and Planning, University of Toronto 63
Area
You can preserve area or shape, but not both
a = b or a x b = 1
Shape
© Donald Boyes, Department of Geography and Planning, University of Toronto 64
Equidistant projection
Standard
SF = 1 SF = 1 line
SF > 1
© Donald Boyes, Department of Geography and Planning, University of Toronto 65
Standard
SF = 1 SF = 1 line
SF > 1
Equidistant projection
© Donald Boyes, Department of Geography and Planning, University of Toronto 66
Great circles and rhumb lines
© Donald Boyes, Department of Geography and Planning, University of Toronto 67
SF = 1
SF = 1
Equidistant projection
© Donald Boyes, Department of Geography and Planning, University of Toronto 68
N
45°
Azimuth
© Donald Boyes, Department of Geography and Planning, University of Toronto 69
London
New York
© Donald Boyes, Department of Geography and Planning, University of Toronto 70
London
New York
© Donald Boyes, Department of Geography and Planning, University of Toronto 71
Angles are all different
© Donald Boyes, Department of Geography and Planning, University of Toronto 72
London
New York
© Donald Boyes, Department of Geography and Planning, University of Toronto 73
Rhumb lines are longer (really!)
© Donald Boyes, Department of Geography and Planning, University of Toronto 74
London
New York
© Donald Boyes, Department of Geography and Planning, University of Toronto 75
Projection distance and direction
© Donald Boyes, Department of Geography and Planning, University of Toronto 76
Straight line and shortest distance (i.e., great circle)?
B
A B
Rhumb line,
A
A not great circle
© Donald Boyes, Department of Geography and Planning, University of Toronto 77
B
B A B
A
A
A B
© Donald Boyes, Department of Geography and Planning, University of Toronto 78
B
B A B
A
A New York
A B
© Donald Boyes, Department of Geography and Planning, University of Toronto 79
None of the above: Compromise
© Donald Boyes, Department of Geography and Planning, University of Toronto 80
Grid coordinate systems and UTM
© Donald Boyes, Department of Geography and Planning, University of Toronto 81
Mercator projection
© Donald Boyes, Department of Geography and Planning, University of Toronto 82
SF > 1
SF > 1 SF > 1
SF > 1
(adapted from Lo and Yeung, 2006)
Transverse Mercator
© Donald Boyes, Department of Geography and Planning, University of Toronto 83
One UTM zone (6° wide)
© Donald Boyes, Department of Geography and Planning, University of Toronto 84
(adapted from Lo and Yeung, 2006)
© Donald Boyes, Department of Geography and Planning, University of Toronto 85
UTM zones
© Donald Boyes, Department of Geography and Planning, University of Toronto 86
Projected
coordinate system
(2D: UTM)
© Donald Boyes, Department of Geography and Planning, University of Toronto 87
Second 5
Y First
Quadrant Quadrant
4
(‐4,3) x (4,3)
3
2 How do we describe
y
Origin 1 where this is?
X
‐5 ‐4 ‐3 ‐2 ‐1 0 1 2 3 4 5
‐1
‐2
(‐4,‐3) ‐3 (4,‐3)
‐4
Third Fourth
‐5
Quadrant Quadrant
© Donald Boyes, Department of Geography and Planning, University of Toronto 88
5
Y
4
3
2
1
X
‐5 ‐4 ‐3 ‐2 ‐1 0 1 2 3 4 5
‐1
‐2
‐3
‐4
‐5
Staying positive!
© Donald Boyes, Department of Geography and Planning, University of Toronto 89
UTM coordinate grid
© Donald Boyes, Department of Geography and Planning, University of Toronto 90
0,0
© Donald Boyes, Department of Geography and Planning, University of Toronto 91
500000mE, 0mN
0mE, 0mN
False easting
© Donald Boyes, Department of Geography and Planning, University of Toronto 92
0mE, 10,000,000mN
Northing
Easting
0mE, 0mN
0mE, 10,000,000mN
Northing
Easting
0mE, 0mN
© Donald Boyes, Department of Geography and Planning, University of Toronto 93
Grid north
© Donald Boyes, Department of Geography and Planning, University of Toronto 94
http://geogratis.gc.ca/api/en/nrcan‐rncan/ess‐sst/cb864dc7‐25a1‐5136‐57f4‐c095ce1c6a6d.html
© Donald Boyes, Department of Geography and Planning, University of Toronto 95
Northing
621,000mE 4,845,000mN, Zone 17 North
Easting
UTM coordinates
© Donald Boyes, Department of Geography and Planning, University of Toronto 96
CN Tower:
630,084mE, 4,833,438mN, Zone 17 North
UTM coordinates
© Donald Boyes, Department of Geography and Planning, University of Toronto 97
© Donald Boyes, Department of Geography and Planning, University of Toronto 98
Projections and ArcGIS
© Donald Boyes, Department of Geography and Planning, University of Toronto 99
Projected Coordinate System
© Donald Boyes, Department of Geography and Planning, University of Toronto 100
Menu and toolbars
© Donald Boyes, Department of Geography and Planning, University of Toronto 101
Projection changes to data files
Data can be saved to new file in new
projection
Coordinates in the data file are recalculated
and adjusted to match the new projection
You can’t always transform it “back” to exactly
the same coordinates due to rounding errors.
© Donald Boyes, Department of Geography and Planning, University of Toronto 102
To avoid errors…
Exchange GIS data in a 3D geographic
coordinate system, not a 2D projected
coordinate system
© Donald Boyes, Department of Geography and Planning, University of Toronto 103